Imperfections

p in Solids – Crystal
y defects
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the solidification mechanisms?

• What types of defects arise in solids?

• Can the number and type of defects be varied

and
d controlled?
t ll d?

• How do defects affect material properties?

• Are defects undesirable?

Imperfections
p in Solids

• Solidification- result of casting of molten material

– 2 steps
• Nuclei form
• Nuclei
uc e ggrow
o to
o form
o ccrystals
ys a s – g
grain
a sstructure
uc u e
• Start with a molten material – all liquid

nuclei crystals growing grain structure

liquid Adapted from Fig. 4.14(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Crystals grow until they meet each other

2
 Polycrystalline
y y Materials

Grain Boundaries
• regions between crystals
• transition from lattice of
one region to that of the
other
• slightly disordered
• low density in grain
boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity
Adapted from Fig. 4.7,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
3

Solidification
Grains can be - equiaxed (roughly same size in all directions)
- columnar (elongated grains)
~ 8 cm

heat
flow

Shell of
Columnar in equiaxed grains
area with less p
due to rapid
undercooling cooling (greater
Adapted from Fig. 5.17, T) near wall
Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Grain Refiner - added to make smaller, more uniform, equiaxed grains.

4
 Lattice Defects

The concept of a perfect lattice is adequate for explaining structure-

insensitive properties (esp. for metals).

But, to understand structure-sensitive properties, it is necessary to

consider numerous lattice defects.

Practically all mechanical properties are structure-sensitive properties.

(almost) structure-insensitive structure-sensitive

elastic constants Electrical conductivity
Melting
gppoints Semiconducting
gpproperties
p
density Yield stress
Specific heat Fracture strength
coefficient of thermal expansion Creep strength

Imperfections
p in Solids
There is no such thing as a perfect crystal.
• What are these imperfections?
• Why are they important?

Many off the

M th important
i t t properties
ti off
materials are due to the presence of
i
imperfections.
f ti

6
 Types
yp of Imperfections
p

• Vacancy atoms
• Interstitial atoms Point defects
• Substitutional atoms

• Dislocations Line defects

• Grain Boundaries Area defects

• Staking faults
• Antiphase and twin boundaries

Length Scale of Imperfections

point, line, planar, and volumetric defects

Vacancies, Voids
impurities
dislocationsGrain and twinInclusions
boundaries precipitates

8
 Point Defects in Metals
• Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.

Vacancy
distortion
off planes
l

• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.

self-
i t titi l
interstitial
distortion
of planes

Imperfections
p in Metals ((i))
Two outcomes if impurity (B) added to host (A):
• Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)

OR

Substitutional solid soln. Interstitial solid soln.

(e g Cu in Ni)
(e.g., (e g C in Fe)
(e.g.,
• Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
Second phase particle
-- different composition
-- often different structure.

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 Imperfections
p in Metals ((ii))
Conditions for substitutional solid solution (S.S.)
• W. Hume – Rothery rule
– 1. r (atomic radius) < 15%
– 2.
2 Proximity
P i it iin periodic
i di ttable
bl
• i.e., similar electronegativities
– 3. Same crystal structure for pure metals
– 4. Valency
• All else being equal, a metal will have a greater tendency
t dissolve
to di l a metal
t l off hi
higher
h valency
l th
than one off llower
valency

11

Imperfections
p in Metals ((iii))
Application of Hume–Rothery rules – Solid
Solutions Element Atomic Crystal Electro- Valence
Radius Structure nega-
(nm) tivity
1 Would you predict
1. Cu 0 1278
0.1278 FCC 19
1.9 +2
C 0.071
more Al or Ag H 0.046
to dissolve in Zn? O
Ag
0.060
0 1445
0.1445 FCC 19
1.9 +1
Al 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
Co 0.1253 HCP 1.8 +2
Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
2. More Zn or Al Fe 0 1241
0.1241 BCC 18
1.8 +2
Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
in Cu? Pd 0.1376 FCC 2.2 +2
Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2

Table on p. 118, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 Impurities
p in Solids
• Specification of composition
m1
– weight percent C1  x 100
m1  m2
m1 = mass of component 1

n m1
– atom percent C1'  x 100
n m1  n m 2

nm1 = number of moles of component 1

13

Line Defects
Dislocations:
• are line defects,
• slip between crystal planes result when dislocations move,
• produce permanent (plastic) deformation.

Schematic of Zinc (HCP):

• before deformation • after tensile elongation

slip steps

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 Imperfections
p in Solids
Linear Defects (Dislocations)
( )
– Are one-dimensional defects around which atoms are
misaligned
• Edge
dge d
dislocation:
s ocat o
– extra half-plane of atoms inserted in a crystal structure
– b perpendicular () to dislocation line
• Screw dislocation:
– spiral planar ramp resulting from shear deformation
– b parallel () to dislocation line
Burger’s vector, b: measure of lattice distortion

15

Imperfections
p in Solids
Edge Dislocation

Fig. 4.3, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

16
 Motion of Edge
g Dislocation
• Dislocation motion requires the successive bumping
of a half plane of atoms (from left to right here).
• Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.

Atomic view of edge

dislocation motion from
left to right as a crystal
is sheared.

Click once on image to start animation

(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
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Imperfections
p in Solids
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

b
Dislocation
line
Burgers vector b (b)
(a)
Adapted from Fig. 4.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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 VMSE: Screw Dislocation
• In VMSE:
– a region of crystal containing a dislocation can be rotated in 3D
– dislocation motion may be animated

Front View Top View

VMSE Screen Shots 19

Edge,
g Screw, and Mixed Dislocations
Mixed

Edge

Adapted from Fig. 4.5, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Screw

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 Imperfections
p in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs

Fig. 4.6, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

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Dislocations & Crystal Structures

• Structure: close-packed view onto two
planes & directions close-packed
planes.
are preferred.
preferred
close-packed directions
close-packed plane (bottom) close-packed plane (top)

• Comparison among crystal structures:

FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
HCP only
HCP: l one plane,
l 3 di
directions;
ti
BCC: none
• Specimens that Mg (HCP)
were tensile
tested. tensile direction
Al (FCC)
22
 Planar Defects in Solids
• One case is a twin boundary (plane)
– Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin
plane.

Adapted from Fig. 4.9,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Stacking faults
– F
For FCC metals
t l an error in
i ABCABC packing
ki sequence
– Ex: ABCABABC
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Summary
y
• Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.

• The number and type of defects can be varied

and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)

• Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain

boundaries control crystal slip).
• Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether
h th plastic
l ti ddeformation
f ti iis d
desirable
i bl or not.)
t)

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