GGE 2105 Surveying I [39 Hours]

Credits: 3 Hrs
Prerequisites: None
Purpose of the Course
Introduce the learner to the fundamentals of surveying including methods, equipment, field
procedures and reduction of observations.
Expected learning outcomes
At the end of the course the students should be able to:
1. Demonstrate a good understanding of various surveying techniques
2. Carry out ordinary and precise levelling, plane tabling, topographic survey
3. Carry out adjustments of field observations
4. Produce maps and plans using both manual and CAC/CAD techniques
Course Content
Surveying: definitions; branches and types of surveying; Basic principle of surveying. Brief
description of traditional methods of surveying; Brief description to new methods of surveying;
Coordinate systems and their application to engineering surveying and civil engineering
projects. Description of various methods of fixing horizontal controls. Types and sources of
errors in surveying.
Detailed surveying of direct linear measurements: ranging of line, monumentation of points;
Instruments and tools, chains, steel bands, tapes, corrections, accuracies. Electronic Distance
Measurements (EDM); basic principles, uses, accuracies. Angles: Definition, types of angles and
their conversion, Relationship between linear and angular measurement. Features plotting using
linear and angular measurement.
Measurement of differences in heights; geometric leveling; principles, differential leveling,
reciprocal leveling, procedures, leveling instruments, booking, calculations, sources of errors,
corrections, accuracies. Field work.
Applications; contouring methods: radial line, cross and long section, site leveling.
Mode of Delivery
The method of instruction will be lectures, interactive tutorials, practical classes, and any other
presentations / demonstrations the lecturer will deem fit towards enhancing understanding of
the concepts taught in class. Lectures: 2 Hours per week; Lab exercises: 3 hours per week.

Instruction Materials/Equipment
1. Whiteboard
 2. LCD/Overhead Projector
3. Handouts
4. Smart board

Course assessment
During the period of study, assessment will be conducted by CATs (Continuous Assessment
Tests), regular assignments and a final Examination at end of the unit. The composition for
continuous assessment shall be as follows: 15% Practical, 5% Assignments, 10% Tests, and
regular examination at end of semester 70%.
Core Text Book
1. Allan, A.L. (2007) Principles of Geospatial Surveying, Whittles Publishing http://ebookcentral.pro-
quest.com/lib/kuctebooks/detail.action?doc ID=3417298 .

Reference Text Books

1. Deumlich, Fritz (2010). Surveying Instruments, De Gruyter, Inc., http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/
lib/kuct-ebooks/detail.action?docID=937776
2. Kavanagh B. F, (2009). Surveying with Construction Applications. 7th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
3. Kavanagh B. F., (2008). Surveying: Principles and Applications. 8th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
4. Ghilani C. D.,and Wolf P. R., (2008). Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics. 12th Edi-
tion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
5. W. Schofield W. and Mark Breach M., (2007) Engineering Surveying. 6th Edition. Boston: Butter-
worth-Heinemann
6. McCormac J. C., (2003) Surveying. 5th Edition. Chichester: Wiley.

Core Journals
1. International Journal of Survey Engineering (ASCE Library)
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jsued2 ISSN (online): 1943-5428
2. Journal of Survey Engineering (American Society of Civil Engineers)
http://www.scimagojr.com/journalsearch.php?q=16307&tip=sid ISSN 07339453

Reference Journals
1. Journal of Surveying Engineering (ASCE Library)
https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jsued2 : ISSN (print): 0733-9453 | ISSN (online): 1943-5428
2. Journal of Spatial Science (Francis & Taylor Onlile)
https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/tjss20/current Print ISSN: 1449-8596 Online ISSN: 1836-5655
Concept of Surveying
Definition
 It is a science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of points above, on, or be-
neath the earth’s surface by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction & ele-
vation.
 It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of measuring angles
between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined
angular and linear measurements.
 It can also be defined as a discipline, which encompasses all methods for measuring, processing,
and disseminating information about the physical earth and our environment.
 Simply stating, surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles. The distance may be
horizontal or vertical in direction. Vertical distances are also called elevations.
 Similarly, the angles may be measured in horizontal and vertical plane.
 Horizontal angles are used to express the directions of land boundaries and other lines.
 There are two fundamental purposes for measuring distances and angles.
 The first is to determine the relative positions of existing points or objects on or near the surface of
the earth.
 The second is to layout or mark the desired positions of new points or objects, which are to be
placed or constructed on or near the surface of the earth.

The shape and size of the earth

 Since in surveying we are mainly concerned with measurements on the surface of the earth, it’s
necessary to know as fully as possible the shape and size of the earth.
 The surface of the earth is not of a regular shape because of presence of mountains in some parts
and oceans in others.
 The surface is a topographical surface
 The force and direction of gravity at each point varies with the shape of the topographical surface.
 The surface which is normal to the direction of gravity is defined as a geoid. i.e. it is an equipoten-
tial surface to which the water of the oceans would tend to conform if allowed to flow into very
narrow and shallow canals cut through the lands.
 Geoid is very irregular and to help in mathematical computation a spheroid (which is obtained by
rotating an ellipse about its minor axis) is assumed which nearly fits the shape of the earth.
  Different countries have their own reference spheroid because they base their computations on the
spheroid which fits the geoid with part earth’s surface in their respective countries.

Basic surveying methods

Surveying is a very old profession and can be classified in many different ways:
(i) Classification based on accuracy of work: Two general classifications of surveys are geodetic
and plane.
Plane Survey:
 Surveying which the mean surface of earth regarded as plain surface and not curve it really is
known as plain surveying.
 Assumption made in plane surveying:
 A level line is considered a straight line thus the plump line at a point is parallel plump line at any
after point.
 The angles between two such lines that intersect is a plain angle and not a sphere angle.
 The meridians through any two points are parallel.
 We deal with only a small portion of the earth’s surface.
Note: `
 In plane surveying horizontal lines are assumed to be straight line and all vertical lines are parallel,
 In plane surveying, the curvature of the earth is neglected, and vertical distances are measured
with reference of a flat plane.
Geodetic survey:
 Survey is which the shape (curvature) of the earth surface is taken in the account a higher degree
of precision is exercised in linear and angular measurement is tanned as Geodetic Survey.
 A line connecting two points is regarded as an arc.
 Such surveys extend over large areas
 A surveying, which takes the earth’s curvature into account, is called Geodetic survey.
 These types of surveys are usually considered by agencies like Geological Survey.
 Geodetic surveying methods are generally used to map large areas and to establish large-scale net-
works of points on the earth for horizontal and vertical control.
 It is the branch of surveying dealing with the determination of the shape, size, and dynamic prop-
erties of the earth by precise geometrical and gravity measurements. It is the discipline that deals
with the measurement and representation of the earth, including its gravity, in a three-dimensional,
time-varying space.
 The basic figure of the earth is called the geoid, which may be approximated by the mean sea
level. According to C.F. Gauss, who first described it, it is the "mathematical figure of the Earth",
a smooth but highly irregular surface that corresponds not to the actual surface of the Earth's crust,
but to a surface which can only be known through extensive gravitational measurements and cal-
culations. For simplification of representation and computations, an oblate spheroid or ellipsoid is
obtained by rotating the ellipse about its minor axis is used.

 High precision surveys in which the curved surface of the earth (curvature) is taken into considera-
tion are called geodetic surveys or geodetic surveying, while small-extent surveys in which the
curvature is ignored are called plane surveys or plane surveying.

(ii) Classification based on equipment used

  In chain, theodolite, plane table, tacheometric surveys, the equipment named is the major equip-
ment used in survey work.in photogrammetric surveying equipment is a photogrammetric camera.
 Chain surveying: For direct linear measurement use a tape or chain. Cheap and robust. Still occa-
sionally used for small detailed surveys, but now largely supplanted by laser-based distance mea-
surement devices.
 Compass surveying. Uses a compass to observe bearings. Used mainly in reconnaissance.

 Levelling instruments: Used to find the height of a new point or points by comparison with that
of an existing point.

 Theodolite: A telescopic sight pivoted horizontally and vertically, with two graduated protractors
(called ‘circles’) for measuring angles.

 Electromagnetic distance measurement (EDM) devices: Typically used for measurements of

lengths from say 5 m to 5 km, though some instruments have ranges up to about 25 km.

 Total station: Essentially a theodolite with a built-in EDM. Total stations usually have facilities
for recording and processing measurements electronically and have largely replaced conventional
theodolites.

 Global Positioning System (GPS): Position fixing by satellite has almost completely replaced
terrestrial triangulation for large-scale control survey and can also be useful on building sites, pro-
vided it is not set up close to buildings or trees.

 Aerial camera photogrammetry): mainly used in topographic surveys, but also for recording the
shapes (and subsequent deformations) of buildings. Photogrammetry: -This is the technology of
obtaining useful metric and descriptive information from terrestrial or aerial photographs. It is the
practice of determining the geometric properties of objects from photographic images.

(iii) Classification based on the position of the instrument

 When measurement is done on the ground by say chain, tape or electronic distance measuring in-
strument it is ground survey; when photogrammetric observations are taken from air, it is aerial
survey

Geographic coordinates:
 A measurement of a location on the earth's surface expressed in degrees of latitude and longitude.
Coordinates

 A set of values represented by the letters x, y, and optionally z or m (measure), that define a posi-
tion within a spatial reference.
 Coordinates are used to represent locations in space relative to other locations.

Position

 The latitude, longitude, and altitude (x,y,z coordinates) of a point, often accompanied by an esti-
mate of error.
 Position may refer to an object's orientation (facing east, for example) without referring to its loca-
tion.

Datum

 Datum is a conventional framework upon which observations are being referred to. The reference
specifications of a measurement system, usually a system of coordinate positions on a surface (a
horizontal datum) or heights above or below a surface (a vertical datum).

Coordinate Systems
 A coordinate system is a mathematical means of expressing the projected positions of points on
various surfaces.
 The projection could be on surfaces such as an ellipsoid, a sphere or a plane. There are basically
two classes of coordinate systems – depending on the use.
 Coordinate systems enable geographic datasets to use common locations for integration.

 A coordinate system is a reference system used to represent the locations of geographic features,
imagery, and observations, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) locations, within a common
geographic framework.
  Coordinate systems (both geographic and projected) provide a framework for defining real-world
locations.

Each coordinate system is defined by the following:

 Its measurement framework, which is either geographic (in which spherical coordinates are mea-
sured from the earth's center) or planimetric (in which the earth's coordinates are projected onto a
two-dimensional planar surface)

 Units of measurement (typically feet or meters for projected coordinate systems or decimal de-
grees for latitude-longitude)

 The definition of the map projection for projected coordinate systems

 Other measurement system properties such as a spheroid of reference, a datum, one or more stan-
dard parallels, a central meridian, and possible shifts in the x- and y-directions

Geographic coordinate systems

 A geographic coordinate system (GCS) uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define loca-

tions on the earth.

 A GCS is often incorrectly called a datum, but a datum is only one part of a GCS. A GCS includes
an angular unit of measure, a prime meridian, and a datum (based on a spheroid).

 The spheroid defines the size and shape of the earth model, while the datum connects the spheroid
to the earth's surface.

 A point is referenced by its longitude and latitude values.

 Longitude and latitude are angles measured from the earth's center to a point on the earth's surface.

 The angles often are measured in degrees (or in grads). The following illustration shows the world
as a globe with longitude and latitude values:

 
 In the spherical system, horizontal lines, or east–west lines, are lines of equal latitude, or parallels.

 Vertical lines, or north–south lines, are lines of equal longitude, or meridians. These lines encom-
pass the globe and form a gridded network called a graticule.

 The line of latitude midway between the poles is called the equator. It defines the line of zero lati-
tude.

 The line of zero longitude is called the prime meridian. For most GCSs, the prime meridian is the
longitude that passes through Greenwich, England.

 The origin of the graticule (0,0) is defined by where the equator and prime meridian intersect.

 Latitude and longitude values are traditionally measured either in decimal degrees or in degrees,
minutes, and seconds (DMS).

 Latitude values are measured relative to the equator and range from –90° at the South pole to +90°
at the north pole.

 Longitude values are measured relative to the prime meridian. They range from –180° when trav-
eling west to 180° when traveling east. 
Map Coordinate Systems or Projected coordinate system

 A map coordinate system may be defined as a 2-dimensional coordinate system (x, y) or (N, E) in
a projection plane that enables the plotting of the relative positions of ellipsoidal or spherical coor-
dinates of points and other features to be projected on a plane surface.
 Considering the geodetic coordinates, the problem is that of deriving the relationship with the
plane Cartesian coordinates. This is done by means of mapping equations, i.e.

Setting up a Map Coordinate System

 Map coordinate systems are framed on a grid that can be used for defining positions. To be able to
set up the grid it is necessary to decide on the following:
(i) Nature of plane system – plane, or cylinder, or cone;
(ii) Selection of the position of the origin;
(iii) Relationship of the orientation of the datum and mapping systems;
(iv) Selection of suitable units of measure along the coordinate axes.
  It is common that a 2-dimensional plane cartesian coordinate system is adopted with a positive
axis pointing north and perpendicular to it is the easting direction.
 The origin usually is selected to correspond to the central point of the area to be mapped, or by
some other convention.
 The orientation between the two systems (ellipsoidal coordinates and mapping coordinates will be
determined from the type of projection and the pertinent formulae.
 The choice of units will largely depend on the purpose of the map but the metric system is the
commonly used one.
 One of the most commonly used map coordinate system is the Universal Transverse Mercator
system and the Lambert’s Conformal Conic Coordinate system.
Basic Surveying methods
 Most surveying activities are performed under the pseudo assumption that measurements are being
made with reference to a flat horizontal surface.
 The earth actually has the approximate shape of a spheroid that is the solid generated by an ellipse
rotated on its minor axis. However, for our purposes, we can consider the earth to be a perfect
sphere with a constant diameter.
 In addition, we can consider that the average level of the ocean or mean sea levels represent the
surface of sphere.

 By definition, the curved surface of a sphere is termed a level surface.

 The direction of gravity is perpendicular to this level surface at all points, and gravity is used as a
reference direction for all surveying measurements.
  The vertical direction is taken to be the direction of gravity.
 In addition, the horizontal direction is the direction perpendicular to the vertical direction of grav-
ity.

Application of Surveying
Environmental Health Activities
 Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout, and construction of our physical
environment and infrastructure (all the constructed facilities and systems which human communi-
ties use to function and thrive productivity).
 It is also the link between design and construction. Roads, bridges, buildings, water supply, sewer-
age, drainage systems, and many other essential public work projects could never have been built
without surveying technology.
Property survey
 It is also called land survey or boundary survey.
 It is performed in order to establish the positions of boundary lines and property corners.
 It is usually performed whenever land ownership is to be transferred or when a large tract of land
is to be subdivided in to smaller parcels for development.
 It is also performed before the design and construction of any public/private land-use project.
Topographic survey
 It is performed in order to determine the relative positions of existing natural and constructed fea-
tures on a tract of land (like ground elevation, bodies of water, roads, buildings etc.).
  It provides information on the “shape of the land” hills, valleys, ridges and general slope of the
ground.
 The data’s obtained from a topographic survey are plotted in a map called topographic map and
the shape of the ground is shown with lines of equal elevation called contours.
Construction survey
 It is also called layout or location survey and performed in order to mark the positions of new
points on the ground.
 These new points represent the location of building corners, road centerlines and other facilities
that are to be built.
City survey
 The surveys which are carried out for the construction of roads, parks water supply system, sewer
and other constructional work for any developing township, are called city surveys. The city maps
which are prepared for tourists are known as guide maps.
Control survey
There are two kinds of control surveys: These are horizontal and vertical control survey.
 Horizontal control survey: The surveyor, using temporary/permanent markers, places several
points in the ground. These points, called stations, are arranged throughout the site area under
study so that it can be easily seen.
 The relative horizontal positions of these points are established, usually with a very high degree of
precisions and accuracy; this is done using transverse, triangulation or trilateration methods.
 Vertical control survey: The elevations of relatively permanent reference points are determined by
precise leveling methods. Marked points of known elevations are called elevation benchmarks.
The network of stations and benchmarks provide a framework for horizontal and vertical control,
up on which less accurate surveys can be based.
Route survey
 It is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical controls, to obtain topographic data,
and to layout the position of high ways, railroads, pipe lines etc.
 The primary aspect of route surveying is that the project area is very narrow compared with its
length, which can extend for many kilometers.

Basic procedure of carrying out surveying:

 i. Reconnaissance is the first and most important step in the surveying process. Only after a careful
and detailed reconnaissance of the area can the surveyor decide upon the techniques and instru-
mentation required to economically complete the work and meet the accuracy specifications.
ii. Control networks not only form a reference framework for locating the position of topographic
detail and setting out constructions, but may also be used as a base for minor control networks
containing a greater number of control stations at shorter distances apart and to a lower order of
accuracy. This process of establishing the major control first to the highest order of accuracy, as a
framework on which to connect the minor control, which is in turn used as a reference framework
for detailing, is known as working from the whole to the part and forms the basis of all good sur-
veying procedure.
iii. Errors are contained in all measurement procedures and a constant battle must be waged by the
surveyor to minimize their effect. It follows from this that the greater the accuracy specifications
the greater the cost of the survey for it results in more observations, taken with greater care, over a
longer period of time, using more precise (and therefore more expensive) equipment.
iv. Independent checks should be introduced not only into the field work, but also into the subse-
quent computation and reduction of field data. In this way, errors can be quickly recognized and
dealt with. Data should always be measured more than once. Examination of several measure-
ments will generally indicate the presence of blunders in the measuring process.
v. Commensurate accuracy is advised in the measuring process, i.e. the angles should be measured
to the same degree of accuracy as the distances and vice versa. The following rule is advocated by
most authorities for guidance: 1” of arc subtends 1 mm at 200 m. This means that if distance is
measured to, say, 1 in 200 000, the angles should be measured to 1” of arc, and so on.
Importance of Surveying
(i) Map the earth above and below sea level.
(ii) Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea.
(iii) Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
(iv) Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information which aid in managing our
environment
(v) Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of the earth and
(vi) Prepare charts of our moon and planets
(vii) The setting out of works- The term used for the operations necessary for the correct position-
ing of the proposed works on the grounds and their dimensional control during the construc-
tion process.
 (viii) Enables calculation of areas and volumes especially where land requires to be cut or filled in,
or material transported to a site.

Principles of surveying

Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which should be taken into consideration to enable
one get good results. Surveying consists of many different operations and techniques but the underplaying
principles are few and simply stated
Principle 1: Work from whole to part.
 Working from the whole to the part is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a number
of spaced out control point called primary control points whose pointing have been determined
with a high level of precision using sophisticated equipments.
 Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large triangles are drawn. Secondary control points
are then established to fill the gaps with lower precision than the primary control points.
 At a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary control points at closer intervals are finally estab-
lished to fill in the smaller gaps.
 In partial terms, this principle involves covering the area to be surveyed with large triangles.
 These are further divided into smaller triangles and the process continues until the area has been
sufficiently covered with small triangles to a level that allows detailed surveys to be made in a lo-
cal level.
 Error is in the whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are fixed using higher preci -
sion instruments.
 The main purpose of surveying from the whole to the parts is to localize the errors as working the
other way round would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the survey.
 It states that for any survey regardless of its scope and size, there should be a control framework
set out on as large a scale as possible and involving the minimum possible number of measure-
ment.
 This framework should be used as the basis of more localised, less accurate surveys within it.
Principle 2: Use a method of survey appropriate to achieve the desired result.
 Every survey is performed for a particular purpose which may range from topographic mapping of
the whole country to the setting out of a new highway, etc.

 For each purpose, suitable specifications for accuracy of the required survey must be defined.
  The more refined the technique and instruments employed the greater the accuracy obtained, and
the more expensive the cost of surveying due to equipment, assistance, etc.

 Unfortunately, the relationship between accuracy and effort is not linear i.e. halving the required
tolerances will more than double the cost of survey.

 Thus, in the interest of speed and economy one should work as close as possible to the limits of al-
lowable error. e.g. if the survey of a small area is to be plotted at a scale 1:1000 then if distances
can be plotted on the plan to 0.25 mm (25cm on ground) it is not necessary to measures and record
distances to points of details to greater precision than 25cm.

 If the plan is at a scale of 1:100 then 2.5cm is plottable and thus the precision of detail measure-
ment must accordingly be increased.

Principle 3: Provision of checks

 There is always a high chance of introducing errors in every aspect of surveying process; in oper-
ating and reading instruments, recording observations, calculating and plotting the results.

 Though the frequency of error reduces with increased experience, the possibility of making errors
is always there.

 A survey must of necessity therefore, be designed such that it is impossible for such errors to pass
undetected through the inclusion of checks.

 In field work this is achieved by taking measurement in excess of the necessary minimum to fulfil
the geometrical requirement of the survey (concept of redundancy.)

 Consider the control framework ABCD in which case the side of the two triangles ABC and BCD
have been measured. This survey will produce two triangles which can be plotted with a wide
range of error in one or more sides, and these errors may pass unnoticed. If the diagonal AD is
measured, a comparison of the measured and plotted values provides a check on the validity of the
instruments.

C D

A
B
Errors in Surveying

 All survey operations are subjected to errors of observations and it is thus essentials to know their
characteristics, magnitudes and behaviour in order to be in a position to assess whether the obser-
vations conforms to the required standards of accuracy for particular technique applied.
 It’s also importance as a guide in deciding which methods should be employed in the project.
 There are three kinds of errors, namely: gross errors, systematic errors and random errors.
Gross errors (mistakes)
 These arise from carelessness, distraction or lapses in concentration due to inexperience, fatigue or
difficult observation conditions.
 They are usually sufficiently large and their presences can be easily detected if adequate check
measurements are included.
 This may only indicate the existence of gross error and not its actual location in which case one
would need to re-observe the measurements
 The possibility of allowing gross error to pass unnoticed is greatly reduced by adoption of stan-
dard routines of observation and booking of all surveys operations. Examples: misreading of ob-
servations (reading 38.01 m instead of 83.01 m) or misbooking.
Systematic errors
 These are errors whose effects are known, or can be calculated and a correction applied. They are
persistent and have a regular effect on the performance of survey operation, and have a cumulative
effect.
 They arise from variations of the physical conditions under which measurement are made.
 The variations can be measured and by applying the appropriate physical or mathematical laws, or
by using suitable designed observation techniques, their effects can be eliminated e.g. a steel tape
measuring 100m at a standard temperature may be used in the field at a temperature varying
widely from the standard.
 If field temperatures are recorded, the effects of expansion or contraction of the tape can be deter-
mined.
 The extent to which systematic errors may be tolerant in a survey depends on the required accu-
racy.
 In a chain survey plotted at a scale of 1:500 the smallest plottable measurement is 0.1m. Distances
are recorded at this precision. If distances were measured by a steel tape instead of chain, it would
 not be necessary to record temperature as it would take about a line of 1 km to produce an error of
the order of 0.1m for a temperature difference of 100 C from the standard temperature.
 However, for base measurements and precise traversing, the effect of temperature on steel tapes is
significant and must be taken into account.
Random (accidental) errors
 These are produced by random factors such as variations in observer’s eye sight and touch, slight
mechanical imperfections.
 All measurements are subject to random errors and evidenced by taking several measurements of
the same quantity under similar conditions yielding slightly different values. Individual random er-
rors cannot be calculated in the way as systematic errors.
 By applying various laws of probability on the result of series of measurements an approximate
value of true value can be obtained.
 From knowledge of their overall behaviour, a set of corrections to the observed values resulting in
the most probable values observed quantities can be obtained.
 In most surveying operations, random errors are assumed to follow the normal law of error or nor-
mal distribution.
 The main characteristics of random errors can be deduced from this law:
(i) Small errors are more frequent than large ones
(ii) Positive and negative errors are equally frequent
(iii) Very large errors are extremely unlikely
 For lower order survey works, simple methods can be used for adjusting random error not based
on probability laws.
 These methods though should not be used when executing high order survey works.
Most Probable Value
 If two or more measurements of the same quantity results to unavoidable errors in observation that
are generally beyond the control of the surveyor.
 These random errors, as the name implies, are not constant in magnitude or direction. Quantity are
made, random errors usually cause different values to be obtained.
 As long as each measurement is equally reliable, the average value of the different measurements
is taken to be the true or the most probable value.
 The average (the arithmetic mean) is computed simply by summing all the individual measure-
ments and then dividing the sum by the number of measurements.
Accuracy and Precision
  Accuracy and precision are two distinctly different terms, which are of importance in surveying.
Surveying measurements must be made with an appropriate degree of precision in order to provide
a suitable level of accuracy for the problem at hand.
 Since no measurement is perfect, the quality of result obtained must be characterized by some nu-
merical standard of accuracy.
 Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in the measurement or how close the mea-
surement is to the true value. When the accuracy of a survey is to be improved or increased, we
say that greater precision must be used.
 Precision refers to the degree of perfection used in the instruments, methods, and observations- in
other word, to the level of refinement and care of the survey. In summary:
 Precision – Degree of perfection used in the survey.
 Accuracy – Degree of perfection obtained in the results.
Error of Closure
 The difference between a measured quantity and its true value is called error of closure. In some
cases, the closure can be taken simply as the difference between two independent measurements.
 For example, suppose a distance from point A to point B is first determined to be 123.25 m. The
line is measured a second time, perhaps from B to A, using the same instrument and methods. A
distance of 123.19 m is obtained. The error of closure is simply 123.25 – 123.19 = 0.06m. It is due
to accidental errors, as long as blunders have been eliminated and systematic errors corrected.
Measurements in Surveying
 All surveying methods involve measurement of angles and distances to varying degrees of accu-
racy in both the horizontal and vertical planes.
 Points are located in these planes by applying various geometrical processes to the measured quan-
tities.
 Horizontal distance is measured along a level surface.
 At every point along that length, the line tangent to the level surface is horizontal. It can be mea-
sured by tape or Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM).
 A true horizontal distance is actually curved, like the surface of the earth.
 A vertical distance is measured along the direction of gravity and is equivalent to a difference in
height between two points.
 When the height is measured with reference to a given level surface, like mean sea level, it is
called an elevation.
  An instrument called level, which is used to observe the rod at different points, can measure eleva-
tion.
 The relative vertical position of several points separated by long distances can be determined by a
continuous series of level rod observations.

 A horizontal angle is measured in a plane that is horizontal at the point of measurement. When
horizontal angle is measured between points, which do not lie directly in the plane, it is measured
between the perpendiculars extended to the plane from those points.
 A vertical angle is measured in a plane that is vertical at the point of observation or measurement.
Horizontal and vertical angles are measured with an instrument called a transit or theodolite.
Measurement and Computations
 Making measurements and subsequent computations and analyses using them are fundamental
tasks of surveyors.
 The process requires a combination of human skill and mechanical equipment applied with the ut-
most judgment.
 No matter how carefully made, however, measurements are never exact and will always contain
errors.
Types of measurement
There are five basic kinds of measurements in plane surveying:
i. Horizontal angles
ii. Horizontal distance
iii. Vertical angles
 iv. Vertical distance
v. Slope distance
 By using combinations of these basic measurements it is possible to compute relation positions be-
tween any points.
 Measurement of distances and angles it is the essence surveying.
 Angle is simply figure formed by the intersection of two lines or figures generated by the rotation
of a line about a point form an initial position to a terminal position.
 The point of rotation is called the vertex of the angle.
 There are several systems of angle measurement. The most common ones are sexagesimal system
and centesimal system
Angles, Bearing and Azimuths
 Determining the locations of points and orientations of lines frequently depends on measurements
of angles and directions.
 In surveying, directions are given by bearings and azimuths.
Angles
 Depending on the plane in which they are measured, angles are classified as
(a) Horizontal angles: Basic measurement for determining bearing and azimuths. A horizontal
angle is measured in a plane that is horizontal at the point of measurement. When horizontal
angle is measured between points, which do not lie directly in the plane, it is measured be-
tween the perpendiculars extended to the plane from those points.
(b) A vertical angle is measured in a plane that is vertical at the point of observation or measure-
ment. Horizontal and vertical angles are measured with an instrument called a transit or
theodolite. They can be used
 For trigonometric leveling
 For stadia measurement.
 For reducing measured slope distances to horizontal.
 Angles are measured by
 Total station
 Theodolite
 Transit
 Compass
 By tape: - indirect measurement.
  There are three basic requirements to determine an angle. These are the three determinants of an
angle
 Reference/starting lines
 Direction of turning.
 Angular distances (Values of the angle)

Kinds of Horizontal Angles

The kinds of horizontal angles most commonly measured in surveying are:
(a) Interior angles.
(b) Angles to the right.
(c) Deflection angles.
(d) Bearing
(e) Azimuth
Interior Angles
 They are measured on the inside of a closed polygon.
 Normally the angle at the apex with in a polygon is measured.
 Then a check can be made on their value because the sum of all angles equals (n-2)180
 Polygons (closed traverse) commonly used for boundary surveys.

 Exterior angles are located outside a closed polygon and they provide a check, i.e. the sum of inte-
rior and exterior angles at any station must total 1800.
Angles to the Right
 Angles may be determined by clockwise measurement from the preceding to the following line.
 Such angles are called angles to the right or azimuths from the back line.

Deflection Angles
  They are measured from an extension of the backline, to the forward station.
 They are measured to the right (c.w or +) or to the left (c.c.w or -) depending on the direction of
the route.
 They are always smaller than 1800, and the direction of turning is identified by R or L.
Bearings
 Represent one system for designating directions of lines.
 .A bearing is defined as the acute horizontal angle between a reference meridian and the line.
 The angle is measured from either the north or south towards the east or west, to give a reading
smaller than 900
 True bearings/Magnetic bearings/Assumed bearings are measured from True/Magnetic/Assumed
meridians.

 The bearing of a line is measured from the north or from the south (whichever is closer), in a
clockwise or counterclockwise direction (whichever applies).
 Assume that a compass is setup successively at points A, B, C and D and bearings read on lines
AB, BA, BC, CB, CD and DC.
 Bearings AB, BC and CD are called Forward bearings and BA, CB, DC are Back bearings.
Azimuths
 They are horizontal angles measured clockwise from any reference meridians.
 They are generally measured from North.
 They can range from 00 to 3600 and they do not require letters to identify the quadrant.
 The forward direction of a line can be given by its Forwarding Azimuths and its reverse direction
by its Back tangent.
 Forward azimuths are converted to back azimuths, and vice versa, by adding or subtracting 1800.
Bearing and Angles

Fixing positions in the horizontal planes

The main methods for fixing positions in the horizontal planes are:
 Intersection
 Resection
 Bearing and Distance (Traversing)
Intersection
 If the position of two points A and B are known in the form of rectangular coordinates or as posi-
tion on map or plan, then the position of C can be determined by measuring the angles BAC and
ABC
B

A C
 Knowing the length of side AB, then the position of C is obtained by plotting the angles or by us-
ing the sine rule of trigonometry to calculate the length of side AC and BC.

 Special cases of this method are triangulation (observing angles only and distances computed
based on control points) and trilateration (measuring distances only)

Resection
 It is a method of determining horizontal position of the point by angular observations at the point
to a minimum of three fixed points (control points)
  If the position of three points A, B and C are known and the horizontal angles APB and BPC are
measured, then the position of P may be determined graphically or by calculation.

 A check is provided by observing angles to more than the minimum of three points. GPS position-
ing uses modified versions of this concept to define positions on the earth’s surface using known
positions of at least 4 satellites in orbit.

Bearing and distance

This the most direct way of determining position B
B
D
P A

A
 A and B are fixed points and by measurement of the horizontal angle ABP and the horizontal dis-
tance BP and the point P be fixed.
 In traversing (a common method of providing control) this method is repeated successively to fix a
sequence of points.
 A special case of this method is the offset method in which case a line such as AB is laid out and
distance to point C measured perpendicular to this line.
 This is used to fix the point C

Plane coordinates systems

 In surveying, it is usual to employ plane rectangular coordinates to express the positions of points
of a survey. The coordinate system may take one of three forms:
1. A local coordinate system established for the purpose of a single survey or for a number of sur-
veys within fairly limited area
2. A national system covers entre country. All national mapping is plotted on this system.
3. An international system designed to cover large areas of the earth’s surface such as the Universal
Transverse Mercator Grid.
 In the first system, the earth is regarded as a plane, without introducing appreciable error provided
that the survey does not extend more that 20km in any direction.
 In other two, the earth’s curvature is taken into account by applying mathematical transformations
to the angular and linear measurements taken on the earth’s surface to convert them to the corre-
sponding quantities on the plane.
 To define a system of rectangular coordinates, an origin and an initial direction are specified.

K EA A
 Let O be the origin to which coordinate values (0, 0) are assigned. ON is the direction of the north
which can be estimated using a variety of ways. ON constitutes the grid north for the particular
coordinate system and the amount by which it differs from absolute north has no effect on the in-
ternal consistency of the survey.

 The y- axis (ON) is the northing axis and the corresponding x- axis(OE) is the Easting axis. The
perpendicular distance from point A to ON and OE (AK and AL) are the easting and northing of
A, EA and NA respectively.

N N’

K EB-EA B
 Consider two points A and B in the system. AN and BN’ are the direction of grid north at A and
B.

 KB represent difference in Easting and KA difference in northing. The clockwise angle is

the grid bearing (simply the bearing AB).

 The bearing BA is the clockwise angle N’BA ( ’) and .

 Thus to obtain the reverse or back bearing in a rectangular coordinates system, 180 0 is added to
the forward bearing.
  If the result exceeds 3600, then 3600 is subtracted. The relationship between bearings and dis-
tance from A to B and the coordinates of A and B can be identified by considering the triangle
A K B. AB = S thus

Joins and Polars

 These are surveying computations that relate bearings and distances between points and their
coordinates.
 A join is the computation for obtaining the bearing and distances between points, given their
coordinates.
 A polar is the computation for obtaining the coordinates of a point, given the bearing and dis-
tance from another point of known coordinate.
Joins Computation ( using the Calculator)
Join A-B
Northing Easting
A NA EA
B NB EB
ΔN ΔE
Bearing AB @Distance (m)

Important: Explain the concept of Coordinate quadrants, and bearing quadrants with illustrative dia-
grams

Polar Computation
Polar X-Y X NX EY
Bearing Φy ΔX ΔY
Distance X-Y Y NY EY
Example
Given the following coordinates for two points A and B, Compute the length and bearing of AB
Example 2
Given the coordinates of A and the distance and bearing of AB, calculate the coordinates of point B.

Measurements in Surveying
 In surveying, there are generally two kinds of measurements: linear measurements and angular
measurements.

 In certain circumstances other measurements are required such as temperature, atmospheric

pressure, gravity, time, and tension.

1) Linear units:
 International Systems of Units (SI)
The International metre (m), centimetre (cm), millimetre (mm), kilometre (km), etc, where1 mm
=10-3m, 1 km = 103 m, etc
 Imperial Units or English System
o 1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048m
o miles, etc.
2) Angular units
Degrees, grads(gons), radians,
1° = 60’
1’ = 60”
360 ° = 2π radians
1 rad = 57.29578°= 206265
360° = 400 grads (gons)

3) Area Computation
Areas in the metric system are specified using the square metre (m2). Large areas, eg. land are speci-
fied or given in hectares (ha).
1 ha = 10,000 m2
1 km2 = 100 ha
Equivalents in the imperial system
1 acre = 43,560 ft2 = 0.4047 ha
1 ha = 2.471 acres
 . There are formulae readily available for regular polygons like, triangle, rectangle, square and
other polygons.
 But for determining the areas of irregular polygons, different methods are used. They are:
(i) Graphical method
(ii) Co-ordinate method
(iii) Planimeter
 Out of these three methods, the co-ordinate method is popularly used, in land surveying for com-
puting catchment area, drainage area, cross section of rivers, channels etc. Under this method the
given area is split into two with a base line run at the centre.

 Area of a trapezoid: one-half the sum of the bases times the altitude.

 Area of a triangle: one-half the product of the base and the altitude.
 The area enclosed within a figure can be computed by coordinates. This is done by forming trape-
zoids and determining their areas.
 Trapezoids are formed by the abscissas of the corners. Ordinates at the corners provide the alti-
tudes of the trapezoids. A sketch of the figure will aid in the computations.
 This is similar to the double meridian distance method but does not use meridian distances. For
land area calculations following a boundary traverse, the DMD method for area is more commonly
used.
Irregular Polygons with More than Four Sides and Curved Sides Area of A Closed Traverse

Taping Horizontal Distances

 Taping may be used to determine the unknown distances between two fixed points on the ground,
or it may be used to set marks at specified distances on the given line.
 This operation is called setting marks for line and distance. Setting marks for line and distance
typically involves the use of theodolite to establish the proper direction of the line and to help keep
the marks set by the tape person exactly on that direction.
  Clearly, at least two surveyors are needed to tape a distance front, or head, tape person to hold the
front end of the tape and a rear tape person to hold the back of the tape.
 It is best, for taping to be performed with a three-person crew; the third member of the group pro-
vides valuable assistance in assuring proper tension and alignment of the tape, setting the chaining
pins, double checking tape readings.
 When a series of marks are set on a line at measured distances, surveyor uses a standard system of
identifying the marks; the marks are called stations.
 The stations may be very temporary or somewhat long lasting.
 Stationing is particularly important when doing profile leveling, as well as when setting marks for
line and distance in route survey.
Traditional Surveying Methods

Chain surveying

 Measuring horizontal distances with a tape is simple in theory, but in actual practice, it is not as
easy as it appears at first glance.
 It takes skill and experience for a surveyor to be able to tape a distance with a relative accuracy
between 1:3000 and 1:5000, which is generally acceptable range for most preliminary surveys.

Tapes and Accessories

 Most of the original surveys were done using Gunter’s chain for measurement of horizontal dis-
tances.
 To this day, the term chaining is frequently used to describe the taping operation.
 While the Gunter’s chain itself is no longer actually used, steel tapes graduated in units of chains
and links are still available.
 Modern steel tapes are available in variety of lengths and cross sections; among the most com-
monly used are the 100ft tape and the 30-m tape, which are ¼ in and 6 mm wide, respectively.
 Both lighter as well as heavier duty tapes are also available.

Accessories for Taping

 Accurate taping cannot be done with the tape alone.
 When taping horizontal distances, the tape must be held above the ground at one or both ends.
 One of the most important accessories for proper horizontal taping is the plumb bob. It is a small
metal weight with a sharp, replaceable point. Freely suspended from a chord, the plumb bob is
used to project the horizontal position of a point on the ground up to the tape, or vice versa.

Plumb bob

 When a transit or theodolite is not used to establish direction, range pole serve to establish a line
of sight and keep the surveyors properly aligned.
 A range pole would be placed vertically in the ground behind each endpoint of the line to be mea-
sured.

Ranging rod
 Steel taping pins are used for marking the end of the tape, or intermediate points, when taping
over grass or unpaved ground. Taping pins are most useful for tallying full tape lengths over long
measured distances.

 When taping horizontal distances, it is necessary to hold the tape as close to a horizontal position
as possible.
 In order to reduce errors caused by an excessively sloped tape, some surveyors make use of a
hand level. A horizontal line of sight can be easily obtained by looking through the level towards
the surveyor at the higher end of the tape.
 Hand Level
 Whenever possible, a spring-balance tension handle should be attached to the forward end of the
tape to indicate whether or not the correct pull or tension is applied. Applying the correct tension
is particularly important if a relative accuracy of better than 1:3000 is required.

(a) Spring Balance (b) Tape Thermometer

 For precise taping with accuracies better than 1:5000, temperature correction must be made to ac-
count for the possibility of tape expansion or contraction; tape thermometer may be used for this
purpose. It is attached to the tape near one end; the bulb should be in contact with the steel.
 A tape clamp handle is used for providing a firm grip on the tape at any intermediate point, with-
out causing damage to the tape or injury to the surveyor from the steel edge.

Suitability of chain survey

(i) Area to be surveyed is comparatively small
(ii) Ground is fairly level
(iii) Area is open
(iv) Details to be filled up are simple and less

Taping Horizontal Distances

 Taping may be used to determine the unknown distances between two fixed points on the ground,
or it may be used to set marks at specified distances on the given line.
 This operation is called setting marks for line and distance. Setting marks for line and distance
typically involves the use of theodolite to establish the proper direction of the line and to help keep
the marks set by the tape person exactly on that direction.
 Clearly, at least two surveyors are needed to tape a distance front, or head, tape person to hold the
front end of the tape and a rear tape person to hold the back of the tape.
  It is best, for taping to be performed with a three-person crew; the third member of the group pro-
vides valuable assistance in assuring proper tension and alignment of the tape, setting the chaining
pins, double checking tape readings.
 When a series of marks are set on a line at measured distances, surveyor uses a standard system of
identifying the marks; the marks are called stations.
 The stations may be very temporary or somewhat long lasting.
 Stationing is particularly important when doing profile leveling, as well as when setting marks for
line and distance in route survey.
Tape Measure
 Maybe made of synthetic material, fiber glass, coated steel or plain steel. Can be found in lengths
of 10 m, 20 m and 30 m. they are graduated every 10 mm, numbered every 10 cm. whole meter
figures are shown in red at every meter.


 Conventionally used for relatively short measurements.
 It is important to wipe tapes and bands clean and dry before rewinding them into their cases and
frames.

Survey Station

Survey stations are of two kinds

(i) Main Stations

(ii) Subsidiary or tie

Main Stations
 Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the survey, and the lines
joining the main stations are called the main survey line or the chain lines.
Subsidiary or the tie stations
 Subsidiary or the tie stations are the point selected on the main survey lines, where it is necessary
to locate the interior detail such as fences, hedges, building etc.
 Tie or subsidiary lines
 A tie line join two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to checking the accuracy of sur-
veying and to locate the interior details. The position of each tie line should be close to some fea-
tures, such as paths, building etc.

Base Lines
 It is main and longest line, which passes approximately through the center of the field. All the
other measurements to show the details of the work are taken with respect of this line.
Offsets
 Offsets are the lateral measurements from the base line to fix the positions of the different objects
of the work with respect to base line. These are generally set at right angle offsets. It can also be
drawn with the help of a tape. There are two kinds of offsets:
(i) Perpendicular offsets
(ii) Oblique offsets.

 The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called perpendicular or right angled
offsets.
Field Book
 All observations and measurements taken during chain surveying are to be recorded in a standard
field book.
 There are two forms of the book
(a) Single line and
(b) Double line.
 The pages of a single book are having a red line along the length of the paper in the middle of the
width. It indicates the chain line.
 All chainages are written across it. The space on either side of the line is used for sketching the ob-
ject and for noting offset distances.
  In double line book there are two blue lines with a space of 15 to 20 mm is the middle of each
book.
 The space between the two lines is utilized for noting the chain-ages. Figure below shows typical
pages of a field books. 

Procedure in chain survey

(i) Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called reconnaissance.
The surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, survey or prepares index sketch or key plan.
(ii) Marking Station: Surveyor fixes up the required no stations at places from where maximum possi-
ble stations are possible. Some of the methods used for marking are:
 Fixing ranging poles
 Driving pegs
 Marking a cross if ground is hard
 Digging and fixing a stone.
(iii) Then he selects the way for passing the main line, which should be horizontal and clean as
possible and should pass approximately through the center of work.
(iv)Then ranging roads are fixed on the stations.
(v) After fixing the stations, chaining could be started.
(vi)Make ranging wherever necessary.
(vii) Measure the change and offset.
(viii) Enter in the field the book.

Taping Mistakes and Errors

 As in any kind of surveying operation, taping blunders must be eliminated, and tapping errors,
both random and systematic, must be minimized to achieve accurate results.
 Example of taping mistakes and blunders:
(a) Misreading the tape, particularly reading a 6 for a 9.
(b) Mis-recording the reading, particularly by transposing digits.
(c) Mistaking the end point of the tape.
(d) Miscounting full tape length, particularly when long distances are taped.
(e) Mistaking station markers.

Sources of Errors in Taping

 There are three fundamental sources of errors in taping.
(a) Instrumental errors: A tape may differ in actual length from its nominal graduation and length
because of defects in manufacturing or repair.
(b) Nominal errors: The horizontal distance between end graduations of a tape varies because of the
effects of temperature, wind and weight of the tape itself.
(c) Personal errors: Tape persons may be careless in setting pins, reading tapes, or manipulating the
equipment.

Systematic Errors in Taping

Systematic errors in taping linear distances are those attributable to the following causes
 The tape is not of standard length
 The tape is not horizontal
 Variation in temperature
 Variation in tension
 Sag
 Incorrect alignment of tape
 The tape is not straight

Corrections in tapes measurement

Error in chain Length:

Before using tape the axial length is ascertain by comparing with the standard tape of known length. If the
axial tape button is not equal to the value. A correction will have to be applied to the measured length.
True length = (L1/L) X Measured length
Where L1 is corrected length of chain or tape
L is observed length of chain or tape ( Standard length of the tape) or

Example:
A line is measured with a chain believed to be 20 m long which gives a length of 365.3 m. on checking,
the chain is found to measure 20.03 m. what is the correct length of the line?
Example
The length of a survey line measured with a 20m chain was 7000m. Find actual length of survey line if
chain supposed is short by 0.03m.
Solution
20--------- 7000m
19.97------ X
X= (19.97/20)*7000= 6989.5m

Example 2
A field was surveyed with a 30m chain and its area was found to be 25.35Hectares. If it was found that
the chain was long by 75mm. Find the correct area of field.
302------------------25.35
30.0752 ------------ X
X= 25.35 * 30.0752 / 302
X= 25.477Ha
Example 3
The area of plane of an old survey platen to a scale of 1cm on plan = 10m on the ground now measured as
19.5cm2 as found by planimeter. The plan is found to have shrunk that a line originally 10cm long now
measures 9.5cm only. A note on the plane also states that the 20m. Chain used was 9cm short. Find true
area of the survey?
Solution:
Measured Area = 19.5cm2
Actual length of paper -> 10cm.
Measured error length -> 9.5cm.
True Area = (L1/L)2 x measured Area.
= (9.5/10)2 x 19.5
= 17.59 cm2
Scale -> 10cm = 1.cm.
1cm2 = 1 x 1cm.
= 10m x 10m
= 100m2
17.cm2 = 17.59 x 100 m² = 1759.8m²
Area is field when measured with = 1759.8m²
A chain (L) = 20m
Error (L1) = 20 – 0.9 = 19.91m
True area = (19.91 / 20)² x 1759.8
= 1743.9 m²
 Incorrect length of a tape can be one of the most important errors. It is systematic. For example, a
100 m steel tape usually is standardized under set of condition- 680F and 12 lb pull.
  An error due to incorrect length of a tape occurs each time the tape is used. If the true length,
known by standardization, is not exactly equal to its nominal value of 100.00 m recorded for every
full length, the correction can be determined and applied from the formulas:

 Sometimes, the changes in length are quite small and of little importance in many types of sur-
veys. However, when good relative accuracy is required, the actual tape length must be known
within 0.005 ft (1.5 mm). The actual length of a working tape, then, must be compared with a stan-
dard tape periodically.
 When its actual length is known, the tape is said to be standardized. A correction must be added or
subtracted to a measured distance whenever its standardized length differs from its nominal or
graduated length.

N.B: In measuring unknown distances with a tape that is too long, a correction must be added.
Conversely, if the tape is too short, the correction will be minus, resulting in decrease.

Temperature Other Than Standards

 Steel tapes are standardized for 680F or 200C.
 A temperature higher than or lower than this value causes a change in length that must be consid-
ered.
 The coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of steel used in ordinary tapes is approxi-
mately 1.16 x 10-5 per length per 0C. For any tapes the correction for temperature can be com-
puted and applied using the formula.
Inconsistent Pull
 When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its standard, the tape will stretch and be
longer than its standard length.
 Conversely, if less than standard pull is used, the tape will be shorter than its standard length.
 The modulus of elasticity of the tape regulates the amount that it stretches.
 Correction pull can be computed and applied using the following formulas:

Sag
 A steel tape not supported along its entire length sags in the form of a catenary's, may results.
 Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end graduations, because the tape length remains the
same. Sag can be diminished but not eliminated unless the tape is supported throughout.
 The following formulas are used to compute the sag correction:

In measuring lines of unknown length, the sag correction is always negative. After a line has been
measured in several segments, and a sag correction has been calculated for each segment, the corrected
length is given by
Setting out a perpendicular line from the chain
(a) Use the cross staff, optical square or site square:
 The instrument is mounted on a short ranging rod struck into the ground at the point at which
the right angle is to be set.
 The instrument is turned until a line of sight is obtained along the chain line. The normal is set
by sighting at right angle to the chain.
(b) Using Pythagoras' theorem (3, 4, 5 rule) or any multiple of this rule say 9, 12,
15. With the zero end of the tape at P take the 21 m mark of the tape to A,
where AP = 12 m on the chain. Take the 9 m mark in hand and ensuring that
the tape is securely held at A and P, pull both parts taut to Q. then APQ = 90°.

(c) Take A and B on the chain so that PA = PB. Strike arcs from A and B with equal radii to intersect
at Q. then APQ = 90°.
New method of surveying
(a) Global Navigation Satellite Systems

 A GNSS estimates the location of fixed and moving objects on the ground, in the atmosphere and
in the space using precise timing and space resection.
 GNSS provide accurate three-dimensional positioning to any one with the appropriate radio re-
ception/ receiver and processing equipment’s.
 While the coverage provided by a GNSS is global its availability and precision varies according
to local conditions.
Basic Concept of GNSS
 GNSS enables the user to determine his/her position on the earth surface.
 GNSS positioning can be explained by a simple resection process where ranges/distances/vectors
are measured from the user to orbiting satellites above the earth surface.
 Consider a particular satellite S, at a single epoch (instant of GNSS time system) being tracked by
a GNSS receiver GS on the earth surface.
 The space co-ordinates of the satellite, relative to the earth centre can be determined from the
ephemeris broadcast or precise.
 The vector r, the geocentric co-ordinates of the satellite are therefore known.
 The vector/range R from the receiver to satellite is normally measured. This is basically achieved
by multiplying the signal travel time from the satellite to the receiver and the velocity of the
signal. The vector p is the geocentric co-ordinate of the receiver ground station (to be determined).
The unknowns in this case are the three geodetic (λ, φ, h) or Cartesian co-ordinates (X, Y, Z). The
solution of the three co-ordinates requires at least three equations.
 Using the three vector/ranges equations, the solution is computed as,

 It should be noted that time is an integral coordinate obtained by GNSS. Therefore at least four
satellites are required to determine the four coordinates ((λ, φ, h, t) or (X, Y, Z, t).
Global Positioning System

 Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers can also determine altitude by trilateration with four or
more satellites.
 In aircraft, altitude determined using autonomous GPS is not reliable enough to supersede the
pressure altimeter without using some method of augmentation.
 In hiking and climbing, it is not uncommon to find that the altitude measured by GPS is off by as
much as 400 feet depending on satellite orientation.

Satellites
 Satellites such as Seasat and TOPEX/Poseidon use advanced dual-band radar altimeters to mea-
sure height from a spacecraft.
 That measurement, coupled with orbital elements (possibly augmented by GPS), enables determi-
nation of the terrain.
 The two different wavelengths of radio waves used permit the altimeter to automatically correct
for varying delays in the ionosphere.
 Spaceborne radar altimeters have proven to be superb tools for mapping ocean-surface topogra-
phy, the hills and valleys of the sea surface.
 These instruments send a microwave pulse to the ocean's surface and record the time it takes to re-
turn.
 A microwave radiometer corrects any delay that may be caused by water vapor in the atmosphere.
Other corrections are also required to account for the influence of electrons in the ionosphere and
the dry air mass of the atmosphere.
 Combining these data with the precise location of the spacecraft makes it possible to determine
sea-surface height to within a few centimeters (about one inch).
 The strength and shape of the returning signal also provides information on wind speed and the
height of ocean waves.
 These data are used in ocean models to calculate the speed and direction of ocean currents and the
amount and location of heat stored in the ocean, which in turn reveals global climate variations.

(b) Electromagnetic Distance Measurement

 These instruments use electromagnetic waves (in the microwave region) to determine linear dis-
tances.
 Their development has enabled the measurement of distances more easily and to a higher precision
than is possible using taping.
 To use the EDM the instrument is set over one end of the line to be measured and a reflector is set
over the other end such that there is a clear line of sight.
 An electromagnetic wave is transmitted from the instrument towards the reflector where part of it
is reflected back to the instrument.
 By comparing the reflected and transmitted waves, the instrument computes and displays the re-
quired distance.
 These have practically replaced the tape for measuring all but relatively short distances.
 The instrument sends out a beam of light or high frequency microwaves from one end of a line to
be measured, and directs it toward the far end of the line.
 A reflector or transmitter-receiver at the far end reflects the light or the microwaves back to the in-
strument where they are analyzed electronically to give the distance between the two points.
 The earliest instrument (early 1950’s) was the geodimeter which utilizes modulated light beam for
determining distances.
 Another early instrument was the tellurometer (late 1950’s) employing modulated microwaves for
determining distances. Microwave systems have the advantage of being operable under all weather
conditions, day or night.
 Modern EDM’s are fully automatic such that after the instrument and its transponder have been set
up over the two ends of the line to be measured, the operator only needs to press a button and the
slope distance is automatically displayed.
 More complete EDM’s (total stations) have the capability of measuring horizontal and vertical an-
gles as well as the slope distance.
 The classification of EDM’s can be made by their range capabilities e.g. a short range EDM is one
that is capable of measuring distances up to about 2.5 km. the very short-range instruments incor-
 porate features such as automatic reading, light weight, very low power requirements and adapt-
ability to angel measuring surveying instruments.
 The range can be extended by adding reflectors to the far end of the line in order to get a strong
enough return signal at the longer distances. The light carrier in these instruments is infrared light
in the 900 and 930 nm.

Measurement principles of EDM using microwaves

 Electronic distance measurement is based on the rate and manner that electromagnetic energy
propagates through the atmosphere.
 The rate of propagation can be expressed with the following equation

 Where V is the velocity of electromagnetic energy, in meters per second; f the modulated fre-
quency of the energy, in hertz; λ and the wavelength, in meters.
 The velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum is 299,792,458 m/sec.
 Its speed is slowed somewhat in the atmosphere according to the following equation

 Where c is the velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum, and n the atmospheric index of re-
fraction.
 The value of n varies from about 1.0001 to 1.0005, depending on pressure and temperature, but is
approximately equal to 1.0003.
 Thus, accurate electronic distance measurement requires that atmospheric pressure and tempera-
ture be measured so that the appropriate value of n is known.
 Temperature, atmospheric pressure, and relative humidity all have an effect on the index of refrac-
tion.
 Because a light source emits light composed of many wavelengths, and since each wavelength has
a different index of refraction, the group of waves has a group index of refraction.
 The value for the group refractivity Ng in standard air for electronic distance measurement is


 Where λ is the wavelength of the light expressed in micrometers and ng is the group refractive in-
dex.
 The wavelengths of light sources commonly used in EDMs are 0.6328μm for red laser and 0.900
to 0.930μm for infrared.
  The actual group refractive index na for atmosphere at the time of observation due to variations in
temperature, pressure, and humidity can be computed as


 Where e is the partial water vapour pressure in hectopascal (hPa) as defined by the temperature
and relative humidity at the time of the measurement, P the pressure in hPa, and t the dry bulb
temperature in °C.
 The partial water vapour pressure, e can be computed with sufficient accuracy for normal operat-
ing conditions as

 Where and h is the relative humidity in percent

Measurement principles of EDM using microwaves
(i) Pulse method

 A short, intensive pulse of radiation is transmitted to a reflector target, which immediately trans-
mits it back, along a parallel path, to the receiver.
 The measured distance is computed from the velocity of the signal multiplied by the time it took to
complete its journey, i.e.


 If the time of departure of the pulse from gate A is tA and the time of its reception at gate B is tB,
then (tB − tA) = ∆t.
 c = the velocity of light in the medium through which it travelled
 D = the distance between instrument and target
 It can be seen from equation above that the distance is dependent on the velocity of light in the
medium and the accuracy of its transit time.
 Taking an approximate value of 300 000 km/s for the speed of light, 10−10s would be equivalent
to 15mm of measured distance.
 The distance that can be measured is largely a function of the power of the pulse.
 Powerful laser system scan obtain tremendous distances when used with corner-cube prisms and
even medium distances when the pulse is ‘bounced’ off natural or man-made features.
(ii) Phase difference method

 Distances are observed electronically by determining the number of full and partial waves of trans-
mitted electromagnetic energy that are required in traveling the distance between the two ends of a
line.
 In other words, this process involves determining the number of wavelengths in an unknown dis-
tance.
 Then, knowing the precise length of the wave, the distance can be determined.
 This is similar to relating an unknown distance to the calibrated length of a steel tape.
 The procedure of measuring a distance electronically is depicted in the figure below, where an
EDM device has been centred over station A by means of a plumb bob or optical plumbing device.

 The instrument transmits a carrier signal of electromagnetic energy to station B.

 A reference frequency of a precisely regulated wavelength has been superimposed or modulated
onto the carrier.
 A reflector at B returns the signal to the receiver, so its travel path is double the slope distance AB.
 In the figure, the modulated electromagnetic energy is represented by a series of sine waves, each
having wavelength (λ).
 The unit at A determines the number of wavelengths in the double path, multiplied by the wave-
length in meters, and divided by 2 to obtain distance AB.
 Of course, it would be highly unusual if a measured distance was exactly an integral number of
wavelengths, as illustrated in Figure above.
 Rather, some fractional part of a wavelength would in general be expected; for example, the par-
tial value p as shown in Figure below.

 In the above figure, distance L between the EDM instrument and reflector would be expressed as

 Where λ is the wavelength, n is the number of full wavelengths, and p the length of the fractional
part or partial distance.
 The fractional length is determined by the EDM instrument from measurement of the phase shift
(phase angle) of the returned signal.

Example

Determine the distance measured by an EDM given that the wavelength of the signal was
20.000m, the phase angle of the return signal was 115.70, and the number of full wavelengths (n)
was 9.
Solution

1 λ is equivalent ¿ 360

115.7
p= × 20=6.428 m
360

9 ×20+ 6.428
L= =93.214 m
2
  EDM instruments cannot determine the number of full wavelengths in an unknown distance by
transmitting only one frequency and wavelength.
 To resolve the ambiguity n,in equation above, they must transmit additional signals having longer
wavelengths.
 The slope distance is then automatically displayed.

Levelling
Introduction
 Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points
or differences in elevation are determined.
 It is a vital operation in producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and construc-
tion.
 Leveling results are used to:
(a) Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers etc.
(b) Layout construction projects according to planned elevations.
(c) Calculate volume of earthwork and other materials.
(d) Investigate drainage characteristics of the area.
(e) Develop maps showing ground configuration.

Definition of levelling terms

Definitions
 Differential levelling is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a graduated
staff the difference in elevation between two or more points.
 Precise levelling is a particularly accurate method of differential levelling which uses highly accu-
rate levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general engineering levelling. It
aims to achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km traverse.
 A level surface is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the force of
gravity. An example is the surface of a completely still lake. For ordinary levelling, level surfaces
at different elevations can be considered to be parallel.
 A level datum is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are referred. The most common
surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL), but as hydrological work is usually just concerned with
levels in a local area, we often use:
 An assumed datum, which is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g.
100.000m) to which all levels in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice to assume a
level which is close to the actual MSL value, as it creates potential for confusion.
 A reduced level is the vertical distance between a survey point and the adopted level datum.
 A bench mark (BM) is the term given to a definite, permanent accessible point of known height
above a datum to which the height of other points can be referred.
  A run is the levelling between two or more points measured in one direction only. The outward
run is from known to unknown points and the return run is the check levelling in the opposite di-
rection.
 Height of Collimation is the elevation of the optical axis of the telescope at the time of the setup.
The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the elevation.
 Orders of levelling refer to the quality of the levelling, usually being defined by the expected
maximum closing error.
 Change points are points of measurement which are used to carry the measurements forward in a
run. Each one will be read first as a foresight, the instrument position is changed, and then it will
be read as a backsight.

Principles of Leveling
 The principle of leveling is based on the fact that if a level is placed between 2 points A and B.
 Measurements obtained on a staff placed on these two points would mean the difference in height
between the two points.
 This is because the readings are made from the same position along the same line of sight.

 In this case, the difference is 4m (5-1). Lower readings are usually made at higher grounds while
higher figures are made at lower grounds.
 If the distances between the two points are long, it means the reading of the staff will not be done
once but in stages.
 If A is 200m above sea level, B will be 200 + 4 = 204m.

 If the level is set between points A and B, the difference in height is 2m (i.e. 3-1m).
 The height of point B is then 200 + 2 (202) as B is in a higher elevation than A. One can remove
the level and place it in between B and C.
 The new height of the staff is now 2m at B and 5m at C. making it a difference of 3m.
 If means that the height of point C will be height of B (202m) – difference in height = 202 – 3m =
199m.

Example
 Methods of Leveling
 There are several methods for measuring vertical distances and determining the elevations of
points.
 Traditional methods include barometric leveling, trigonometric leveling and differential leveling,
reciprocal leveling, three wire method.
 Two very advanced and sophisticated techniques include inertia leveling and global positioning
systems.

Barometric leveling
 By using special barometers to measure air pressure (which decrease with increasing elevation),
the elevation of points on the earth's surface can be determined within ±1m.
 This method is useful for doing a reconnaissance survey of large areas in rough country and for
obtaining preliminary topographic data.

Differential leveling
 By far the most common leveling method, and the one which most surveyors are concerned with,
is differential leveling.
 Differential levelling is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a graduated
staff the difference in elevation between two or more points. It may also be called spirit leveling,
because the basic instrument used comprises a telescopic sight and a sensitive spirit bubble vial.
 The spirit bubble vial serves to align the telescopic sight in a horizontal direction, that is, perpen-
dicular to the direction of gravity.
 A horizontal line of sight is first established with an instrument called a level.
 The level is securely mounted on a stand called a tripod, and the line of sight is made horizontal.
 Then the surveyor looks through the telescopic sight towards a graduated level rod, which is held
vertically at a specific location or point on the ground.
 A reading is observed on the rod where it appears to be intercepted by the horizontal cross hair of
the level; this is the vertical distance from the point on the ground up to the line of sight of the in-
strument.
 Generally, if the elevation of point A is already known or assumed, then the rod reading on a point
of known elevation is termed as a back sight reading (plus sight, because it must be added to the
known elevation of point A to determine the elevation of the line of sight).
 For example, suppose the elevation of point A is 100.00 m (above MSL), and the rod reading is
1.00m. It is clear that the elevation of the line of sight is 100.00+1.00 = 101.00m. The elevation of
the horizontal line of sight through the level is called the height of instrument (HI).

 Differential leveling to measure vertical distance and elevation. (a) Step 1: take a backsight rod
reading on point A (b) Step 2: rotate the telescope toward point B and take foresight rod reading.
 Suppose we must determine the elevation of point B.
  The surveyor turns the instrument telescope so that it faces point B, and reads the rod now held
vertically on that point.
 For example, the rod reading might be 4.00m. A rod reading on a point of unknown elevation is
called foresight (minus sight).
 Since the HI was not changed by turning the level, we can simply subtract the foresight reading of
4.00 from the HI of 101.00 to obtain the elevation of point B, resulting here in
101.00 - 4.00 = 97.00m.
 The operation of reading a vertical rod held alternately on two nearby points is the essence of dif-
ferential leveling.
 The difference between the two rod readings is, in effect, the vertical distance between the two
points.
 The basic cycle of differential leveling can be summarized as follows:

 Frequently, the elevations of points over a relatively long distance must be determined.
 A process of measuring two or more widely separated points simply involves several cycles or
repetitions of the basic differential leveling operation.
 More specific terms for this are benchmark, profile, and topographic leveling.

Reciprocal leveling
 When it is necessary to run levels accurately over rivers and other obstacles where the BS and FS
distances must necessarily be different, a procedure called reciprocal leveling is used.
 This provides another way to cancel or average out instrumental errors as well as the effects re-
fraction and the earth’s curvature.
 This procedure involves two instrument setups, one nearby each point.
 From each instrumental position, BS on point A and an FS on point B are taken, and an elevation
is computed for point B.
 This will result into different elevations for B, due to the natural and instrumental errors.
 But by average the two elevations, the effects on the errors are cancelled out, and the ‘true’ or
most probable elevation is obtained.
Example
The results of reciprocal levelling between stations A and B 250 m apart on opposite sides of a wide river
were as follows.

Given that the Reduced Level at A is 1324.765m above MSL. Determine:

(a) The true error between point A and B (ans. -0.964m)
(b) The Reduced level at B

Trigonometric Leveling
 Trigonometric leveling is an indirect procedure; the vertical distances are computed from vertical
angle and horizontal or slope distance data.
 It is also applied for topo work over rough terrain or other obstacles.
 The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring
(a) The inclined or horizontal distance between them and
(b) The zenith angle or the vertical angle to one point from the other
Tacheometric
 Tacheometric surveying is also called Stadia Surveying.
 It is a rapid and economical method of surveying method by which the horizontal distances and
the differences in elevations are determined indirectly intercepts on a graduated scale and angles
observed with a transit or a theodolite. i.e. the vertical and horizontal distances are determined in-
directly without actual measurement using tape or EDM or from any other levelling machine.
 The stadia method has many applications in surveying practices including traverse and levelling
for topographic surveying.
 The value of stadia surveys can be appreciated in rugged terrain and in inaccessible area where
conventional methods are difficult and time consuming,

Equipment
 The level, its tripod, the staff and the staff bubble are all precision items of equipment upon which
the accuracy of the work is highly dependent.
  They shall be kept correctly calibrated, and be used and stored with care.

Levels
 A level is basically a telescope attached to an accurate levelling device, set upon a tripod so that it
can rotate horizontally through 360°.
 Normally the levelling device is a bubble, but modern ones incorporate a pendulum. There are
three basic types of level, shown in figure 6.1 (from MWD, 1981) and described below:
 Levels shall be carried in vehicles in a padded box, case or shelf in addition to the normal case,
and staves shall be kept in a canvas or plastic sleeve to prevent damage to the face and entry of
dirt. Compared with a transit or theodolite, the level is a relatively simple instrument.
 It is only required to give a horizontal line of sight in all directions of the compass, and this is eas-
ily accomplished using basic optical and mechanical components.
 A surveying level basically consists of a telescope and a sensitive spirit bubble vial.
 The spirit level vial can be adjusted so that, when the bubble is centered, the line of sight through
the telescope is horizontal. The telescope is mounted on a vertical spindle, which fits into a bear-
ing in the leveling head.
 The leveling head may have either three, or two leveling screws, depending on the type of instru-
ment.

(a) Dumpy levels

 These are more basic levels often used in construction work.

 The telescope is rigidly attached to a single bubble and the assembly is adjusted either by means of
a screwed ball-joint or by footscrews which are adjusted first in one direction, then at 90°.

(b) Tilting levels

 This type of level is fitted with a circular bubble for preliminary approximate levelling and a main
bubble which is attached to the telescope.
 For each observation (not setup) the main bubble is viewed through an eyepiece and the telescope
tilted by a fine screw to bring the two ends of the bubble into coincidence.
A: Transverse fulcrum
B: Micrometer screw
C: Micrometer screw knob
D: Housing for telescope level bubble
E: Eyepiece end of the telescope
F: Parallel eyepiece
(c) Automatic levels
 This more modern type of level is now in general use. It has a compensator which consists of an
arrangement of three prisms.
 The two outer ones are attached to the barrel of the telescope. The middle prism is suspended by
fine wiring and reacts to gravity.
 The instrument is first levelled approximately with a circular bubble; the compensator will then
deviate the line of sight by the amount that the telescope is out of level.

 The most common components of several types of levels are the telescopic sight and spirit bubble
vial.
The Telescopic Sight
 The modern telescopic sight consists of the following components:
(a) A reticule, which provides the cross hair, near the rear of the telescope tube.
 (b) A microscope or eyepiece which magnifies the cross hair, and which must be focused on them ac-
cording to the eyesight of the observer.
(c) An objective lens at the forward end of the telescope, which forms an image of the sight target
within the telescope tube.
(d) A focusing lens, which can be moved back and forth inside the scope to focus the image on the
cross hair.
Focusing a Telescoping sight:
 Three steps are required to focus a telescopic sight for greatest accuracy.
 Aim the telescope at the bright, unmarked object, such as the sky, and regulate the eyepiece
until the cross hair is in sharp focus.
 Aim the telescope at the object to be viewed and, while keeping the eye focused on the cross
hairs,
 Regulate the focusing lens until the object is clear.

Staves
 The levelling staff is a box section of aluminium or wood, which will extend to 3 or 5 m in height
by telescoping, hinging or addition of sections. One face has a graduated scale attached for reading
with the cross-hairs of the level telescope.
 These faces can vary in pattern and graduation; 5mm graduations should be the maximum for ac-
curate levelling of gauging stations.
 Many staves used these days are of aluminium because of its durability.
 However aluminium has a co-efficient of thermal expansion of: 0.000023m/metre of length/°C
and this can cause some potential inaccuracies.
 For instance, "Survey Chief" and "Brookeades" staves are standardised at 27°C, and in very cold
weather these staves could be as much as 3mm too short over their full length. For low tempera-
ture work consult the temperature table for each staff which should be with its "instruction man-
ual" or printed on the staff itself.
Staff bubbles
 These are generally a small circular bubble on an angle plate which is held against one corner of
the staff to ensure that the staff is held in a vertical position.
 If the staff is not held vertical, the reading will be too large and may be significantly in error.
 A staff bubble shall be used at all times.
 If one is not available, the "chainman" (staff operator) shall rock the staff slowly back and forth
about the vertical in a line towards the instrument.
 The observer notes the smallest reading which will occur when the staff is vertical.
Leveling Procedures
(a) Setting Up and Leveling the Instrument
The operation of setting up includes
Centering
 Centering of the instrument over the station mark by a plumb bob or by optical plummet, and ap-
proximate levelling with the help of tripod legs.
 Some instruments are provided with shifting head with the help of which accurate centering can be
done easily.
 By moving the leg radially, the plumb bob is shifted in the direction of the leg while by moving
the leg circumferentially or sideways considerable change in the inclination is effected without
disturbing the plumb bob.
 The second movement is, therefore, effective in the approximate levelling of the instrument.
 The approximate levelling is done either with reference to a small circular bubble provided on tri-
brach or is done by eye judgment.
Levelling up
 After having centered and approximately levelled the instrument, accurate levelling is done with
the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels.
 The purpose of the levelling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical.
 The manner of levelling the instrument by the plate levels depends upon whether there are three
levelling screws or four levelling screws.
Three Screw Head.
 Turn the upper plate until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is roughly parallel to a line join-
ing any two of the levelling screws
 Hold these two levelling screws between the thumb and first finger of each hand and turn them
uniformly so that the thumbs move either towards each other or away from each other until the
bubble is central.
  It should be noted that the bubble will move in the direction of movement of the left thumb
 Turn the upper plate through 90 degree, until the axis of the level passes over the position of the
third levelling screw C
 Turn this levelling screw until the bubble is central.
 Return the upper plate through 90 degree to its original position and repeat step till the bubble is
central.
 Turn back again through 90 degree and repeat step (bulletin 4).
 Repeat steps (in bulletin 2 and 4) till the bubble is central in both the positions.
 Now rotate the instrument through 180 degree.
 The bubble should remain in the centre of its run, provided it is in correct adjustment.

(b) Elimination of parallax

 Parallax is the apparent movement of the image produced by movement of the observer's eye at
the eyepiece.
 It is eliminated by focusing the telescope on infinity and then adjusting the eyepiece until the
cross-hairs appear in sharp focus.
 The setting will remain constant for a particular observer's eye.
(c) Booking
 Level books or loose-leaf levelling sheets shall be numbered and indexed in a register.
 Details of the site, work, date, observer, chainman, booker, weather, wind, instrument and any
other relevant items shall be entered.
  Enter the first observation (which is on a known point) in the Backsight column, and sufficient de-
tail in the Remarks column to identify it.
 Enter all other points on subsequent lines as intermediates except the point chosen as the foresight.
 Identify them in the Remarks column as above. Enter the foresight on a further line in the Fore-
sight column.
 Change the instrument to the next setup. Enter the following backsight on the same line as the pre-
vious foresight but in the Backsight column.
 Repeat the above procedure at each setup on the outward run then reverse it to work back to the
starting point on the return run. The furthest point out is treated as for all other change points.

(d) Reducing the levels

 Reduction shall be carried out on site before packing up to ensure that the levelling has been done
correctly. For example

Booking and Calculation of Reduced Levels

 Two methods are used to book and calculate the reduced level. These are: Rise and Fall Method;
and, Height of Instrument or collimation method.

Rise and Fall Method

 The rise and fall method uses differences in level between two consecutive points to obtain the rise
or fall in elevation at that point.
 For example, if A is located at a point 200 meters above sea level and the difference in height is
2m, then the location B is 202m.
 To book and calculated the level in a level notebook, 6 columns are drawn for the station, back-
sight, foresight, rise, fall reduced level and remarks.
 The calculation is performed step by step a shown hence the level at D is 201m.
 Calculate the rises and fall between successive points and book them in the appropriate column
(one can determine whether each shot is a rise or fall by the following rule of thumb: a higher
value on top denotes a rise; a higher value on the bottom denotes a fall)
 Add up the backsight and foresight columns for the entire traverse and note the difference between
them; this is the close add up the rises and falls for the entire traverse, and compare the difference
between them with the difference between the backsights and foresights; they should be the same
 Carry the reduced levels in the R.L. column down the page by adding or subtracting the appropri-
ate rise and fall values to the successive values of R.L.
 The final value of the original starting point will differ from the original value by the amount of
the close.
 If the levelling has been done correctly and all arithmetic reductions are correct, the differences
between total backsights and foresights, total rises and falls, and starting and finishing R.L.'s
should be the same. This difference is the close; and for site inspection purposes it should be
within ± 2mm or ± 6mm, depending upon which water-level standard is being followed, ± 3mm or
± 10mm.

To check the accuracy of the tabulation the formulae is used as follows:

Note: The sum of the back sight mines the sum of the foresight must be equal to the sum of the rise mine
sum of fall must be equal to first reduced level mine last reduced level. In the above example, they are all
equal meaning that the table was correctly compiled.

Example 2
The table below show results obtained from a closed leveling fieldwork. Fill the table and reduce the lev-
els. Check the levels and adjust the error(s) if any appropriately.

BS IS FS Rise Fall Reduced Remarks

Level
1.94 452.000 BM 1
4
1.691 Om
2.009 20 m
0.36 2.842 40 m
7
1.223 60 m
1.347 80 m
2.11 0.775 100 m
4
0.816 BM 1

Collimation (Height of Instrument Method)

 In this method, the back sight is added to the known elevation of the point to get the height of in-
strument.
 The foresight of the second point is then subtracted from the height of the instrument to obtain the
reduced level or the elevation of the second point.
Example 2
 In the following example, the elevation at BM-A is known, and we need to know the elevation of
BM-K. The level is set up at a point near BM-A, and a rod reading taken. The height of instrument
(HI) is calculated and a rod reading to a turning point (TP1) is taken. The reading of the foresight
is subtracted from the height of instrument to obtain the elevation at TP1. The rod stays at TP1,
the level moves ahead and the rod at TP1 now becomes the backsight. This procedure is repeated
until the final foresight to BM-K.
Example 3
A following readings are taken with the level with a 4m leveling staff on a continuously slope ground at
30m interval. 0.680, 1.455, 1.855, 2.330, 2.855, 3.380, 1.055, 1.860, 2.265, 3.540,0.835, 0.945, 1.530 &
2.250 The R.L of starting point was 80.750m rule out a page of level book an enter above readings carry
out reduction of height by collimation method and apply arithmetic checks. Determine gradient of the line
joining 1st and last point.
Leveling Mistakes and Errors
 As with any surveying operation, blunders must be eliminated and errors minimized while running
levels.
 Misreading the rod is a common blunder; it can be avoided by always having the rod person check
the reading with pencil point or target.
 Note keeping mistakes can be particularly troublesome. The computations of HI and turning point
(TP) elevation should be done in the field, as the work progresses.
 A simple arithmetic check at the end of the leveling run can be made to avoid addition or subtrac-
tion errors.

Random Errors
 Unavoidable accidental errors may occur when running levels, for several reasons.
 For example:
 The level rod may not be precise when the reading is taken.
 Heat waves from the ground make it difficult to read.
 On windy day, slight vibration of the cross hair can cause small errors in the reading.
 The instrument may be slightly out of level if the spirit level is not perfectly centered.
  Accidental errors can be minimized with a properly maintained and adjusted instrument if the fol-
lowing steps are taken:
(a) Make sure the tripod legs are secure and firmly anchored before leveling the instrument.
(b) Check to see that the bubble is centered before each reading; re-center it if necessary.
(c) Do not lean on the tripod legs when reading the rod.
(d) Have the rod person use a rod level, to make sure it is held vertically.
(e) Try to keep the line of sight about 0.5m above the ground when positioning the instrument.
(f) Do not use very long BS and FS reading.

Systematic / Instrumental Errors

 Incorrect length of the rod.
 When the bubble tube axis is not perpendicular to the standing axis of the instrument
 When the line of sight of the telescope is not parallel to the bubble axis.

Checking For Mistakes

 When the survey is complete, an arithmetic check is done; this simply assures that no mistakes in
addition or subtraction was made in the 'HI' and 'elevation.' columns of the field notes.
 Sometimes, the line of levels is run back to benchmark or the starting point. This is called a closed
loop or level circuit.
 Any leveling survey should close back either on the starting benchmark or on some other point of
known elevation, in order to provide a check against blunders.

Errors Due To Curvature and Refraction

 From the definition of a level surface and a horizontal line, it is evident that the horizontal departs
from a level surface because of curvature of the earth.

Adjusting Benchmark Elevations

 The importance of running a line of levels back to the starting benchmark, or to some other fixed
point of known elevation is to avoid blunders.
 There is really no way to assure that a blunder was not made in the work without closing the level
circuit one way or the other.
 It is much less expensive to find and correct a blunder in the field by closing the loop than to have
to return and repeat the work at a later date.
 When the line of levels or level circuit is completed, there is usually some small difference be-
tween the given fixed elevation of the benchmark and the observed elevation arrived at in the lev-
eling notes.
 If the arithmetic check works out all right, then it may be assumed that the discrepancy is due to
random or accidental errors.
 Suppose a leveling survey closes within the desired order and class of accuracy; in other words,
there is an error of closure, but it is acceptable.
 The problem now is to distribute that total error of closure among the various intermediate bench-
marks and to adjust the circuit so that it closes exactly.
  In doing this for single level line or circuit, it may be assumed that the elevation error at each point
along the circuit or line of levels is directly proportional to the distance of the point from the start-
ing benchmark.
 The relationships for adjusting the leveling line or circuit may be summarized as follows:

Correction for @ setup=error of closure ×cummulative no . of setup¿ 1 st setup ¿

Total number of setups

Example 1
Complete the following level circuit and compute the misclosure

Example 2
a) Using Rise and fall method prepare a set of profile leveling notes for the data listed and show the
checks. The elevation of BM A is 1500.40 m, and the elevation of BM B is 1264.78 m. Rod readings
are: BS on BM A, 5.68; IFS on 1+00, 4.3; FS on TP1, 9.56; BS on TP1,10.02; IFS on 2+00,11.1;on
3+00, 6.1; FS on TP2,8.15;BS on TP2, 3.28; IFS on 3+64,1.51; on 4+00, 3.1;on 5+00, 6.4; FS on TP3,
7.77; BS on TP3, 3.16; FS on BM B, 7.23.
 Note:
BM- Bench mark
BS-Back sight
FS-Fore sight
IFS- Intermediate foresight
TP- Change point (Temporally Point)

Example

Uses of leveling
In addition to solving the problem of determining the difference in level between two points, other uses of
leveling are:
i. Contouring
ii. Taking of longitudinal sections
iii. Cross sections
iv. Setting out levels
Contouring
 A contour is a line joining points of equal altitude.
 Contour lines are shown on plans as dotted lines and in maps as continuous lines in brown color.
 The main value of a contour plan is the fact that it enables an assessment of the topography to be
made such as for large housing projects.
 Accurate contour plans are required when reservoir/dam projects are being designed but for gen-
eral work, a vertical interval of 1 m may suffice.
Profile Leveling
 Profile leveling is one of the most common applications of running levels and vertical distance
measurement for the surveyor.
 The results are plotted in the form of a profile, which is a drawing that shows a vertical cross sec-
tion.
 Profiles are required for the design and construction of roads, curbs, sidewalks, pipelines etc.
 In short, profile leveling refers to the process of determining the elevation of points on the ground
at mostly uniform intervals along continuous line.
 The aim of these surveys is to reproduce on paper the existing profile along a particular line (e.g.
the centerline of existing or proposed work such as centerline of a road, railway or canal)
 The accuracy with which the ground profile is represented on the sections is dependent on the dis-
tance between staff stations which in turn depends on the scale of the section.
 As a general rule take levels at:
i. At equal interval i.e. every 20 m
ii. points at which gradient changes
iii. edges of natural features
iv. sections which cross roads, on the kerb, on the center of the road
The sections are usually plotted to a distorted scale e.g. 1:500 for horizontal detail and 1:100 for vertical
detail.
Points to note:
i. start work on a bench mark (control point) if possible
ii. Keep backsights and foresights nearly equal in length.
iii. Make changes on firm ground
iv. Take final foresight on a benchmark
v. Don’t work with the staff extended in high winds
vi. Be cautious when setting up the level.
Plotting the Profile
 The profile drawing is basically a graph of elevations, plotted on the vertical axis, as a function of
stations, plotted on horizontal axis.
 A gridded sheet called profile paper is used to plot the profile data from the field book.
 All profile drawings must have a proper title block, and both axes must be fully labeled with sta-
tions and elevations.
 The elevation or elevation scale is typically exaggerated; that is, it is 'stretched' in comparison to
the horizontal scale. For example the vertical scale might be 10 times larger.
 The horizontal line at the bottom of the profile does not necessary have to start at zero elevation.
Cross-Section Leveling
 The term cross-section generally refers to a relatively short profile view of the ground, which is
drawn perpendicular to the route centerline of a highway or other types of linear projects.
 Cross-sectional drawings are particularly important for estimating the earthwork volumes needed
to construct a roadway; they show the existing ground elevations, the proposed cut or fill side
slopes, and the grade elevation for the road base.
 There is really no difference in procedure between profile and cross-section leveling except for the
form of the field notes.
 Cross-section rod shots are usually taken during the route profile survey from the same instrument
positions used to take rod shots along the centerline.
 Cross-section data are obtained at the same locations along the route that are used for the profile
rod-shot stations.
 Works of narrow width such as sewer and pipelines require only one line of levels along the cen-
terline of the proposed trench.
 Wider works such as roads and railways will require the use of ground on either side of the center-
line.
 Information relating to relative ground levels is obtained by taking cross sections normal to the
centerline.
 The width of these must be adequate to cover the proposed works e.g. 15 m on either side of the
centerline of a normal road.
 The centerline is first set out, pegs being placed at points where cross sections are required, and
then the cross sections are then set out.
 The choice of points is governed by the same principles as those of taking long sections and the
aim is to reproduce the ground profile accurately.
 In the actual leveling cross sections may be completed one at a time, setting up the instrument as
many times as is needful.
 This approach facilitates booking but is tedious especially in steeply sloping terrain. In such a case
it is convenient to take staff reading on other cross sections as the ground allows, though care
should be taken in their booking.