CHAPTER FIVE

Fractography analysis and

constitutive modeling for
dynamic plasticity of austenite
stainless steel (ASS 304) at
hot-working temperatures
A. Anitha Lakshmi1, Ch. Srinivas Rao2 and Tanya Buddi1
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

5.1 Introduction
Austenitic stainless steel is broadly used in broad applications in the
area of nuclear power plants, marine applications, and heat exchangers
due to its outstanding properties. Excellent corrosion resistance is due to
less carbide precipitation which is because of the presence of lower per-
centage of carbon composition, that is, 0.08% by weight. High resistance
to elevated temperatures is due to presence of chromium and nickel by
composition. It is easily sensitive to work hardening due to very less stack-
ing fault energy and nonmagnetic nature [1]. In particular temperature
ranges and strain rates these steels testimony dynamic strain aging (DSA)
or Portevin-Le Chatelier (PLC) effect [2]. DSA occurs when solute atoms
are large enough such that instead of locking the dislocation they follow
along dislocation during its flow and gets collected at the core. This
behavior is represented by serrations, that is, can see tooth-like undulating
zig-zag outline in the stress
strain graph [3]. Constitutive models give
detailed description of strain, punch strain rate, and blank temperature-
dependent flow curve conduct of sheet metals and alloys. The models
selected represent increase in resistance to plastic deformation at increasing
temperatures and low strain rates causing improvement in the flow stress.

Modern Manufacturing Processes. © 2020 Elsevier Ltd.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819496-6.00005-1 All rights reserved. 97
98 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Researchers modified unique constitutive models to precisely expect

the flow curve behavior by considering the effect of forming process para-
meters [4]. In the past few decades a meaningful amount of work was
done on titanium, magnesium, and tantalum alloys at hot working to link
the process parameters with flow stress through phenomenological consti-
tutive models, physical constitutive models, and semi-empirical models. A
widespread constitutive stress
strain correlation equation in relation of
strain-hardening exponent (n-value) and the strain-rate sensitivity expo-
nent (m-value) to describe the work-hardening phenomenon was antici-
pated in 1957 by the researchers Fields and Bachofen (FB) [5]. Cheng
et al. [6] used FB model to study the mechanical properties of alloy sheet
AZ31 magnesium at the elevated hot working temperatures and strain
rates. They observed that the alloy AZ31 magnesium sheet had an obvi-
ously recrystallization plasticity behavior at higher temperature and low
strain rates. Hence basic FB model was inexact to illustrate the work soft-
ening behavior. Added Quan et al. [7] revised the existing equation by
addition of the softening parameter suggested by Zhang [8] in the equa-
tion. The change was well suited for prediction of work softening beha-
viors of 7075 aluminum alloy.
Johnson
Cook (JC) constitutive model is a phenomenological flow
stress model based on working conditions sheet temperature, strain
induced, and punch strain-rate. The JC model is widely used for various
varieties of materials over different ranges of strain-rate and temperatures.
The JC model is used by most of the researchers due to its easiness of few
experiments and fewer material constants. It has been testified in various
works that the JC model could not predict results accurately when applied
to materials subjected to high strains. The JC model is improved by con-
sidering the effects of forming temperature and strain-hardening behavior.
This model has been adapted to forecast the flow stress curve combining
the effect of the strain rate and temperature.
Due to its simplicity and accuracy for engineering applications, the
phenomenological constitutive model including the Arrhenius term pro-
posed primarily by Jonas et al. [9] has been commonly adopted in routine
to explain the relationship among flow behavior of steel and various
forming process parameters. This model showed a good correlation
between Al
Zn
Mg
Cu alloys and Ni
Ti shape memory alloys’ for
both predicted and experimental flow behavior. Arrhenius-type formula is
used under different deformation conditions to predict the flow behavior
of Fe
22Cr
25Ni
3.5W
3Cu
1.5Co steel [10]. The results indicated
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 99

good correlation and generalization by integrating strain correction with

polynomial matching of the fifth order. Upon revising the basic model, the
elevated-temperature flow activity of different materials with varying compo-
sition is related. For the estimation of flow pressure in a wrought magnesium
alloy and 42CrMo iron, strain-dependent variable and strain-rate compensa-
tion are introduced in Sine-hyperbolic constitutive equation [11,12].
In 1992, Khan and Huang (KH) [13] suggested a constitutive visco-
plastic model to predict coarse grain Al 1100 behavior at a wide range of
strain levels. The basic model did not consider the temperature influence.
Khan
Huang
Liang (KHL) introduces the next change in the design,
taking into account the combined effect of stress, strain frequency, and
temperature to determine work-hardening behavior of the function. Khan
and Liang [14] defined the KHL template parameter range for antalum,
tantalum alloy 2.5% tungsten, and AerMet 100 steel in the year 2000.
The FEM is a common tool to identify the optimal cycle parameters.
The response of the material under the defined loading conditions can be
simulated by inserting a Constitutive equation that describes the materials’
flow behavior. The reliability of FEM simulations are based on the preci-
sion of the deformation tensile behavior described by the constitutive
numerical equations for the specific material sheet. A suitable constitutive
model, their parameters are needed for predicting the flow behavior for
ASS 304 [15,16], at hot working temperatures. The main objective of this
chapter is to describe the impact of strain induced, punch strain rate, and
deformation sheet temperature on the tensile flow stress curve perfor-
mance for ASS 304 at hot working temperatures. After investigating the
high-temperature deformation characteristics, a suitable mathematical
model was developed using the experimental stress
strain data collected
by performing hot working tensile tests. Four constitutive material model,
namely revised Fields
Backofen (m-FB), revised Johnson
Cook (m-JC),
revised Arrhenius (m-Arr.), and KHL, are therefore designed to expect
the ASS 304 flow curve behavior at hot working temperatures. Khaleel
and Nitin Kotkunde in their previous works have developed constitutive
models for (ASS) 316 [15,16].
Flow curve prediction constructed on m-Arr. is pretty precise within
the nondynamic strain ageing region (973
1173K temperature range and
1025, 1024, 1023, and 1022 s 21 strain rates). Nevertheless, in the DSA
area these models were unable to accurately forecast flow curve due to
the zig-zag pattern in the flow curve. In addition, to understand the mate-
rial properties in accordance with micrographs, fractography of fractured
100 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

tensile specimen was done. In the current work, experimental data has
been evaluated by conducting isothermal uniaxial tensile tests at hot
working temperatures (700 C
900 C) in intervals of 50 C at constant
strain rates (1024, 1023, and 1022 s21) along three orientations (0, 45,
and 90 degrees) with respect to the rolling direction. The observed
stress
strain values are then used to determine the flow stress curve, strain
induced, strain rate, and deformation temperature related constitutive
equation. The material model’s suitability is measured by evaluating of
correlation coefficient, standard deviation value, and average absolute error.

5.2 Material and experimental details

In the present research, 1.0-mm thick alloy sheet ASS 304 was
used. Table 5.1 shows the composition of the material used. Wire-cutting
electro-discharge machining process is used to machine the samples out of
the raw material sheet for great accuracy, finish, etc. The specimen size is
as per standards of ASTME8/E8M-11 subsize. Tensile processing is con-
ducted on a computer-coordinated UTM (50 kN) at isothermal condi-
tions (Fig. 5.1).
Software revisions were competently done and variable crosshead
speed was confirmed to give constant strain rate. Fig. 5.1 also represents
enlarged view for control panel and split furnace with resistance heating
to heat specimen up to 1000 C. The furnace is round opening type with
two controllers one for left half and second for the right half. The heating
element is made of kanthal, characterized by high resistivity and capability
to withstand high surface load. They can be used at maximum element
temperature of 1425 C (2600 F). The pull rods for the high-temperature
testing are made of Inconel 715 super alloy. Generally, the spectrum of
strain rate for static tension test with hydraulic or screw driven machine is
considered between 1025 and 1021 s21 [17]. Uniaxial tensile testing and
development of constitutive model of ASS 304 is done in the temperature
range of 50 C
650 C [18
20]. To study deformation behavior of the

Table 5.1 Chemical composition of the as received ASS 304 steel sheets (in weight
percent).
Element Fe Cr Ni Mo Si Mn Cu Co C
(Wt.%) composition 67.69 6.61 0.79 2.41 1.29 0.37 0.22 0.20 0.019
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 101

Figure 5.1 Computerized UTM with enlarged view of high-temperature contact type
extensometer and three zone resistance heating split furnace.

material at elevated temperatures experiments are conducted from 700 C

to 900 C at an interval of 50 C at strain rates 1024, 1023, and 1022 s21
in three orientations R0, R45, and R90. Fig. 5.2, displays the representa-
tive fractured test workpiece at varying range temperatures. For fractogra-
phy examination the fractured surface of the specimen is used. A
computerized machine is used for measuring and recording the
load
displacement curve which is compiled into true stress
true strain
plots. Elastic region is deducted from the true stress versus true strain plot-
ted curve to obtain true stress and true strain curve.

5.3 Microstructure examination and fractography

Sample is prepared for microstructural observation by following a
sequence of processes like rough grinding, wet polishing, emery polishing,
102 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.2 Representative successfully tested specimen of ASS 304 at various

temperatures.

and finally application of etchant. It is examined under different magnifi-

cations using optical microscope and micrographed using standard tech-
nique, bright field illumination. The metal microstructure (Fig. 5.3)
comprised of equiaxed grains with high number of annealing twins,
which is the outcome of static recrystallization and grain growth during
heat treatment [15,16]. Neither structures dislocation (DSs) nor low angle
boundaries (LABs) are observed. These changes at different magnifications
exposed the two distinct microconstituents, namely ASS 304 alloy are
alpha (BCC) and gamma (FCC) phases. In the transformed matrix the
alpha (α) stage (light) grains are well scattered in the gamma (β) (dark
phase). The alpha grain’s volume fraction is largely scattered with uneven
dimensions and shape which is greater than beta phase’s volume fraction.
The features of fracture can be analyzed by fractography. By conduct-
ing fractography the nature of failure and formability can be analyzed. A
SEM (S-3400N, 15 kV) is used to thoroughly examine the fractured sur-
face of the fully deformed tensile test samples. The observation samples
are cut parallel to fractured surface. At a range of magnifications, the sur-
faces of fracture are studied to establish the fracture approach and to
describe the inherent properties of the tensile fracture surface during uni-
axial tensile testing. The SEM images were obtained for the fracture sur-
face of all the specimens at five temperatures and in three orientations at
0.001 strain rate.
The various SEM images and the EDS reports are shown in
Figs. 5.3
5.12. If the main cause of failure is strain, ASS 304 alloys col-
lapse through a procedure known as microvoid coalescence. Microvoid
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 103

Figure 5.3 Optical micrographs showing the key micro constituents in ASS 304
(A) high magnification of 500 3 showing grain size. (B) high magnification of
10,000 3 showing α-phase and β-phase. (C) Overall morphology at 250 3 .
(D) Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis of inclusion portion.

nucleates in regions where dispersed strain discontinuity, such as those

associated with second-phase grains, inclusions, seed edges, and dislocation
pile-ups. The microvoids grow, coalesce, and eventually form a continu-
ous layer surface of fracture as the stress increases in the material. Cup-like
depressions are called dimples, and the form of fracturing is described as
dimple breakup. If various nucleating sites are triggered and neighboring
voids combine (coalesce) before they can expand to a larger size, tiny
dimples of different sizes and shapes are created.
Forming of dimples of shallow shape can involve microvoids to be
connected by shear through slip bands. In the surface fracture, which spe-
cifies ductile fracturing, where large number of tiny form and volume
dimples and microvoids are found. A large distribution of deep size
depressions of various dimensions and shapes have been identified for the
broken samples in three separate rolling directions at 700 C. The dimples
shown in Fig. 5.4B R45 and Fig. 5.4C R90 show an elongated horseshoe
shape and are shallower than dimples obtained in Fig. 5.4A in R0 direc-
tion. This result implies that shear fracture emerges in the R45 and R90
direction and causes the decrease of ductility.
104 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.4 SEM images taken for the fracture surface of 1 mm thickness of ASS 304
at 700 C. (A) Fracture surface for rolling direction R0 at 5000 3 magnification.
(B) Fracture surface for diagonal direction R45 at 5000 3 magnification. (C) Fracture
surface for transverse direction R90 at 5000 3 magnification.

This can be analyzed from the experimental results as shown in

Table 5.2, which represents the ductility in terms of percentage of elonga-
tions. It shows that elongation in R0 direction is more compared with
other rolling directions.
In Fig. 5.5 more dimples and large void size is seen in R0 and R45
direction microstructures compared with R90 direction which can be veri-
fied in Table 5.2 by greater percentage of elongation in R90 direction.
In Fig. 5.6 at 800 C the microstructures in R45 direction shown in
Fig. 5.6B shows large voids compared with R0 and R45 shown in
Fig. 5.6A,C direction which shows from Table 5.2 that percentage elon-
gation in R45 direction is less compared with R0 and R90 direction.
In Fig. 5.7 at 850 C the microstructures in R45 and R90 direction
shown in Fig. 5.7B and C shows large voids compared with R0 shown in
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 105

Figure 5.5 SEM images taken for the fracture surface of 1 mm thickness of ASS 304
at 750 C. (A) fracture surface for rolling direction R0 at 5000 3 magnification.
(B) Fracture surface for angular direction R45 at 5000 3 magnification. (C) Fracture
surface for perpendicular direction R90 at 5000 3 magnification.

Fig. 5.7A direction which shows from Table 5.2 that percentage elonga-
tion in R45 and R90 direction is less compared with R0 direction. At
900 C as shown in Fig. 5.8, the size of the voids is decreasing with
increase in no of voids indicating ductile nature as evidenced in Table 5.2.
At hot working temperatures, that is, at 700 C formation of dimples occur
where carbide precipitation begins at 750 C which increase in more precipita-
tion with further increase in temperature up to 900 C has been observed
through SEM micrographs as shown in Fig. 5.9. The dimples diminish with
increase in temperature from 700 C, with the formation of voids with increase
in depth and decrease in size, resulting in more number of small voids at 900 C.
EDS represents types of chemical elements present in the fractured sur-
face. The EDS report reflects trace of some of the chemical elements pres-
ent in the fractured surface. These reports confirm the alloying elements
106 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.6 SEM images taken for the fracture surface of 1 mm thickness of ASS 304
at 800 C. (A) fracture surface for rolling direction R0 at 5000 3 magnification.
(B) Fracture surface for angular direction R45 at 5000 3 magnification. (C) Fracture
surface for perpendicular direction R90 at 5000 3 magnification.

such as Cr, Ni, Si, Mn, Mo, Co, etc. Figs. 5.10
5.12 clearly show that
the EDS reports confirm that inclusion is evident in the layer of the frac-
ture. The majority of the composition involves chromium and carbide.
It could be chromium carbide as shown in Tables 5.3
5.5.

5.4 Constitutive models

Constitutive equations predict the flow curve behavior of the material.
These are used to model the response of the material under defined loading
conditions as material data input to FE codes. Performance of numerical simu-
lation is highly dependent on consistency of the material behavioral deforma-
tion described by constituent equations. Preferably, constituent models must
have a required number of constants (material) and forecast flow curve with
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 107

Figure 5.7 SEM images taken for the fracture surface of 1 mm thickness of ASS 304
at 850 C. (A) Fracture surface for rolling direction R0 at 5000 3 magnification.
(B) Fracture surface for angular direction R45 at 5000 3 magnification. (C) Fracture
surface for perpendicular direction R90 at 5000 3 magnification.

acceptable accurateness and consistency over a varied temperature range and

stress level. In the current chapter five modified constituent model equations,
namely JC, ZA, m-Arr., KHL, and m-FB were developed to predict ASS
304 flow stress behavior in the hot forming regions. All models developed in
the study are based on the MATLAB version R2010b.

5.5 Constitutive model (m-FB) modified

Fields
Backofen
The flow stress model equation to forecast the flow stress using the
FB model is
σ 5 Kεn ε_ m (5.1)
108 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.8 SEM images taken for the fracture surface of 1 mm thickness of ASS 304
at 900 C. (A) Fracture surface for rolling direction R0 at 5000 3 magnification. (B)
Fracture surface for angular direction R45 at 5000 3 magnification. (C) Fracture sur-
face for perpendicular direction R90 at 5000 3 magnification.

where, n is the strain-hardening exponent, K is the strength coefficient,

and m is the constant strain rate sensitivity exponent. An improved model
of FB model was established by incorporating a softening equation term
(bT 1 sε) into Eq. (5.1) hence the m-FB model is stated as
σ 5 Kεn ε_ m ðbT 1 sεÞ (5.2)
where,
dinσ
s5 (5.3)
dinε
where, b is the product constant and s is the softening factor of the ASS
due to the increase of the stress. In Eq. (5.3) the material parameters are
determined using nonlinear unconstrained optimization to reduce error.
Parameters K, n, and m differ from temperature to strain frequency. The
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 109

Figure 5.9 SEM images taken for the fracture surface of 1 mm thickness of ASS 304
at R90 orientation. (A) Fracture surface at 10,000 3 magnification for 700 C.
(B) Fracture surface at 10,000 3 magnification for 750 C. (C) Fracture surface at
10,000 3 magnification for 800 C. (D) Fracture surface at 10,000 3 magnification for
850 C. (E) Fracture surface at 10,000 3 magnification for 900 C.
110 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.10 EDS report for fractured surfaces at different temperatures of ASS 304
steel of thickness 1 mm at 0.001 s21 in rolling direction R0 (A) 700 C, (B) 750 C,
(C) 800 C, (D) 850 C, and (E) 900 C.

temperature and strain variance of the parameters are empirically inter-

preted as
γ
K 5 α 1 βln_ε 1 (5.4)
T
C
n 5 A 1 Bln_ε 1 (5.5)
T
E
m 5 C 1 Dln_ε 1 (5.6)
T
In addition, these quantitative interactions are used to forecast flow stress
using the m-FB method, while integrating the strain level and temperature
dependence of the flow stress in the estimation of flow stress (Table 5.6).
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 111

Figure 5.11 EDS report for fractured surfaces at different temperatures of ASS 304
steel of thickness 1 mm at 0.001 s21 in rolling direction R45 (A) 700 C, (B) 750 C,
(C) 800 C, (D) 850 C, and (E) 900 C.

5.6 Constitutive model (KHL) Khan
Huang
Liang

The equation to predict the flow stress using KHL model is given
by Eq. (5.7)

 
C

ln_ε n1 n0 ε_ τm 2T m
σ 5 A 1 B 12 εp  (5.7)
lnD0 ε_ Tm 2Tref
where, σ is the true stress (Cauchy) and εp is the true plastic strain. The
melting, prevailing, and the reference temperatures are represented by Tm,
T, Tref, respectively. D0 5 1026 s21 known as rate of deformation (a con-

stant used to nondimensionalize the strain rate term and ε_ 5 1022 s21
112 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.12 EDS report for fractured surfaces at different temperatures of ASS 304
steel of thickness 1 mm at 0.001 s21 in perpendicular direction R90 (A) 700 C,
(B) 750 C, (C) 800 C, (D) 850 C, and (E) 900 C.

(reference strain rate, Tref at a reference temperature, usually temperature,

at which material constants like A, B, and n0 are determined). ε_ is the
strain rate. n0, n1, C, and m are additional material constants. For ASS
304, the melting temperature was taken to be 1400 C. The preliminary
temperature of 700 C was taken as the initialtemperature  for experiments.
At reference temperature and strain rate when ε_ε_ 5 1 the flow stress
given by Eq. (5.7) will reduce to
σ 5 A 1 Bεnpo (5.8)

Taking natural logarithm on both side yields,

lnðσ 2 AÞ 5 no lnε 1 lnB (5.9)
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 113

Table 5.2 Representing experimental results of percentage of elongation of ASS 304

ranging from 700 C to 900 C at 0.001 s21 in intervals of 50 C.
Temperature ( C) Rolling direction % Elongation
700 R0 55.2
R45 41.4
R90 51.7
750 R0 64.1
R45 61.6
R90 66.2
800 R0 71.7
R45 67.9
R90 70.9
850 R0 74.1
R45 68.4
R90 73.9
900 R0 76.5
R45 65.3
R90 76.4

Table 5.3 Weight % for EDS report of fractured surface at different temperatures for
R0 orientation.
Elements Weight %
700 C 750 C 800 C 850 C 900 C
C 12.02 25.57 12.19 11.46 22.09
O 4.68 17.7 21.94 24.17 25.66
Si 0.96 0.73 0.57 0.75 1.38
Cr 15.97 12.01 15.64 14.31 8.21
Mn 0.80 0.65 1.79 1.68 0.96
Fe 56.79 36.11 45.02 43.10 35.97
Co 0.32 0.39 0.25
Ni 5.43 3.31 2.41 2.8 1.71
Mo 0.52 0.06 0.05 0.46
Na 1.13 1.49 0.88 0.94
Cl 0.76 0.99 0.55 1.08

At the present condition A is the yield stress, the slope of the line is
n0, and B is obtained from intercept to the vertical axis.
At yield point the strain is relatively small, so Eq. (5.7), at reference
temperature, can be approximated as
σy 5 AeClnð_εÞ (5.10)
114 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Table 5.4 Weight % for EDS report of fractured surface at different temperatures for
R45 orientation.
Weight % 700 C 750 C 800 C 850 C 900 C
C 2.53 1.73 2.8 1.9 2.93
O 12.5 9.02 13.46 18.95 21.18
Si 0.18 0.97 0.45 0.1 0.27
Cr 16.34 16.99 18.77 19.58 15.01
Fe 55.28 59.4 54.65 51.8 53.58
Co 5.35 2.85 3.28 5.12 4.58
Ni 7.55 7.85 6.03 2.51 2.25
Cu 0.26 0.92 0.48
Mo 0.26 0.09 0.03 0.18

Table 5.5 Weight % for EDS report of fractured surface at different temperatures for
R90 orientation.
Weight % 700 C 750 C 800 C 850 C 900 C
C 2.32 1.2 1.63 0.99
O 14.47 16.29 10.58 21.42 16.21
Si 3.22 0.4 0.27 0.41 0.22
Cr 18.15 16.93 23.58 17 25.47
Fe 51.78 56.52 53.2 52.08 48.29
Co 4.72 4.62 4.73
Ni 12.38 6.15 5.9 2.7 3.06
Cu 0.54 0.12 0.79
Mo 1.4 0.01 0.02 0.24

hence,
σ 
y
ln 5 Clnð_εÞ (5.11)
A
From the slope of the line equation constant C is calculated corre-
sponding to Eq. (5.11). where, yield stress is σy
At reference temperature material constant n1 denoted in Eq. (5.7) can
be specified as
 
ε2A
ln σ=eCln_
Bεn0
n1 5   (5.12)
ln_ε
ln 1 2 lnD 0

At different temperatures and strain rates the value of n1 obtained and

constrained optimization is applied to obtain n1. Similarly, m in Eq. (5.7)
can be determined from
Table 5.6 Material constants for modified m-FB constitutive model.
α β γ A B C D E F B s
R0 2 266.7194 3.9157 4.4888e5 2 0.4857 0.0191 845.4040 1.0545 0.0373 2 451.9405 0.0207 1.0412
R45 2 309.0749 3.0957 4.9212e5 2 0.6684 0.0140 1.0188e3 1.0704 0.0372 2 473.2827 0.0212 2.2870
R90 2 279.1167 3.7513 4.6334e5 2 0.4628 0.0177 823.86 1.0571 0.0371 2 458.359 0.0210 0.7164
116 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Table 5.7 Material constants for KHL constitutive model.

Orientations A B n0 n1 C m
R0 94.06 291.3360 0.4245 0.8724 0.0786 6.5490
R45 97.3693 463.1791 0.6646 0.6316 0.0914 11.2765
R90 101.1640 312.8112 0.4732 1.0777 0.0623 9.094


ln 1 2 Kσ
m5 (5.13)
lnðT  Þ
where;
"
 #

ln_ε n1 n0 ε_ C
K 5 A 1 B 12 εp 
lnD0 ε_

Also, the value of m is obtained through constrained optimization.

The average values of n1 and m were to be taken from the formulae given
by Eqs. (5.12) and (5.13) but the correlation has been affected and there-
fore a stronger set of material constants n1 and m is computed using
unconstrained nonlinear optimization to minimize error. Table 5.7
describes the product constant values for the KHL model.

5.7 Johnson
Cook (JC) model

The flow stress with respect to [21,22] m-JC model, is stated as:
 
σ 5 ðA 1 Bεn Þð1 1 Cln_ε Þð1 2 T m Þ (5.14)
At reference temperature (Tref) and reference strain rate (ε_0 ), σ denotes
for flow curve, letter A denotes for yield stress curve at B for strain-

  ε for plastic strain, symbol
hardening coefficient, symbol  ε_ is strain rate
which is dimensionless ε_ 5 ε_ε_0 with strain rate ε_ and at temperature
(homologous) T , where,
T 2 Tref
T 5
Tm 2 Tref
absolute temperature (current) (T) and melting temperature Tm; for ASS
304. For ASS 304, the melting temperature was taken to be 1400 C.
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 117

Table 5.8 Material constants for JC constitutive model.

Orientations A (MPa) B (MPa) n C m
R0 94.06 291.3360 0.4245 0.0647 0.4796
R45 97.3693 463.1791 0.6646 0.0891 0.3820
R90 101.1640 312.8112 0.4732 0.0604 0.5687

It should be noticed that independently the influence of the strain rate

and temperature was assumed by the initial JC design. However, the
experiments suggested a sum total effect of temperature and strain rate on
the material’s flow stress [16,23]. This chapter uses modified JC mathe-
matical model flow curve where in the old model, a revision is suggested
considering both the strain rate, temperature effect. Modified equation of
m-JC is set out in Eq. (5.15).
 
σ 5 ðA1 1 B1 ε 1 B2 ε2 Þð1 1 C1 ln_ε Þexpðλ1 1 λ2 ln_ε ÞðT 2 Tr Þ (5.15)
where, A1 ; B1 ; B2 ; C1 ; λ1 and λ2 are the new model material constants;
the definitions of terms are similar to main JC model and are the material
constants. The present scenario with reference to temperature considered
is 923K and strain rate (reference) is 1024 s21. Lin et al. [24] proposed
method to compute material constants is used. Table 5.8 summarizes the
product constants for the m-JC model.

5.8 Constitutive equation (m-Arr.) type

At elevated temperatures Arr. type model [21] denotes relation
between stress flow, strain rate, and temperature. An equation of expo-
nential (Zener
Hollomon) type where the Hollomon parameter repre-
sents the couple impact of temperature (current), strain rates on the
material deformation.


Q
Z 5 ε_ exp (5.16)
RT
The m-Arr. equation is denoted below:


Q
ε_ 5 A½sinhðασÞ exp 2
n
(5.17)
RT
118 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

As per hyperbolic law and reshuffling, the flow curve stress can also be
written as a function of Zener
Hollomon parameter Eq. (5.18).
8 "
 #1=2 9


1 < Z 1=n Z 2=n =
σ 5 ln 1 11 (5.18)
α : A A ;

But in this constitutive equation impact of strain has not been consid-
ered. The relationship between strain and flow curve stress is done by
Xiao and Guo [29] as denoted below:
σ 5 β 0 εβ 1 expð2 β 2 εÞ (5.19)
where, β 0 ; β 1 and β 2 are constants.
Now, by combining Eqs. (5.18) and (5.19) the final constitutive for-
mula that satisfactorily explains the impact of strain rate temperature and
strain on steady state flow stress is established as follows:
8 9
<
1=n "
2=n #1=2 =
β Z Z
σ 5 0 εβ 1 expð2 β 2 εÞln 1 11 (5.20)
α : A A ;

The material constants A, α, n, Q, β 0, β 1, and β 2 are computed using

stress versus strain data from tests conducted at varied temperatures (defor-
mation) and strain rates. β 0, β 1, and β 2 are calculated at each strain rate
and temperature. A trial equation connecting strain rate, temperature to β
values is represented in Eq. (5.20); which connects the β values to
Zener
Hollomon parameter (Z), depends on blank temperature and
strain rate. Procedure developed by Xiao and Guo [29] is used to deter-
mine the constants.
β 5 A 3 lnZ 1 B (5.21)
The Arrhenius-type Ti-6Al-4V alloy constitutive model [23] is devel-
oped. The model has been established for monitoring compression at var-
ied temperatures where the alpha phase-to-beta-phase transformation
takes place. The variables of the Arrhenius model, that is, A, n, and Q,
depend on strain condition. The model material constants are computed
by enforcing polynomial fit. These model constant parameters are assumed
to be not a function of strain in this research and different strain equation
of exponential type for compensation is multiplied. The constants deter-
mined for m-Arr model are listed in the Tables 5.9 and 5.10.
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 119

Table 5.9 Material constants m-Arr. constitutive model.

Orientations α (MPa21) N Q (kJ/mol) A (s21)
R0 0.0038 6.1082 3.5794e5 4.459e15
R45 0.0038 6.3321 3.6436e5 7.4586e15
R90 0.0038 6.3173 3.6738e5 1.465e16

Table 5.10 Material constants for m-Arr. type constitutive model.

Orientations β1 β2 β3
A B A B A B
R0 0.0577 2 0.4393 0.0195 2 0.4766 2 0.0139 0.4248
R45 0.0745 2 0.9750 0.0204 2 0.5059 0.0216 2 0.6367
R90 0.0644 2 0.6811 0.0183 2 0.4432 0.0119 2 0.3761

5.9 Zerilli
Armstrong (m-ZA) model

Mathematically flow stress of modified ZA model [21,22] is repre-
sented as given below,

σ 5 ðC1 1 C2 εn Þexpf 2 ðC3 1 C4 εÞT  1 ðC5 1 C6 T  Þln_ε g (5.22)
where, flow stress denoted by σ, equivalent plastic strain denoted as ε,

strain rate denoted as ε_ for, T 5 T 2 T ref, where current temperature is
T, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, and n are the material constants, reference
temperature is T ref (Tref 700 C as in JC model). Model m-ZA includes
effects of strain hardening (isotropic), strain rate hardening, temperature
(softening), and cumulative impact for temperature, strain, and strain rate
measuring flow curve stress at high temperatures. Model constants were
calculated using Kotkunde et al. [23] method. The list of the calculated
constants is represented in Table 5.11.

5.10 Constrained optimization

The least square method is enforced to obtain final material model
constant values from 15 different strain values. This method involves try-
ing to limit value optimization by reducing the average absolute errors
120 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Table 5.11 Material constants for ZA constitutive model.

Orientations C1 (MPa) C2 (MPa) C3 C4 C5 C6
R0 94.06 691.7799 0.0029 0.0090 0.1054 5.74e-4 0.498
R45 97.3693 659.2269 0.0028 0.0075 0.0855 5.2719e-4 0.4835
R90 101.1640 647.0943 0.0031 0.0072 0.0918 6.493e-4 0.4851

(Δ) between the observational (σexp) and the expected flow stress (σp).
The formula is as follows:

1Xi5N σi 2 σ i
exp p
Δ5 (5.23)
N i51 σiexp

where, the experimental flow stress is σexp, the predicted flow stress is σp,
and the total number of data points being considered is N. The predict-
ability of constitutive equations [25, 26, 29] is analyzed by generic statisti-
cal variables such as correlation coefficient R and mean absolute error
(almost). The coefficient of correlation is a widely employed analytical
instrument which provides information on the magnitude of the linear
relationship between the observed and expected values. It can be
expressed mathematically as follows:
Pi5N i
i51 ðσ exp 2 σ exp Þðσ p 2 σp Þ
i
R 5 qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pi5N i (5.24)
2 Pi5N
i51 ðσ exp 2σ exp Þ i51 ðσ i 2σ Þ2
p p

where, for σexp and σp the average values are represented as σexp and σp
are of.

5.11 Result and discussion

The predictive potential of constitutive models was measured by the
coefficient of regression, the mean actual error, and its standard deviation.
While R’s quality may be high; the model’s output is not important
because the model may appear to be skewed toward higher or lower
information values [23]. Therefore, an average absolute error (almost), cal-
culated by comparison of the relative error, is an unbiased indicator to
assess the model’s predictability. Consequently, the predictive capacity of
constitutive models was analyzed by the coefficient of correlation (R), the
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 121

average absolute error (A), and its standard deviation (S). The appropriate-
ness of these designs is also measured on the origin of the amount of
model constants which are to be measured and type of evaluation process
followed. Such numerical parameters are mentioned in Table 5.9 and the
amount of material constants to be calculated for all versions. Figs. 5.13
and 5.14 show a graphical comparison between the experimental and the
predicted values in two representative settings for all models. Another
atmosphere is low temperature and low frequency of stress, while the
other conditions are high temperature and large level of stress. From the
charts, m-Arr. model predictions are similar to tests values, while m-JC
model predictions differ slightly from experimental values.
Taking into account the coefficient of correlation both models denote
a very high accuracy of fitness as the value of R measured is greater than
0.9. Figs. 5.13
5.15 denote correlation coefficient in relation to observed
and expected values for five constitutive models. Quality of R can be
skewed to greater and least values [21]. Consequently, standard deviation
and delta quantifying parameters are used to verify the prediction exact-
ness. Model m-Arr. system has a 3.5% average variance and a 2.9% stan-
dard deviation in rolling path R0. Compared with other models, the
drawback of m-Arr model is that it requires evaluation of 10 material
constants, which increase in the time and the complexity of computation.
However, phenomenological models among the five models established
are, m-JC, m-Arr., FB, and KHL models, that is, which do not take into
account the physical conditions of material for expecting flow curve,
where m-ZA model is a physical model and reflects the physical facets of
materials such as thermodynamic theory and dislocation movement of
atoms which are activated thermally and slip kinetics. So physical models,
therefore are better compared with phenomenological models [8].
Even though the number of constants has to be assessed m-ZA is 7;
the final expectations relate constants being set. Also, the statistical mea-
suring values are lower compared with the m-ZA model. Thus, by con-
sidering all the factors, that is, numerical calculations, physical facets of
flow curve forecasts, more number of constants, and difficulty intricated
in deducing the constants, model m-ZA is a chosen model among the
models (five) undertaken in the current chapter. Tables 5.12
5.14 show
various constitutive models at 0-, 45-, and 90-degree rolling direction of
sheet, respectively (Figs. 5.16 and 5.17).
In terms of the correlation coefficient of m-Arr, the ZA models display
a high appropriateness as the value R in all situations is greater than 0.98,
Figure 5.13 Assessment of experimental versus predicted data for models at 700 C temperature, 0.0001 s21 (A) R0 direction, (B) R45
direction, and (C) R90 direction.
Figure 5.14 Assessment of experimental versus predicted data for models at 900 C temperature, 0.01 s21 (A) R0 direction, (B) R45 direc-
tion, and (C) R90 direction.
124 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.15 The experimental and predicted correlation coefficient values in direc-
tion of R0 for models (A) m-JC, (B) m-ZA, (C) m-Arr, (D) FB, and (E) KHL.

Table 5.12 Statistical parameters for R0.

R delta Std dev Number of constants
m-JC 0.9482 42.1335 11.1534 5
m-ZA 0.9845 7.6885 6.48 7
m-Arr 0.9918 3.5558 2.9982 10
KHL 0.9468 19.2278 8.0883 6
FB 0.9417 9.7609 5.7164 11
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 125

Table 5.13 Statistical parameters for R45.

R delta Std dev Number of constants
m-JC 0.9035 56.1166 8.7587 5
m-ZA 0.9801 6.6652 7.2263 7
m-Arr 0.9851 5.7234 4.6525 10
KHL 0.9644 14.3853 10.3916 6
FB 0.9557 9.0744 5.7645 11

Table 5.14 Statistical parameters for R90.

R delta Std dev Number of constants
m-JC 0.9327 34.2088 12.5758 5
m-ZA 0.9875 6.5876 5.9207 7
m-Arr 0.9896 4.4314 3.4928 10
KHL 0.9994 22.7029 9.8530 6
FB 0.9416 8.9464 5.4784 11

Figure 5.16 The experimental and predicted correlation coefficient values in direc-
tion of R45 for models (A) m-JC, (B) m-ZA, (C) m-Arr, (D) FB, and (E) KHL.
126 A. Anitha Lakshmi et al.

Figure 5.17 The experimental and predicted correlation coefficient values in direc-
tion of R90 for models (A) m-JC, (B) m-ZA, (C) m-Arr, (D) FB, and (E) KHL.

taking into account the average absolute error (all) and its standard devia-
tion (S), m-Arr. Forecasting the system is more reliable than forecasting
the ZA method. In addition, the prediction of JC model and m-FB
model is not suitable for the prediction of ASS 304 flow stress in the hot
forming region. Based on the discussion above, m-ZA constitutive model
best predicts ASS 304 flow stress behavior in the superplastic region.
Fractography analysis and constitutive modeling 127

5.12 Conclusion
The current study involves the analysis of microstructure, fracture,
and the design of constitutive models to predict ASS 304 alloy flow stress.
A comparative study was conducted to evaluate the efficiency of the
model m-JC, the model m-Arr., the model m-ZA, the model FB and the
model KHL to predict flow stress behavior at a temperature range of
700 C
900 C at 1024, 1023, and 1022 s21 strain rates.
The key findings of this chapter are:
The surface of the tensile fractography exposed at the macroscopic
level are equally rough transgranular area and a strong population of
microvoids and narrow dimples of different size and shape. In the fracture
layer, which suggests ductile fracturing, the forming of huge number of
tiny shoe-shaped and volume pits and microvoids is examined. Results of
the observation and fractography show that the ductility of tensile speci-
mens is more parallel and perpendicular to the direction of rolling.
In the three R0, R45, and R90 rolling directions, m-JC model predic-
tions have more nonconformity from the experimental results and less
relationship among all other models. Hence m-JC model is least model
suitable for estimation of flow behavior of flow stress curve of ASS 304
alloy at hot working temperatures.
All the assumed constitutive models demonstrate very good agreement
with high amount of fitness experimental results. They were constructed
on the combination of statistical measurements values, number of con-
stants used, physical facets assumed, and deducing difficult. Hence by con-
cluding it can be said that physical model m-ZA is the utmost ideal model
among available models for predicting flow behavior of ASS 304 alloy
flow stress at hot working temperatures.
Future work involves formability study of ASS 304 by integrating the
models in FEM simulation of stretching process.

Acknowledgment
Authors would like to acknowledge the utilization of SEM equipment under FIST grant
File No: SR/FST/College-029/2017.

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