REPRODUCTI

ONI
NPLANTS

 Repr oducti
oni soneoft hemostimpor tantfeat
uresofl
ivi
ngor ganisms. 
 Repr oducti
oni sdefi
nedasabi ol
ogicalprocessinwhi
chan  or
ganism givesri
se
toy oungones( of
fspri
ng)simil
artoi t
self
. 
 Th eof f
spring grow,mat ur
eandi nturnproducenewof f
spring.Thus, t
hereisa
cycle ofbirth,growthanddeat h.Reproductionenabl
esthecont i
nuityof
the species, generat
ionaftergenerati
on
 Th erearetwobasi cformsofr eproducti
on.

1.Asexualr
eproducti
on
2.Sexualr
eproducti
on

MODESOFREPRODUCTI
ONI
NANGI
OSPERMS

 I
nangiosper
msorfl
oweringpl
ant
s,t
her
earesev
eral
modesofr
epr
oduct
ion.
 Gener
all
ytheyar
ear
rangedintwogr
oups.

1.Asexualor
 veget
ati
ve:
  
2.Sexualr
eproduct
ion

A.VEGETATI
VEPROPAGATI
ON

 Vegetat
ivereproduct
ionistheprocessofmul ti
pli
cat
ioni
nwhi chapor
ti
onofthe
pl
antbodybecomesdet achedanddev el
opsint
oanewpl antbody.
 I
tisthesimplestwayofr eproducti
onunderfavorabl
econdit
ions.
 Yearaft
eraftersamev ari
etycanbepr oduced.
 Si
ncealltheplantsaregenetical
lyal
ike,t
heyaresuscept
ibl
et osamedi
seases.
  Ty
pes:
Iti
soft
wot
ypes.

1.Naturalvegetati
vepropagati
on
2.Art
ifi
cial
v egetat
ivepropagat
ion

1.Nat
ural
v eget
ati
vepropagat
ion:
 I
tcant
akespl
acebyt
hef
oll
owi
ngmet
hods.
A)  
Vegetati
vepropagat
ionbyroot
s.

 Theswollentaproot
sofcar r
ot,t
urni
pandradi
shhavebudsatt hebaseofold
st
emsj ustabovethetaprootwhichserv
easorganofveget
ativepropagat
ion.
 Ad v
enti
ti
ousrootsofAspar
  agus,Dahl
ia,
sweetpot
ato,
yam etc.serveto
propagat
eplantveget
ativ
ely

B)  
Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionbyst
em

 (a) 
Subaer i
alstems: Subaeri
alstemsmaydev el
opaslateralbranchesfrom the
mot herplant.Thismaybr eakupf r
om-t heparentpl
antandt hen,growintonew
plants.Exampl e-Runners(Oxali
s),sucker-(
banana,Chr
y santhemum) ,
st ol
on
(Jasmi ne)
,offset(Ei
chhornia)

(b)
 Under
groundStems:Incer
tai
nplant
stheundergr
oundstemsbecome
modifi
edforstor
ageoffoodduri
ngtheacti
vephaseofthegrowth.Exampl
es-
Rhi
zome( Ginger
),t
uber(
Potat
o),bul
b(Oni
on)andcorm( col
ocasia)
a)Subaer
ial
stem
Runner:
 

 Thesearehori
zont
alstem gr
owi
ngfr
om thepar
entplantabov
ethesoi
l
.
 Theter
minalbudstouchi
ngthegr
ounddevel
opadventi
ti
ousroot
s.
 Ex.gr
ass,mint
,str
awberryet
c.

Sucker

 Alater
albranchari
singcloset
ot hegroundlevel
,tr
avel
ingunder
groundf
orsomedi
stance.
 I
tthenemer gesoutofthesoilobli
quelyandgi
v eri
setoanewplant.
 Eg.
 Chrysant
hemum, pi
neappl
e,raspberr
yetc.

St
olon

 Thegrowingendofashootarchesoverandt
ouchestheground.
 Thetermi
nalbudtouchesthegroundanddev
elopsadvent
it
iousr
oot
spr
oduci
nganewpl
ant
.
 Eg.Bl
ackberr
yandJasmi ne
Of
fset
 

 Anoff
seti
sashortthickr unnerli
kebranchwhichproducesanewpl antatit
sti
p. 
 Theof
fset
sgrowinall dir
ectionsfrom t
hemainstem oftheparentplant
. 
 I
fanyacci
dent
ali
njuryr esult
sintheseparat
ionoftheseunit
s,eachiscapableofl
eadi
ngani
ndependent
exi
stence.
 
 E.
g.,
Pist
i Ei
a,
  chhor
nia.

b)Undergr
oundst
em
  
Stem t
uber
:Potat
o

 i
saswol l
enundergroundstem
 canproduceshootsfrom buds,al
soknownas‘eyes’
 canbedividedbybeingcutint
opiecesorgrownfrom asmalltuberknownasa‘seed’
tuber
.
 Oncedivi
ded,eachpieceofstem tuberhasabudoreyethatwillgr
owt opr
oduceroot
sandshoot
s.Thepi
eceof
prov
idetheenergyforgrowthunti
lthenewshootisabovegroundlevel.
Rhi
zomes:
 I
ri
s,
 Gi
nger

 arest
emst hatgr
owundert hesoi
lsur
face
 canbediv
idedbycutti
ngtheparentpl
anti
ntosect
ionswhent
hepl
anti
sdor
mant
. 
 Eachsect
ionmusthav eabudatanode. 
 Newshootsandr oot
swill
formf r
om t
hebuds.

Bul
b:Oni
on

 Abul
bcont
ainsan 
under
groundst
em.
 
  Leavesareattachedtothestem.Thesel eavescontai
nmuchst oredfood. 
 Atthecentreofthebulbisan apicalbud.Alsoattachedare 
lateralbuds.
 
 Theapicalbudwi l
lpr
oduceleav esandaf l
owerwhi l
ethelat
eral budswill
producenewshoot
s. 
 Astheplantgrowsanddev elopsi twil
lform anewbul bunderground.

Cor
m:Col
ocasi
a

 Cor
msl
ookl
i
kebul
bsandar
eof
tenconf
usedwi
tht
hem.Ther
ear
enomodi
fi
edl
eav
esonacor
m asi
nthe
oni
on.Cor
msar
esquashed,
compr
essedst
ems.Theycan’
tbepul
l
edapar
tint
oindi
vi
dual
leafscal
es.
 Cor
ms arefl
att
enedundergr
oundstemsswoll
enwit
hfoodand 
producecormlet
satthei
rbases.
 Cor
mletscanbeseparat
edcaref
ull
yfrom t
hepar
entcor
m andgrowntoproducenewplant
s. 

C)Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionbyl
eaf

 Thef
leshysuccul
entl
eav
esof
 Br
yophy
ll
um 
bearadv
ent
it
iousbudsi
nthei
rnot
chesl
ocat
edi
n
  Whent heleavesfal
lonmoi
stsoi
l
,thesebudsdev
elopi
ntosmal
lpl
ant
scompl
eti
ngt
hepr
oces
veget
ativ
epr opagat
ion.

2.ARTI
FICI
ALVEGETATI
VEPROPAGATI
ON
Vegetat
ivepropagat
ionbyar
ti
fi
cial
meansmaybebr
oughtaboutbyt
hef
oll
owi
ng
methods.
  
A.LAYERI NG

 Inlayeri
ng, t
hedev el
opmentofadv enti
tiousrootsi
sinducedont hestem bef
ore
i
tissepar atedfrom theparentpl ant.Inlemon,rose,j
asmine,str
awber r
y,
raspberry,grape-
vine,et
c.,thelowerbr anchisbentdownandcov eredundera
l
ightl ay
erofmoi stsoilbypushi ngt hetipint
othesoftground.Aftersometime,
adv enti
ti
ousr oot
sdev elopandoncut t
ingthebranchesfrom theparentpl
ant,
thesedev elopintonewpl ants.Thisi sknownasl ayer
ing.
B.CUTTI
NG

 I
nt hi
spr ocessavegetativepar
tofaplantistakenandrootedtofor
m anewpl ant.
 
 Severalplant
sli
kesugar cane,r
ose,Durant
a,ColeusandChina-r
ose,et
c.,ar
egrownf r
om 
stem-cutt
ing.
 Aportionofstem wit
hl eavesiscutfr
om theparentandplacedinasuit
ableroot
ingmedi
um forthat
par
ticul
arspeci
esofplant
.Somesuit
abl
emediai
ncludemoi
stsand,
amixtur
eofpeatmossandsoi
l,
or
waterused.Aft
err
ootshavedev
elopedf
rom t
hecutendoft
hestem t
hecutt
ingi
str
anspl
ant
edtosoi
l.
 

C.GRAFTI
NG

 I
nthi
scase,
asmal
lbr
anchofapl
anti
sinser
tedi
ntot
hest
em ofar
oot
edpl
antoft
hesameoral
l
ied
speci
es.Asar
esul
tofi
nser
ti
on,
organi
cuni
onorf
usi
onoft
issuest
akespl
aceandbot
hoft
hem gr
owas
 one.Thei
nser
tedpl
anti
scal
l
edt
hesci
on,
ther
oot
edpl
antt
hest
ockandt
hephenomenoni
scal
l
edgr
aft
ing.
 Thesci
oni
sashoot
,4-
12i
nchesi
nlengt
h.I
tsal
lthebudsar
ekepti
ntactwhi
l
eal
lthebudsoft
hest
ockar
e
removed.Thegrafti
splacedonthestockandthejoi
ningport
ioniscoveredwithalayerofwaxorcl
ayin
ordert
opreventtheevaporat
ionofwaterandtheent
ryofinj
uriousbact
eria.Af
tersomet i
metheti
ssuesof
thesci
onandt hestockbecomeunited.Graf
ti
ngisoftwotypes:

    (
a)Spl
i
cegraf
ting,
and
    (
b)Whipgr
aft
ing.

 (
a)I
nspl
i
cegr
aft
ing,
bot
hgr
aftandst
ockar
ecutacr
ossobl
i
quel
yataboutt
hesameangl
eandt
henf
ir
mly
t
iedt
oget
her
.
 (
b)i
nwhi
pgr
aft
ing,
bot
hgr
aftandst
ockar
ecutdi
agonal
l
y.Nowav
ert
ical
not
chi
smadei
nthest
ockand
thegraf
tiscutatoneendtomakeachisel
-shapedst
ruct
ureortongue.Thi
stongueofthegr
afti
sinser
ted
i
ntothenot choft
hestockandthet
woarebound.Inappl
e,ci
tr
us,mangoes, r
oseandlemon,newand
super
iorplantsar
egrowninthi
sway.

B.
 MI
CROPROPAGATI
ON 
t
(hepr
oduct
ionofal
argenumberofi
ndi
vi
dual
plant
sfr
om asmal
lpi
eceofpl
antt
issue
cultur
edinanut r
ientmedi um)
Tissuecult
ure:
Theasept i
ccultur
eofplant 
prot
oplast
s,cel
ls,
tissuesor
 or
gansunder
conditi
ons 
whichl eadtocell 
multi
pli
cati
onor r
egenerat
ionoforgansor 
wholepl
ants.
St epsofmicropr opagati
on

1.Sel
ect i
onandmai nt
enanceofstockplantsforcult
ure
i
nit
iati
on
2.Explantisol
ati
on –Vir
tual
lyanypartoftheplantcan
beusedasexpl antl
ikeveget
ati
veparts(Shoot
 ti
p, 
mer istem, leav es, stems, root s)orr epr oductive
parts( Ant her s, pollen, ovules, embr yo,seed, spores) .
Shoott ipandauxi li
ar ybudsar emostof tenused.
3.Surfacest er i
lizat ion  –Expl ant sar esur facest er
il
ized
bytreat ingi twi t hdi sinf ectantsol utionofsui tabl
e
concent rati
onf oraspeci f
icper i
od.Et hy lalcohol,
bromi newat er, mer cur icchl or i
de, si
lverni trate,
sodium hy pochl or i
te, cal cium hy pochlor i
teet c.canbe
usedasdi sinf ect ant .
4.Washi ng  –Washedwi thwat er.
5.Establishmentofexpl antonappr opri
at emedi um  –
Therei snooneuni v ersal cul turemedi um; howev er
modi fi
cat i
onsofMur ashi geandSkoogbasal medi um
(Murashi geandSkoog, 1962)ar emostf requent ly
used.
6.Multiplicationofshoot sorsomat icembr yof ormat ion
(r
apid)usi ngadef inedcul turemedi um
7.Rootingofr egener atedshoot sorger minat ionof
somat icembr yosi nv itro.
8.Hardeni ng: Tr ansf erofpl ant letst oster i
lizedsoi lfor
hardeni ngundergr eenhouseenv ironment

ADVANTAGES 
OFPROPAGATI
ONBYTI
SSUECULTURETECHNI
QUE
 1.Thi stechniqueenabl edust opr oducel argenumberofpl antsinr elativ
elyshor t
time.
2.Diseasef r
eepl antscanbeobt ai nedbycul turi
ngt heshootapi ces( mer ist
em)of
i
nf ectedpl ants.
3.Ver ysmal l si
zeexpl ant scanbeusedf or 
micropropagat i
on.Thisi simpossi ble
withconv entional techni que.Impor tantwhenl i
mitedexpl antisav ail
able.
4.Mat erialmul ti
pl i
edbymi cropropagat i
oncanbemai ntai
nedi nsmal l pl
ace,
packi ngandt ranspor ti salsoeasyduet osmal lsize.
5.Mi cropropagat ioni st heonl yviabl emet hodofmul t
iplyi
nggenet i
cal l
ymodi fi
ed
cellsorcel lsaf terprot oplastfusi on.
6.Incaseof  dioeci ousspeci es,
wher eoneoft hesexi smor edesirabl ethenunder
suchci r
cumst ancespl ant sofdesi redsexcanbesel ect
ivel
ymul tipliedbyt hi
s
techni que.
7.Theout puti sclean, heal thyandpat hogenf ree,asdur i
ngmi cropropagat i
on,fungi
andbact eriaar eusual l
yel i
minat ed.
8.Independentoft heseason; canbecar ri
edoutthroughoutt heyear .

LI
MITATI
ONS:
 

1.Requirementofsophi sti
cat
edf aci
l
iti
es
2.Highpr oductioncost
3.Requirementofski lli
nhandl
ingandmai ntenance.
4.Somacl onalv ar
iati
onsmayar i
seduringinvit
rocul
tur
ewhenacal l
usphasei
s
i
nv ol
ved.
5.Formanyv aluablespeci
essuitabl
emi cr
opropagat
iontechni
quesar
enot
avail
able(e.g.mango) .

ADVANTAGESOF 
VEGETATI
VE 
PROPAGATI
ON 

1.Thepl antsthatcannotpr oduceviableseedssuchasbanana, sugar

cane,
seedlessgr apescanbeeasi l
ygrownbyv egetati
vepropagati
on.
2.Iti
seasi er,
l
essexpensi veandar apidmet hodofpr opagati
on.
3.Superiorqualit
yfrui
tsorf lowerscanbepr oducedbythemet hodofgraft
ing.
4.Preservati
onofdesi rabl
echar act
eristi
csduet onogenet i
crecombinati
on
5.Bytissuecul t
ure,alargenumberofofdi seasef r
eeidenti
calpl
antscanbegrown
i
nv eryshor tti
me.

DI
SADVANTAGESOFVEGETATI
VEPROPAGATI
ON

1.Unwantedcharact
erscannotbeel i
minatedf r
om pl ants.
2.Whenplants gr
own repeat
edly t
heymayl ose vigor
3.Maybecomesuscept i
blet
odiseases.
4.Veget
ativ
epar t
ssuchasr oot,stem l
eaves, bulbiletccannotbepr
eser
vedf
or
l
ongerperiodsastheyeasil
yattackedbypat hogens.
C.SEXUALREPRODUCTI
ON
FLOWERANDFLORALPARTS

DEVELOPMENTOFTHEMALEGAMETOPHYTE(
POLLEN)
a)St
ruct
ureofmat
ureant
her
Thef
ert
il
epor
ti
onofst
amensi
scal
l
edant
her
. 

Eachant
herconsi
stsoft
woant
herl
obesconnect
edbyaconnect
ive.
 Ay
oungant
hercompr
isesofamassof

undi
ff
erent
iat
edt
hin-
wal
l
edcel
l
sboundedbyepi
der
mis.Beneat
htheepi
der
misi
sal
ayerofcel
l
s,cal
l
edendot
heci
um.
 

Eachant
hercont
ainst
wopol
l
enchamber
s.Thusat
ypi
cal
ant
herconsi
stsoff
ourmi
crospor
angi
aorpol
l
enchamber
s.

Thi
sty
peofant
heri
sknownasdi
thecous.
 

I
nMal
vaceae,
ant
her
sbearonl
yonel
obewi
tht
womi
crospor
angi
a.Suchacondi
ti
oni
sknownasmonot
hecous.
 

Eachpol
l
enchamberr
epr
esent
sami
crospor
angi
um cont
aini
ngi
nnumer
abl
emi
crospor ens.
esorpol
l
b)Dev
elopmentofmi
crospor
angi
um

 Youngant
herappear
stobeahomogeneousmassofmer
ist
emat
iccel
l
swhi
chi
ssur
roundedbyepi
der
mis.
(Fi
g-a)
 Itt
henbecomesf our-
lobedandfourrowsofarchesporialcel
lsarediff
erenti
ated.(
Fig-b)
 Thearchespor i
alcel
lsaremarkedofffrom t
hesurroundingcellsbythei
rmor edeeplystainedcyt
oplasm and
conspicuousnuclei.
 
 Eachoft hearchespori
alcel
lsnowcut sof
faprimary  
pari
etalcellont
hei nnersi
de. (
Fig-c)
 Thepar i
etalcel
lnowdi vi
desbyperi
cli
nalandanti
clinalwall
sgivingri
setosev eral
layersofcel
lsfor
mi ngthe
walloftheanther.
 Wallofant her
s: 

    
a)Epi
der
mis 
 b)Endot
heci
um 
 c)Mi
ddl
elay
ers 
    
d)Tapet
um :
 

 Roleoftapetum:I
t 
provi
desnouri
shmenttothedevelopi
ngpoll
engrains.Dur
ing
microsporogenesis,t
hecell
sof 
tapet
um producevar
iousenzymes,   
hormones,aminoaci
ds,andother
nutr
iti
ousmat eri
al r
equi
redfort
hedevel
opmentofpol l
engrai
ns.I
talsoproducestheexi
nel
ayerofthe
pol
lengrains,whichiscomposedofthe 
sporopoll
eni
n.

 Thespor
ogenouscel
ldi
vi
dest
ogi
ver
iset
oanumberofmi
crospor
esorpol
l
enmot
hercel
l
s.
c)Mi
crospor
ogenesi
s:

 Dur i
ngmi crosporogenesis,
thenucl eusofeachmicrospor
emot hercel
lundergoesmeiosi
s andul
ti
matel
y
 givesrisetof ourhapl
oidnuclei.
 Thesef ournucl ei
arearrangedtetrahedral
l
yandaresooni nvest
edwithcel
lwal l
s. 
 Thesear enowcal l
edthemi cr
ospor es. 
 Thesesoondr yupandbecomepowder ywhil
ethetapetum becomesabsorbed. 
 Theant hernowbecomesadr yst r
uct ur
e,t
hepart
it
ionwallsbetweenthesporangiaar
edestr
oyedand
 themi crosporesaresoonl i
beratedbyt hedehi
scenceoftheanther.
d)St
ruct
ureofpol
lengr
ains

 Thepol
lengrai
nsrepresentthemalegametophytes.
 Ther
eisvari
etyofarchi
tectur
e– si
zes,shapes,
colours,
desi
gns–seenont
hepol
l
engr
ains 
fr
om di
ff
erent
speci
es.
 Pol
l
engr
ainsar
egener
all
yspher
ical
measur
ingabout
 25-
50mi
cromet
ersi
ndi
amet
er.I
thasapr
omi
nent
two-
lay er
ed wall.
 
 Thehar douterlayercal l
edtheexinei smadeupof  
sporopoll
eninwhichisoneoft hemostr esi
stantorgani
c
material 
known.Itcanwi t
hstandhight emperaturesandstrongacids andalkali.Noenzymet hatdegrades
sporopolleni
nissof ar known. 
 Poll
engr ainexinehaspr ominentaper tur
escalledgerm poreswherespor opolleninisabsent.
 
 Poll
engr ainsarewellpreserved 
asf ossil
sbecauseoft hepresenceofspor opol l
enin.
 Theinnerwal lofthepol l
engr ai
nis call
edtheinti
ne.Iti
sat hi
nandcont i
nuousl ayermadeupof  cel
lul
ose
andpect i
n.Thecy toplasm ofpollengr ai
nis 
surroundedbyapl asmamembr ane

e)Dev
elopmentofmal
egamet
ophy
te

 Pol
lengrainsbegintogermi natebef orepoll
inati
on. 
 Nucleusdivi
demitoti
call
y.( Fi
g-A)
 Twocel l
s:gener
ativ
ecellandv egetati
vecell.(Fi
gureA)
 I
nov er60percentofangiosper ms,pollengrains 
areshedatthi
s2-
cel
l
edstage.
 Generati
vecell
sdivi
desaft erpolli
nation.(Fi
g:B)
 I
nther emaini
ngspecies,the generativecelldi
v i
desmitot
ical
l
ytogi
veri
set
o
  t
hetwomal
e gamet
esbeforepol
l
engrai
nsareshed(3-
cel
l
edstage).
 Mal
egamet
esconsi
stsoflar
genucl
euswit
hthinsheat
hofcy
toplasm.

DEVELOPMENTOFFEMALEGAMETOPHYTE

 Femalerepr
oduct
iveor
ganisgynoeci
um  orpist
il
.
 Carpeli
s auni
tofthef
emalepartoftheflower(gynoecium)
,consi
sti
ngofan ovar
y 
 beari
ngoneormore ov
ules,
arecepti
vebstigma,andoftenastal
k-l
i
ke st
yle 
bet
weenthem.
St
ruct
ureoft
heov
ule(
Megaspor
angi
um)

 Ar
isesaspr
imor
dium onpl
acent
a.
 Par
tsofov
ule:

Funi
cle:
 
Theov
ulei
sasmal
l
 st
ruct
ureat
tachedt
othepl
acent
abymeansofast
alkcal
l
edf
uni
cle.

Nucel
lus 
:Thepr
imor
dium gr
owsi
ntoamassofcel
l
sfor
mingnucel
l
us,
thebodyofov
ule.Cel
l
sofnucel
l
usar
eri
chi
nreser
vef
ood.

I
ntgegument
:Thet
wopr
otect
ivecov
eri
ngofnucel
l
usar
eint
egument
s.

Mi
cropy
le 
:Int
egument
senci
rcl
etheov
uleexceptatt
het
ipwher
easmal
lopeni
ngcal
l
edt
hemi
cropy
le

Chal
aza:
Basal
par
tofov
ulei
scal
l
edchal
azat
hatl
i
eopposi
tet
omi
cropy
le.

Hi
lum:
Thebodyoft
heov
ulef
useswi
thf
uni
clei
nther
egi
oncal
l
edhi
l
um

Embr
yosac:
 Asi
ngl
eembr
yosacorf
emal
egamet
ophy
tel
ocat
edi
nthenucel
l
us,
whi
chi
sdev
elopedf
rom 
megaspor
e.

I
t 
cont
ainseggappar
atus,
ant
ipodal
cel
l
sand 
secondar
y nucl
eus.

Dev
elopmentofmegaspor
angi
um

 Theovuledev
elopsasasmallprotuber
anceoftheplacent
alti
ssue.
 Inever
yyoungovuleasi
ngl
e hypodermal 
cel
li
sdiff
erenti
atedathearchespor
ial
cel
l.
  Thear chespori
alcellmaydividet oform apr i
marypari
etal 
cel
landapr imary
sporogenouscel l,ori
tmayf unction directl
yasthemegaspor emot hercell
. 
 Thepr imary 
pari
etalcel
l mayr emainundi videdoritmayunder goperi
clinal
and anticl
i
naldivi
sionstoform av ariablenumberofwal l l
ayer
s. 
 The primarysporogenouscell usuall
yf unctionsasthemegaspor emot her 
cel
l
wit
houtunder goinganyf ur
therdivisi
ons.
 Me gasporemot hercellundergoesmei osisandal i
nearrowofhaploid
megaspor ecell
si sfor
med.

Megaspor
ogenesi
s 

1.Oneofthenucellarcel
linthemi cr
opylarregi
onisdif
ferenti
atedintomegaspor
e
mothercell
.
2.Thecelli
slarger
,contai
nsdensecy t
oplasm andapromi nentnucleus.
3.I
tundergoesmei osi
sformi ng4haploidcell
scall
edmegaspor etetr
ad.
4.3megaspor esdegenerateandonlyonemegaspor ebecomef unctional
.
5.Funct
ionalmegasporeist hefi
rstcel
loffemalegamet ophyte. 

Dev
elopmentoff
emal
egamet
ophy
te
 1.Thenucl eusoft hef unctional megaspor edi vi
desmi t
otically 
tof ormt wonucl ei
whichmov etot heopposi tepol es,formi ngt he 2- nucleat eembr yosac.  
2.Twomor esequent ialmi toticnucl eardi vi
sions r esultint hef ormat i
onoft he4-
nucleat eandl atert he8- nucl eatest ages oft heembr yosac.  
3.Nucleardi visi
onsar enotf ollowedi mmedi ately bycel lwal lformat i
on. 
4.Aftert he8- nucleat est age, cell wallsarel aiddown  l
eadi ngtot heor ganisati
onof
thety pical femal egamet ophy te orembr yosac.
5.Sixoft heei ghtnucl ei aresur r
oundedbycel lwal lsand  organisedi ntocells;
the
remai ningt wonucl ei ,call
edpol arnuclei are situat edbel owt heeggappar at
usin
thelar gecent r
al cell.
6.Threecel l
saregr oupedt oget heratt hemi cropy larendandconst it
ute 
theegg
appar at us.Theeggappar atus, i
nt urn,consi stsoft wosy nergids andoneeggcel l
.
7.Threecel l
sareatt hechal azal endandar ecal l
edt heant i
podals.
8.Thel argecent ral cellhast wopol arnuclei.Thus, at ypical angiosper m embryo
sac,at  mat urit
y,though8- nucl eateis7- celled.

POLLI
NATI
ON

 Definit
ion:Poll
i
nationi
sthetransferofpol
l
engrainsfr
om theant
herofaf
lower
tothest i
gmaoft hesamef l
owerorofanot herf
lowerofsamespeci
es.
 Types: Thebasicmodesofpol l
inati
onare
 A)Se lfpol
li
nation
 B)Cr osspolli
nati
on
A)SELFPOLLI
NATI
ON:
 

 Transferofpoll
engr
ainsfrom t
heanthertost
igmaofthesamef
loweroranot
her
fl
oweront hesamepl
antissaidtobeselfpol
l
inat
ion.
 Selfpoll
inati
onmayautogamous orgeit
onogamous.

 AUTOGAMY( TYPE- I
)
 Whenthepoll
engr ai
nsfrom t
heanthersar
etr
ansf
err
edt
othest
igmaoft
he
samefl
ower,iti
sknownasaut ogamy .
 Devi
cesforAutogamy: 

1.Homogamy :Simult
aneousmat
urat
ionofantherandpisti
l
.
2.Bisexual
it
y:Antherandsti
gmali
eclosetoeachother.
3.Cleist
ogamy: Cl
eist
ogamousfl
ower:(f
lowerwhichneveropen) 
Eg.
oxal
i
s,
commel i
na,viol
a

 GEI
TONOGAMY  (TYPE-I
I)
 When 
pol
len 
ofaflowerpoll
i
nat
eanyot
herf
lowerpr
esentont
hesamepl
ant
,iti
s
sai
dtobegei
tonogamy. 
B)CROSSPOLLI
NATI xenogamy
ON( /al
l
ogamy
)

 Transferofpol l
engrainsfr
om theantherofaf l
owerfrom onepl
antt
ot hesti
gma
oft hefl
oweronanot herplanti
scalledcrosspolli
nati
on.
 Itmayneedanext ernalagencyli
kewindorinsects.
 Isgeitonogamyacr osspol l
i
nati
on?
Althoughgeitonogamyi sfunct
ional
lycross-
poll
inati
oninvol
vi
ngapoll
inati
ng
agent ,
genetical
lyi
tissimil
artoautogamysi ncethepoll
engrai
nscomef rom t
he
samepl ant
.

Cont
ri
vancesofcr
osspol
li
nat
ion
1.
 Uni
sexual
it
y
  Fl
ower
s whent
heyar
eal
l
 uni
-sexual
 
onl
yal
l
ogamyi
spossi
ble.
 Twot
ypesoff
lower
s:Mal
eandf
emal
efl
ower
s
 Pl
antmaybemonoeci
ousordi
oeci
ous.
 Monoeci
ous:Maleandf
emal
eor
gansar
efoundonsamepl
antbuti
ndi
ff
erent
f
lower
.(Maize)
 Di
oeci
ous:
Mal
eandf
emal
eor
gansappearonsepar
atei
ndi
vi
dual
.(
Mul
ber
ry)

2. 
Dichogamy

 Mal
eandf
emal
esexor
gansmat
ureatdi
ff
erentt
imeor
 Pol
l
enr
eleaseandst
igmar
ecept
ivi
tyar
e
not
 sy
nchr
oni
zed.
 Twodiff
erentcondi
ti
ons.
 a)Pr
otoandry:Ant
hersmatur
eear
li
ert
hangy
noeci
um.
 

      Eg.Chi
nar
ose,
Cot
ton,
Sunf
loweret
c.

 b)Pr
otogy
ny:
Gynoeci
um mat
ureear
li
ert
hanant
her
s.

      
Eg.
 Br
assi
ca,
Fi
  cus,
Mir
abi
l
iset
c 
3.Het
erost
yly

 Insomepl antsfl
owersareoftwo ort
hreef
ormswi
thantherandsti
gmasatdi
ff
erentl
evel
s.
 Longstyl
edf l
ower s
 Shortst
yledflowers
 Basedondi ff
erenceinl
ength,
thephenomenoni
scal
ledheter
osty
ly.
 Eg.Pr
  i
mul avulgar
is

4.Sel
f 
incompat
ibi
li
ty

 Thepoll
enofaflowerhasno 
fer
ti
li
zi
ng 
eff
ectont
hest
igmaoft
hesamef
lower
.
 Eg.Tea(Theasi
nensi
s)
5.Her
kogamy
: 
  

 Thi
sisacommonst
rat
egyempl
oyedbyher
maphr
odi
ti
cangi
osper
mst
oreducesexual
int
erf
erencebet
ween
mal
e(ant
her
s)andf
emal
e(st
igma)f
unct
ionbysomesor
tofbar
ri
er.
 Eg.
 Cal
otr
opi
s (
Madar
)
AGENTSOFPOLLI
NATI
ON

1.Pol
l
inat
ionbywi
nd(
Anemophi
ly
)

1.Fl
owers: 
Unisexual
 
2.Petal
s:Absentorsmal
landinconspi
cuous.Scent
less
3.Nectar
:Absentorsmal
landgr een
4.Stamen:Longfil
ament
s,al
lowingtheant
herstohangfreel
yout
sidet
hef
lowersot
hepol
l
eni
s

exposedt
othewi
nd.

5.Poll
en:
Lar geramountofsmoot handli
ghtpol
lengrai
ns.
6.Sti
gma: Longandfeather
y,hangingout
sidet
heflowertocat
chpol
l
encar
ri
edbyt
hewi
nd
7.Examples:Maize,
Grasses
2.Pol
l
inat
ionbywat
er(
Hydr
ophi
ly
)

1.Mostcommoninthelowerpl
antgr
oupssuchasalgae,
bry
ophytesandpteri
dophyt
es.
2.Pol
l
inat
ionbywat
erisquit
erar
einfl
oweri
ngplant
sandisli
mit
edt oabout30genera,
most
ly

monocot
yledons.

3.Notall
aquati
cplantsusewat erforpoll
i
nat i
on.
 
4.Inamajori
tyofaquati
cplantssuchaswat erhyacint
handwat erli
l
y,thefl
owersemerge
5.abovethel
evelofwaterandar epoll
inat
edbyi nsectsorwind.
6.Iti
sseeninsubmergedflower sl
i Val
ke  l
isneri
a,
 Hy dr
il
la 
andZoster
a.
7.In 
Val
li
sneri
a mal
eflowersreleasedonwat ersurfaceandf emal
ef l
owersreachest
hesurf
acef
or

pol
l
inat
ion.

8.I
nseagr
asses,
pol
l
engr
ainsar
elongr
ibbonl
i
keandcar
ri
edpassi
vel
ytosubmer
gedf
emal
efl
ower
s. 

Muci
l
agecoat
edpol
l
engr
ains.

3.Pol
l
inat
ionbyi
nsect
s

1.Fl
owers: Most l
ybi sexual andoftenfoundi nplantswhicharemoreorlesssol
it
ary
.
2.Petal
s:Present ,oft enl
arge,colour
edandscent ed.
3.Nectar
:Pr oducedbynect ari
estoattractinsects
4.Stamen:Pr esenti nsidetheflower
5.Poll
en:Smal leramount, oftenround, st
ickyorhav epr
oject
iont
oattachtofur
rybodi
esofi
nse
6.Sti
gma: Smal lsur facearea,insi
dethef l
ower
7.Examples: Rose, sunf l
oweret c
Speci
almechani
sm ofi
nsectpol
li
nat
ion:
 
a)Sal
  vi
a- 

 I
tshows  l
evermechanism.  
 Anthersaredist
racti
l
e; l
owerlobeisst er
ileandupperlobeisf er
til
e. 
 Theflowerisbil
abiat
eandpr otandrous. 
 Theinsectsit
sont helowerlobeoft hecor ol
l
a; t
heupperferti
l
elobeofant
hert
ouchest
hebodyofi
nsect
. 
 I
trupturesandpollengrainsareshedont hebackoftheinsect. 
 Whent hisi
nsectenterstheotherfl
ower ,poll
inat
ioni
saffected

4.Pol
l
inat
ionbybi
rds(
orni
thophi
ly
)-

 Orni
thophil
ousf lowersareusuall
ylargei
nsize. 
 Theyhavet ubularorfunnelshapedcorol
las.
 
 Theflowersar ebri
ghtlycol
ored(suchasred,orange,bl
ue,yel
l
ow,etc.
)whi
chattr
actbi
rdsfr
om
di
stances. 
 Hummi ngbi rdpoll
inat
eswhi l
ehov er
ingoverthefl
owersandsuckingnect
ar.
 Thepolli
nationbybi r
dsiscommoni ncoralt
ree,bott
lebr But
ush,
  eamonosper ma 
andsil
kcot

Fi
gur
e:Pol
l
inat
ionbyHummi
ngbi
rd
5.Pol
l
inat
ionbybat
s(Chi
ropt
erophi
ly
)

 Thebat sarenocturnal f
lyi
ngmammal s,whi chmov eswif
tlyandtr
ansportpol
len
grai
nst olongdist
ances.
 Thef l
ower st
heyv i
sitarelarge,
dullcolouredandhav estrongscent. 
 Ch i
ropt
erophil
ousflower sproduceabundantpol lengrai
nsandsecr etemore
nectarthantheornithophil
ousflowers. 
 Batscarryoutthepol l
inati
oni Adansoni
n  a and 
Kigeli
a.

Fi
gur
e:Pol
l
inat
ionbybat
POLLENPI
STI
LINTERACTI
ON
1. Recogni
ti
onofcompat
ibl
epol
len-I
tist
hei
nter
act
ionbet
weenchemi
cal
component
sofpol
l
enandt
hoseof

st
igma.

 Polli
nati
ondoesnotguar anteethetransfer
 oftherighttypeofpollen 
stigma) .
 
 Often,pollenofthewr ongt ype,ei
therfrom otherspeciesorfrom thesamepl ant(ifi
tissel
f-i
ncompat
ibl
e),
 alsolandont hestigma. 
 The pist
ilhast heabil
it
yt orecognisethepol l
en,whetheritisofther i
ghttype (compatibl
e)orofthe
 wrongt ype( i
ncompat i
ble).
 
 I
fitisoft herightty
pe, t
hepi sti
lacceptsthepol l
enandpr omot espost-pol
linationchanges.
 I
fthepol lenisofthewr ongt ype,thepisti
lrej
ectsthe pol
lenbypr eventi
ngpol l
enger minati
ononthesti
gma.
2.
  
Ger
minat
ionofpol
lenanddev
elopmentofmal
egamet
ophy
te

 Thepol l
engr ain germi natesont hest igmat opr oduceapol l
entubet hr oughone
ofthe germ por es.
 Thecont ent
soft hepol l
engr ai
nmov ei ntothepol l
entube
 In 
somepl ants, pol l
engr ainsareshedatt wo- cell
edcondit
ion(av eget ati
ve cell
andagener at ecel l)
.Insuchpl ant s,t
hegener ati
vecelldi
vi
des  bymi tosis
and formsthet womal egamet esdur ingthegr owthofpollentubeint hest igma.
 Whent hepol l
eni sshedf r
om ant herithasusual l
ytwocell
s, agenerat i
v ecells
andat ubecel l(Veget ativecell
).
 Inplantswhichshedpol leni nt
het hr
ee-celledconditi
on,poll
ent ubes car r
yt he
twomal egamet es from thebegi nning.
 Poll
ent ube,afterr eaching theovar y,enterstheov ul
e.

3.Ent
ryofpol
lent
ubei
nov
ule

 Thepoll
ent
ubeisdi
rectedt
owardsoneoftheov
ules.
Itmayent
ert
heov
ules
thr
oughoneoft
hefoll
owingthr
eerout
es.

1.Porogamy:Whenpollentubeent erstheov ulet hroughthemicropyle,

the
condit
ioni
sknownaspor ogamy .Thisist hemostcommonmodeofpol lentube
entr
yintot
heov ul
e.
2.Chalaogmay 
:Whenpol l
ent ubeenterst heov ulethroughthechalazalend,the
condit
ioni
ssaidtobechal azogamy .Eg. Bet
  ula,Casurina
3.Mesogamy :
 Whenpollentubeent erstheov ulet hroughint
egument ,t
hecondi t
ion
i
sknownasmesogamy .Eg. Cucurbi
ta and Popul us
4.Ent
ryofpol
lent
ubei
nembr
yosac

 Ir
respecti
veoftherouteofpoll
entubeintotheovule,
ital
waysent
erstheembry
o
sacfrom micropyl
arend.
 Recent 
studi
eshav eshownthatfi
li
form apparat
uspresentatt
hemicr
opylar
part 
ofthesynergi
dsguidestheentr
yofpol l
entube.
 Theentryofpollentubei
ntotheembryosac  maybe

1.Betweentheeggcellandoneofthesyner
gids
2.Betweenthewalloftheembry
osacandsy nergi
d.
3.Betweenthesynergi
ds
4.Dir
ectl
ypenetr
atesoneofthesynergi
ds

DOUBLEFERTI
LIZATI
ON

 Infloweri
ngpl ants, theprocessoff erti
lizat i
onwasdi scoveredbySt rasburgeri n1841.
 Afterenteri
ngi ntot heembr yosac, thet i
poft hepol l
ent ubebur stsandt womal egamet eare
 discharged.
 Oneoft hemal egamet es 
mov est owar dst heeggcel landf useswi thitsnucleust hus
 compl et
ingt he syngamy .Thi sresultsint hef ormationofadi ploidcel l
,thezy got e.
 
 The othermal egamet emov est owar dst het wopol arnucl eil
ocat edint hecent ral 
cell
and
 fuseswi ththem t opr oduceat ri
ploidpr imar yendosper m nucleus (PEN) . 
Ast hi
si nvol
vesthe
 fusionoft hreehapl oidnuclei it
 istermedt r
iplefusion. 
 Sincetwot ypesoff usions,syngamyandt ri
ple f
usiont akeplacei nanembr y
osact he
 phenomenoni ster meddoubl e 
fertil
ization, anev entuniquet oflower i
ngpl ants. 
 Thecent ralcellafter t
ri
plefusionbecomest hepr i
mar yendosper m cel l(PEC)and
 dev el
ops  i
ntotheendosper m whi l
et hezy gotedev elopsintoanembr yo.
DEVELOPMENTOFENDOSPERM

 Thepri
mar yendosperm nucl
eus(3n)undergoesaseri
esofdivi
sionsand
ult
imatel
y 
forms endosperm,ahi
ghlynutr
it
iveti
ssuewhichprovi
desnouri
shment
tothedevel
opingembr yo.
 Typesofendosper m: 
Onthebasi
sofdev elopment,
thr
eetypesofendosperm
havebeenrecognised.

1.  
Nucl
earendosper
m: 
 

 Commonl yoccur
si npol y
petal
ousdi coty
ledons.
 Thefi
rstfewcell
di visi
onsarenotaccompani edbycel
lwallf
ormat
ion.
 Nucl
ei pr
oducedremai nfreeinthecy t
oplasm oft
heembryosac.
 Eg.I
n Cocosnucifera (
Coconut)
, t
hewat eryli
qui
dendosper
m whi
chfil
l
sthel
arge
 embryosaccont ainsnumer ousfreenuclei.

2.
   
Cel
lul
arendosper
m

 Commonl yoccur singamopetalous dicotyl

edons.
 Wallformationoccur swithfi
rstdiv
isionofpr i
maryendosperm nucl
eus.
 Aft
erf i
rsttr
ansv ersediv
isi
on,thesubsequentdi vi
sionar
eirr
egular.
 Endosper mtissuecelldonotshoer egul ararr
angement.
3. 
  
Hel
obi
alendosper
m

  
Thisty
pei si
nter
medi
atebet
weenthenuclearandcel
lulart
ype.
 Fi
rstdi
visi
onofpri
mar
yemdosperm nucl
eus accompaniedbyfor
mat i
onoftr
ansv
ersewal
l.
 Thisdi
vi
destheembry
osactheembr y
osacunequallyintoasmallchal
azal
chamberandalar
gemi
cropy
lar
chamber
.
 Thi
sisf
oll
owedbyf
reenucl
eardi
vi
sioni
neachchamberandt
hancel
lwal
lfor
mat
ionmaket
heendosper
m
cel
l
ular
.

DEVELOPMENTOFEMBRYO

 Afterfertil
i
zation,aser i
esofchangest akesplaceintheov ul
eandasar esult
seedi sisf ormed.
 Thepr ocessofdev elopmentofmat ureembr yofrom dipl
oidzygotei
scall
ed
embr yogenesi s.
 Mo stzygot esdivideonlyaftercertai
n amountofendosper misformed.Thisisan
adaptationt o pr
ov i
deassurednut ri
ti
ont othedev el
opingembr yo.
 
 Though  theseedsdi ffergr
eatly,
theear lystagesofembr yo
development  
(embr yogeny
)ar esimilarinbothmonocot y
ledonsand 
dicot
yledons.

Dev
elopmentofdi
cot
yledonousembr
yo:
 

 Thenor maltypeofdicotembr y
odev el
opmenthasbeenst udi
edi nShepherd's
purse(Capsell
abursa-past or
is)whichbel
ongst ofamilyCrucif
erae.Thisi
scal l
ed
asCr uci
ferorOnagradtypeofembr yodevel
opment .
 Zygote(oospore)di
videsi ntotwounequalcel
ls,lar
ger suspensorcell
 t
owar ds
micropyl
eandasmal ler
 embr yonalcel
l 
(t
erminalcell
)towardsant i
podalregion.
 
 Thesuspensorcellunder goest r
ansver
sedivi
sionsformi ng6-10cel l
edlong
 suspensor .Thef ir
stcel loft hesuspensor( t
owar dsmi cropyle)islargeand
cal l
ed haust ori
um orv esicularcel l
.Thelastcel lofsuspensor( towar dsembr yo
cel l
)isknownashy pophy sis.Itformsr adicl
et i
p.
 E mbr yonal celldiv
idest wicev ertical
lyandoncet ransverselytoproduceat wo-
tieredeight -cel
ledembr yo.Theepi basalti
erf or
mst wocot yledonsandapl umule
whi lethehy pobasal t
ierpr oducesonl yhy pocotylandmostoft her adi
cle. 
 Fort histheoct antembr younder goesper icl
inaldivi
sionspr oducingpr otoderm,
pr ocambi um andgr oundmer i
stem.  
 Itisiniti
all
ygl obularbutwi ththegr owthofcot y
ledonsi tbecomeshear t
-shaped
andt hen 
assumest het ypicalshape, e.g.
,Capsel l
abur sa-pastori
s. 

 Atypi
caldi
cot
yledonousembryoconsist
s ofanembry onal
axisandtwocotyl
edons.
 
 Theport
ionof
 embryonalaxi
sabovethelevelofcot
yledonsistheepi
cot
yl,
 
whichter
minat
eswi
tht
he
pl
umul
eorst
em t
ip.
 
 Thecyl
i
ndr
ical
 
por
ti
onbel
owt
hel
evel
ofcot
yledonsi
shy
pocot
ylt
hat
 t
ermi
nat
esati
tsl
owerendi
nthe
r
adi
cal
orr
oott
ip.
 
 Ther
oot
 t
ipi
scov
eredwi
thar
ootcap.(
Figur
e:At
ypi
cal
dicotembr
yo)
Dev
elopmentofEmbr
yoi
nMonocot

 Thenor
maltypeofmonocotembry
odev el
opmenthasbeen
 st
udi
edinLuzul
afor
ster
iandiscal
led 
Sagi
ttar
iat
ype.

 Theear l
ydev elopmentofdi cotandmonocotembr yosaresimi l
arupt o octantstage.Laterondiffer
ent
iat
ion
 st ar
ts. Suspensori ssingl ecelled.
 Thezy got edividest ransv er
selypr oducingav esi
cular suspensorcel l 
towar dsmi cr
opylarendandembr yo
 cel ltowar dst hechal azal end. 
 Theembr yocel l di
videst ransverselyagai ni
ntoat erminalandami ddlecel l.Theterminalcel
l di
vi
des
 ver t
icallyandt ransv erselyintoglobularembr yo.Itformsamassi v ecot yl
edonandapl umule. 
 Gr owt hofcot y l
edonpushest hepl umul etoonesi de. 
 Remai nsofsecondcot yledonoccuri nsomegr asses.I ti
scalled 
epi blast.
 
 Thesi nglecot yledonofmonocot siscalled 
scutell
um.I tisshiel
dshapedandl at
erali
nposi t
ionbutappears
 t erminal .
 
 Themi ddlecell giv
esr iset ohypocot ylandradicl
e. 
 Itmayaddaf ewcel l
st ot hesuspensor . 
 Bot hr adicleandpl umul edev el
opcov eri
ngsheat hscalledcoleorrhizaandcol eopti
l
erespectivel
y