Introducing Hydroelectric Wind

Power
A revolutionary development in hydroelectricity

Research Question: How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum

power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Topic: Renewable Energy

Subject: Physics

Group: 4 – Experimental Sciences

Word count: 3960

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................................................................... 3

Theory ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5

Experimentation .............................................................................................................................................................. 10

Aim ............................................................................................................................................................................ 10

Methodology.............................................................................................................................................................. 10

Equipment Used ................................................................................................................................................... 10

Procedure to Construct STWPS............................................................................................................................ 11

Procedure to Conduct Experiment ........................................................................................................................ 14

Raw and Processed Data ............................................................................................................................................ 16

NeuLog Voltage Logger Sensor Data ................................................................................................................... 16

Flow Time ............................................................................................................................................................ 17

Gauge Pressure ..................................................................................................................................................... 17

Calculations ............................................................................................................................................................... 18

Constants .............................................................................................................................................................. 18

STWPS Parameters .............................................................................................................................................. 18

Air Compressor Parameters .................................................................................................................................. 19

Analysis of Theory in Light of Experimental Results ..................................................................................................... 19

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................................... 22

Application...................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Evaluation ....................................................................................................................................................................... 23

Initiative to do Research ............................................................................................................................................ 23

Strengths .................................................................................................................................................................... 25

Weaknesses................................................................................................................................................................ 26

Improvements ............................................................................................................................................................ 26

Extensions.................................................................................................................................................................. 26

References ....................................................................................................................................................................... 26
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Introduction
For the past century, hydroelectric power has been the standard way of generating vast

amounts of electrical energy from falling water that’s been enough to power entire cities and, in

some places, like where I live, entire nations.i In brief, hydroelectric power (or hydroelectricity in

short) refers to electricity produced by converting gravitational potential energy in falling water

from a reservoir to rotational kinetic energy in a turbine which then turns a shaft that powers an

electric generator. This sometimes requires the aid of dams to direct the water downward through

the turbine in such a way as may be controlled to maximise the energy production. The figure

below captures how it works.

Figure 1: A hydroelectric power plant.ii

Many engineers will agree that hydroelectricity is by far the best-established renewable

energy resource in use worldwide. The reason it’s so good is because it is a low-cost, eco-friendly

and versatile source of energy that provides benefits beyond electricity generation including flood

control, irrigation support, and a source of drinking water. And, indeed, hydroelectricity is what

my home country; Uganda, mainly uses. However, because it is so widespread, and already highly

developed, some people today could imagine that there are no new innovations to add to it. But,

one day, while I was pondering on hydroelectricity, it suddenly hit me that there was a way in
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

which we could make this seemingly “perfect” source of energy even better, and, what is more, it

was hiding in plain sight all along. This is by taking advantage of the air which fills our atmosphere.

The idea I had can be explained as follows.

Rather than letting water flow continuously downstream from a reservoir, which is how

most hydroelectric power plants operate, imagine if, instead, we first allowed that water to flow

into a tank. And, not just any tank; but a tank that has three valves. The first 2 valves at its base,

one, to allow water in from the reservoir, the other, to let water out, and then the third and most

important valve is a very small one at the top of the tank to allow air in and out thus serving as an

airway. A rough sketch of a tank like this is given below.

Figure 2: A wind tank

The purpose of this is straightforward as described hereafter. There are two stages. In the

first stage, water flows into our tank; filling it to the required capacity, while the water outlet valve

is closed. Then, in the second stage, the water inlet valve is closed while the outlet valve is opened;
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

letting the stored water out. This water, of course, may be passed through a turbine to produce

hydroelectricity like normal but notice what is going to be happening as well.

In the first stage, air from inside the tank is going to be forced out through the airway valve

as the tank is filled with water. In the second stage, air from outside the tank (i.e., the atmosphere)

is going to rush in to fill the vacuum that is being created in the tank as water leaves it. In fact, if

we place a tiny windmill in the airway valve, the key thing to notice is that we can actually extract

some artificial wind power out of this. Thus, we might call this tank a wind tank.

A question raised straightaway by this innovation is: How much wind power can we get

and how is it affected by the water flow rate? Answering this question calls for both theoretical

and experimental enquiry. So, I resolved in my extended essay to explore both aspects of physics

to answer the above question.

Theory
It turns out answering the question of how much wind power is extractable from a wind

tank, in theory, is not very difficult: Let 𝐴 denote the cross-sectional area of the airway valve,

𝜌 denote the density of the air, and 𝑣 denote the average velocity of the air molecules as they

either enter or exit the tank, then one formula for the theoretical maximum wind power, 𝑃 , is

already well-known to be:

1 (1)
𝑃 = 𝐴 𝜌 𝑣
2

Equation 1 is easy to deriveiii and applies to all windmills. However, this formula is generic

and, needless to say, does not have water flow rate among its parameters. So, we must derive a

new formula for the theoretical maximum wind power in a wind tank – one which depends on its

water flow rate – which is done as follows:

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

We begin by observing that whether air is moving into or out from the wind tank, it does

so only because of a difference in air pressure associated with a difference in air density which

exists between the interior of the tank and the atmosphere. So, the air is always moving in such a

way as to mitigate these differences in air pressure and density. In the event where the power input

to the windmill is maximised, we can assume that the air molecules are able to move fast enough

such that the pressure and density of air in the wind tank is kept essentially static, meaning, at

equilibrium with that of the atmosphere. This assumption will be discussed further in the analysis.

It is, of course, impossible for the air molecules to move any faster than this because then that

would violate the second law of thermodynamics.iv It would mean the air is moving from low to

high pressure so simultaneously lowering the entropy of the wind tank and its surrounding!

With that in mind, suppose the volume of water in the tank in a time interval ∆𝑡 changes

by an amount ∆𝑉. For the density of air in the tank to remain the same as that of the air in the

atmosphere’s, 𝜌 , the mass, 𝑀, of air, which in that same time interval either enters or leaves

the tank must satisfy:

𝑀
=𝜌
∆𝑉

→𝑀=𝜌 ∆𝑉

Now, the total kinetic energy, 𝐾𝐸, of all the air molecules in this mass of air, is:

1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑀𝑣
2
1
→ 𝐾𝐸 = 𝜌 ∆𝑉𝑣
2

So, the maximum power input to the windmill should be:

𝐾𝐸
𝑃 =
∆𝑡
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

1
𝜌 ∆𝑉𝑣
→𝑃 =2
∆𝑡

1 (2)
→𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑄𝑣
2

where 𝑄 is the water flow rate, i.e., the rate of change in the volume of water in the tank

with time.

So, by eliminating either 𝑃 or 𝑣 from equations 1 & 2, these 2 other equations follow:

𝑄 (3)
𝑣 =
𝐴

1 (4)
𝑃 = 𝑄 𝜌 𝐴
2

Now, a comment on equation 1 and 4 to conclude this derivation. Notice, equation 1

suggests that the windmill’s maximum power input, 𝑃 , is directly proportional to the cross-

sectional area of the airway valve, 𝐴 , while equation 4 indicates an inverse square relationship

between 𝑃 and 𝐴 . Is this a mistake? No.

Keeping other factors constant, notice that increasing 𝐴 will decrease the average

escape velocity, 𝑣 , of the air molecules through the airway valve thus decreasing 𝑃 and vice

versa. This is a consequence of the venturi effect, v as the larger the 𝐴 , the more space the air

molecules have to pass through and the slower they need to move to maintain a constant pressure

as assumed by equation 2. This is why upon eliminating 𝑣 from both equations, an inverse

square relationship between 𝑃 and 𝐴 is made explicit.

So, heretofore, we have been considering what may be called a single tank hydroelectric

wind power system (STHWPS in short); a sketch of which looks like so:
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Figure 3: STHWPS. ℎ = reservoir depth, ℎ = tank height, ℎ = reservoir elevation height, and ℎ = tank elevation height

We shall now derive a different formula for the theoretical maximum wind power of the

wind tank in its first stage (referring to figure 3).

In the first stage, let’s consider the work done by the water entering the tank on the air

leaving it in an idealised situation where the water flow is quasi-static, meaning the instantaneous

velocity of the wind tank’s water level at every point in time is 0. In this situation, the maximum

work is done and energy is transferred by the rising wind tank’s water level on the air it forces out.

The work done by the wind tank’s rising water level on the air will be:

5
𝑊(𝑠) = 𝑃(𝑠) ∙ 𝐴(𝑠) 𝑑𝑠

In equation 5, 𝑠 is the height the wind tank’s water level has risen above the base level of

the wind tank, 𝑃(𝑠) is the static pressure, and 𝐴(𝑠) is the area of the wind tank’s water level, at 𝑠.

In the case where both the wind tank and reservoir tank are vertical prisms, with a uniform

cross-sectional area of 𝐴 and 𝐴 respectively, equation 5 may be simplified as follows:

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

At 𝑠, the reservoir tank’s water level will have reduced from its initial height, ℎ , by

(assuming conservation of volume flow). Thus, akin to static pressure in a well (reservoir)

manometer,vi under quasi-static conditions the pressure at the wind tank’s water level at 𝑠 must be:

𝐴
𝑃(𝑠) = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+ 𝑠 |𝐻 = ℎ +ℎ −ℎ
𝐴

𝐴
→ 𝑊(𝑠) = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+ 𝑠 ∙ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠
𝐴

𝐴 𝑠 6
→ 𝑊(𝑠) = 𝐴 𝜌 𝑔𝑠 𝐻 − 1 +
𝐴 2

In 6, 𝜌 denotes the water’s density and 𝑔 denotes the gravitational field strength.

Dividing this expression for the work done by the total time taken for wind tank’s water

level to rise from 0 to 𝑠 and noting that ∆𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑠, yields the average theoretical maximum power.

𝐴 𝑠 7
𝑃 (𝑠) = 𝑄 𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+
𝐴 2

Notice, if 𝐴 = 𝐴 , 𝑃 (ℎ ) = 𝑄 𝜌 𝑔ℎ , which is the formula used to calculate the

theoretical maximum power input to a water turbine. This is no coincidence. In deriving that

formula, one assumes all the GPE of water stored in the reservoir gets converted to KE in the

falling water, which is received by the turbine. In deriving this formula, we assumed all the GPE

of water in the reservoir gets converted to KE in the air exiting the tank, which is received by the

windmill (as the net work done on the air is its change in kinetic energy from the work-energy

theorem). But because both these theoretical maximum powers equal the rate of change in the

water’s GPE, they must equal each other. This assumption will be examined further in the analysis.

So, the theoretical understanding of the relationship between the water flow rate and the

maximum wind power established in this section was tested through experimentation as described

hereafter.
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Experimentation
Aim
This investigation’s aim was to measure how the water flow rate into a wind tank, in a

single tank wind power system (STWPS), affects the wind power extractable by its windmill.

Methodology
Equipment Used

Measuring Apparatus
Name Quantity Uncertainty
NeuLog voltage logger sensor with computer 1 ±0.01V, ±0.05s
Tape measure 1 ±0.01m
Clock 1 ±0.01s
Fiac air compressor of air outlet diameter: 0.0050m ± 0.0001 1 ±5psi
Windmill Module Components
Name Quantity
Micro windmill with connecting wires 1
Metallic strip 1
Plastic nozzle of outlet diameter: 0.0050m ± 0.0001 1
Half-inch GI nipple 2
Half-inch GI gate valve 1
1-inch to a half-inch GI reducing socket 1
Reservoir Tank Components
Name Quantity
Plastic tank 0.87m ± 0.01 tall and 0.70m ± 0.01 in diameter 1
2-inch PVC tank connector with rubber rings 1
2-inch GI elbow 1
Wind Tank Components
Name Quantity
Hermetic metal drum 0.87m ± 0.01 tall, 0.50m ± 0.01 diameter 1
1-inch PVC tank connector with rubber rings 1
Half-inch PVC tank connector with rubber rings 1
Half-inch GI gate valve 1
2-inch PVC tank connector with rubber rings 1
2-inch PVC gate valve 1
2-inch PVC nipple 1
2-inch GI elbow 1
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Pipe Module Components

Name Quantity
PE pipe 2.5m long and 2 inches in diameter 1
2-inch PVC male adapter 2
Tools
Name Quantity
Pipe wrench 2
PPR machine 1
Soldering gun 1
Filer 1
Chisel 1
Axle blade 1
Jerrican 2
Sealing Materials
Name Quantity
Thread tape roll 1
Gasket shellac 1
Super glue 2
Procedure to Construct STWPS

The first component assembled was the windmill. To assemble the windmill module, a

half-inch GI nipple was wrapped with thread tape and one end of this nipple was screwed into a

1-to-half-inch GI reducing socket while the other end was screwed into a half-inch GI gate valve.

Then, with super glue, a plastic nozzle was stuck on a separate half-inch GI nipple and this nipple

was screwed into the unscrewed end of the GI half-inch gate valve. Then a micro windmill was

stuck onto a metallic strip and the metallic strip was stuck onto this GI nipple, with super glue, in

a way that had the plastic nozzle’s outlet impinging on the micro windmill’s blades.

Figure 4: Windmill module

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

The next component to be assembled was the (plastic) reservoir tank. To assemble it, a 2-

inch circular hole was first cut at point near the bottom of the plastic tank using the PPR machine

and smoothened using a filer before a 2-inch PVC tank connector was wrapped with thread tape

and screwed into this hole with pipe wrenches. Then a 2-inch GI elbow was screwed onto this

PVC tank connector with pipe wrenches, and the outlet of this GI elbow was pointed downwards.

This plastic tank was elevated onto a platform 2.5m above the ground.

Figure 5: Reservoir Tank

Next, the metal wind tank was fabricated. To do so, a 2-inch circular hole was chiselled at

a point near the bottom of the metal drum using the chisel. This hole was made for the wind tank’s

water inlet. Then a half-inch circular hole was chiselled on another lower-side of the metal drum

for the wind tank’s water outlet. Then a 1-inch circular hole was chiselled on an upper-side of the

metal drum for the airway valve.

Subsequently, 1, half and 2-inch PVC tank connectors were wrapped with thread tape and

screwed into the holes chiselled according to their sizes respectively with pipe wrenches, and a

half-inch GI gate valve was screwed onto the half-inch PVC tank connector with pipe wrenches.
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Then for the water inlet, a 2-inch PVC gate valve was screwed onto the 2-inch tank

connector, a 2-inch PVC nipple was wrapped with thread tape and screwed into this 2-inch PVC

gate valve and a 2-inch GI elbow was screwed onto this PVC nipple, with pipe wrenches, in such

a way that had the GI elbow’s inlet pointed upwards.

This wind tank was placed on the ground directly below the reservoir tank.

Figure 6: Wind tank

Lastly, in order to connect the 2 tanks with a 2.5m long PE pipe (which was cut marginally

as needed with an axle blade) 2-inch male adapters were first fitted onto either ends of this PE

pipe. Then, with pipe wrenches, one end of the PE pipe was screwed into the GI elbow of the

reservoir tank followed by the other end of the PE pipe into the GI elbow of the wind tank. The

wind module was thereafter screwed into the wind tank’s upper 1-inch PVC tank connector and

gasket shellac was applied to make it airtight.

Figure 7: Wind module on wind tank.

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Procedure to Conduct Experiment

Measuring Average Flow Rate into Wind Tank Plus Voltage Generated by Windmill

To conduct this experiment, the terminals of the NeuLog voltage logger sensor were joined

to the windmill’s connecting wires, the NeuLog voltage logger sensor was additionally connected

to a computer through its USB port and the NeuLog software package was downloaded, installed

and launched. On this software package, instructions were entered to record the voltage (of the

windmill) for a duration of 1 minute at a sampling rate of 30 times per minute.

Next, the tape measure was used to measure two heights from the bottom of the reservoir

tank, one: 0.100m and the other: 0.500m, and these heights were marked inside the reservoir tank

using the marker.

The reservoir tank was then filled with water by jerrycans to the marked height of 0.500m.

Subsequently, the wind tank’s water inlet valve was opened, the button was clicked on

NeuLog to begin recording and the clock was started simultaneously.

The clock was stopped as soon as the water level in the reservoir tank dropped to the

marked height of 0.100m. The time taken was recorded in a table under the heading flow time.

Once the reservoir tank’s water had finished flowing into the wind tank, the water inlet

valve was closed.

All the water was drained out of the wind tank through its water outlet valve and transferred

back into the open reservoir tank using jerricans. In cases of spillages, more water was added to

ensure that the water level in the reservoir tank got to the 0.500m mark again.

The data gathered by NeuLog was saved before the experiment was repeated twice.

The average flow rate was calculated from 𝑄 = , where 𝑡 was the average flow time,

𝐴 was the reservoir’s cross-sectional area, and ℎ was the distance between the 2 marked heights.
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Measuring Average Actual Power Input to Windmill

The average power input, 𝑃 , to the windmill during the average flow time had to be found

indirectly from pressure created by an air compressor as follows:

The average voltage the windmill generated during the average flow time was calculated.

The windmill was positioned in front of an air compressor, the nozzle of the air compressor

was opened, and the dial reading on the air compressor gauge was increased (by rotating the knob)

until the voltage produced (seen on NeuLog) stabilised at the average voltage that was calculated.

This gauge pressure,vii 𝑃 , was recorded in a table under the heading gauge pressure. Then

this measurement was repeated twice and the average gauge pressure, P / Pa, was calculated.

Then the average power input was calculated from the formula: P = A ρ v ,

.
where v ≈ 14.2C gT 1 − (Engineers Edge, Velocity escaping compressed

air equation and calculator, n.d.), viii | A = area of compressor orifice / m , ρ =

density of air / m kg , v = compressed air escape velocity from orifice / ms , C =

coefficient of discharge, g = gravitational field strength / Nkg , T = room temperature /

K, P = atmospheric pressure / Pa, and R = specific air constant / JK kg .

Since the voltages they induced in the micro windmill were the same, the average wind

power calculated for the air compressor was equal to the average wind power input for the STWPS.

Figure 8: Air compressor and windmill setup.

How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Raw and Processed Data

NeuLog Voltage Logger Sensor Data

Time Error in Unloaded Voltage Induced in Windmill / V

𝑡/s time ∆𝑡/s Trial 1 𝑉 Trial 2 𝑉 Trial 3 𝑉 Average 𝑉 Error in average ∆𝑉
0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
6.00 0.05 1.42 4.42 4.30 3.38 1.50
8.00 0.05 7.08 9.01 9.15 8.41 1.04
10.00 0.05 10.02 11.21 11.24 10.82 0.61
12.00 0.05 11.33 11.84 12.11 11.76 0.39
14.00 0.05 11.73 12.16 12.29 12.06 0.28
16.00 0.05 11.70 12.17 12.30 12.06 0.30
18.00 0.05 11.60 12.05 12.37 12.01 0.39
20.00 0.05 11.51 11.92 12.26 11.90 0.38
22.00 0.05 11.42 11.86 12.27 11.85 0.43
24.00 0.05 11.29 11.81 12.19 11.76 0.45
26.00 0.05 11.11 11.68 12.17 11.65 0.53
28.00 0.05 11.03 11.62 12.07 11.57 0.52
30.00 0.05 10.83 11.45 11.86 11.38 0.52
32.00 0.05 10.61 11.48 11.69 11.26 0.54
34.00 0.05 9.92 11.39 11.59 10.97 0.84
36.00 0.05 6.71 11.44 11.46 9.87 2.38
38.00 0.05 2.01 11.39 10.51 7.97 4.69
40.00 0.05 0.00 9.88 7.06 5.65 4.94
42.00 0.05 0.00 6.06 2.92 2.99 3.03
44.00 0.05 0.00 1.74 0.00 0.58 0.87
46.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
48.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
50.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Data Processing

The average voltage at time 𝑡 was calculated by the formula:

. . .
𝑉 (𝑡) =
( ) ( ) ( ) e.g., 𝑉 (10) = = 10.82V
3 3

The error in the average voltage at time 𝑡 was calculated by the formula:

∆𝑉 (𝑡) =
( ) ( ) e.g., 𝑉 (10) =
11.24−10.02
= ±0.61V
3 2
How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

The average voltage from 0 to 𝑡 was calculated by the formula:

∑ ( ) ∑ ( )
𝑉= = = 8.87V

The error in the average voltage from 0 to 𝑡 was calculated by the formula:

∑ ∆ ( ) ∑ ∆ ( )
∆𝑉 = = = ±0.99V

Flow Time

Flow time 𝑡 /s
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Error
36.66 42.72 41.50 40.60 3.03
Data Processing

The average flow time was calculated by the formula:

36.66+42.72+41.50
𝑡 = = 40.60s

The error in the average flow time was calculated by the formula:
. .
∆𝑡 = = ±3.03s

Gauge Pressure

Gauge Pressure 𝑃 /psi

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Error
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Data Processing

The average gauge pressure was calculated by the formula:

. . .
𝑃 = = 2.5psi = 17000Pa
How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Calculations
Constants

Name of Constant Value of Constant

coefficient of discharge C = 0.71 for orifice in short tube,
of compressor outlet, 𝐶 (Engineers Edge, Velocity escaping
compressed air equation and calculator)
gravitational field g = 9.81Nkg
strength, 𝑔
room temperature, 𝑇 T = 293K
atmospheric pressure, P = 101000Pa
𝑃
Specific air constant, 𝑅 R = 287Jkg K
density of air, 𝜌 ρ = 1.20kgm
density of air, 𝜌 ρ = 997kgm

STWPS Parameters

Name of Parameter Value of Parameter Uncertainty

cross-sectional area of A = πr ∆A = A (2)
∆

the reservoir tank, 𝐴 A = π(0.70) .

A = 1.50m ∆A = (1.50)(2)
.
∆A = ±0.04m
cross-sectional area of A = πr ∆A = A (2)
∆

the wind tank, 𝐴 A = π(0.55) .

A = 0.95m ∆A = (0.95)(2)
.
∆A = ±0.03m
distance between the 2 h = 0.500 − 0.100 = 0.400m ∆h = 0.001 + 0.001 = ±0.002m
marked heights, ℎ
Height of water level in 𝑠= ∆s = s
∆
+
∆
+
∆

wind tank after t , 𝑠 ( . )( . ) . . .

𝑠= ( . )
∆s = (0.63) + +
. . .
s = 0.63m ∆s = ±0.04m
elevation height of h = 2.50m ∆h = ±0.01m
reservoir tank, ℎ
cross-sectional area of A = πr ∆A =A (2)
∆

the airway valve, 𝐴 A = π(0.0050) .

A = 0.000079m ∆A = (0.000079)(2)
.
∆A = ±0.000001m
average water flow rate Q= ∆Q = Q
∆
+
∆
+
∆

into wind tank, 𝑄 ( . )( . ) . . .

Q= ( )
∆Q = 0.015 + +
. . . .
Q = 0.015m s ∆Q = ±0.002m s
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Air Compressor Parameters

Name of Parameter Value of Parameter Uncertainty

cross-sectional area of A =A = 0.000079m ∆A = ∆A = 0.000003m
compressor outlet, 𝐴
escape velocity of . ∆v = v(0.29)
∆

compressed air, 𝑣 v ≈ 14.2C gT 1 −

∆v = 114(0.29)
.
v ≈ 14.2(0.71) (9.81)(293) 1 − ∆v = ±5ms
v ≈ 114ms
average actual power P = A ρ v ∆P = P +3
∆

input, 𝑃 P = (0.000079)(1.20)(114) .
∆P = 70 +3
.
P = 70W ∆P = ±12W

Theoretical maximum P = Q ρ A ∆P =P 3
∆
+2
∆

power (4) P = (0.015) (1.20)(0.000079) . .

∆P = 320 3 +2
. .
P = 320W ∆P = ±150W

Theoretical maximum 𝑃 = 𝑄𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+
power (7) 𝑃 = (0.015)(997)(9.81) 3.00 − 1 +
1.50 .
0.95
𝑃 = 320W

Analysis of Theory in Light of Experimental Results

The average water flow rate into the wind tank which was setup and tested in this

experiment was found to be 0.014m s ± 0.002. At this flow rate, the average wind power (input

to the wind tank’s windmill) was 70W ± 12; a little less than 22% of the theoretical maximum

wind power which was predicted to be 320W from both formulae.

Now, I was shocked to discover both formulae (4) and (7) for the maximum power input

yielded approximately the same result. For the assumptions made in deriving each seemed

unrelated. Having been challenged by this experimental find to think again, I realised that actually

the assumption made in deriving (7) for the relationship between the theoretical maximum wind

power and the average water flow rate directly implicated the assumption made in deriving (4),

which I missed because (4) was the first formula I derived.

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

So, returning to (7), recall we assumed the water flow was quasistatic. From this, we

deduced the pressure exerted by the wind tank’s rising water level was:

𝐴
𝑃(𝑠) = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+ 𝑠
𝐴

Furthermore:

𝐴 𝑠
𝑊(𝑠) = 𝐴 𝑠𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+ (𝟔)
𝐴 2

𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠
∴ 𝑊(𝑠 ) − 𝑊(𝑠 ) = ∆𝑉(𝑠 , 𝑠 )𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+ |∆𝑉(𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝐴 (𝑠 − 𝑠 )
𝐴 2

𝑊(𝑠 ) − 𝑊(𝑠 )
→𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) =
∆𝑡(𝑠 , 𝑠 )

𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠
→𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝑄 (𝑠 , 𝑠 )𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+
𝐴 2

However, as I realised, the assumption of quasistatic flow holds only if the pressure in the

wind tank remains the same as the pressure in the reservoir tank and these pressures remain at their

initial pressure (the atmospheric pressure) throughout the flow. It is either this or the pressure in

the reservoir tank decreases (as the volume of water in it decreases) and the pressure in the wind

tank increases (as the volume of water in it increases), meaning the net pressure formula, 𝑃(𝑠),

will have to be altered to account for these air pressure differences, in which case, the flow is not

quasistatic. So, in assuming the flow is quasistatic to derive (7) we also assume the pressure in the

wind tank remains the same as the pressure in the atmosphere, which is the assumption we used to

derive (4):

1
𝑃 ̇ (𝑠 ) = 𝑄(𝑠 ) 𝜌 𝐴 (𝟒)
2
( )
∫( )
𝑄(𝑠 ) 𝑑𝑡 1
→𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝜌 𝐴
∆𝑡(𝑠 , 𝑠 ) 2
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

1
→𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝑄 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) 𝜌 𝐴 | ∆𝑡(𝑠 , 𝑠 ) ≈ 0
2

So, since these 2 assumptions are implicated, it follows that the average theoretical

maximum wind power from (4) equals (7).

𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) (𝟒) = 𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) (𝟕)

1 𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠
𝑄 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) 𝜌 𝐴 = 𝑄 (𝑠 , 𝑠 )𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+
2 𝐴 2

𝑄(𝑠 , 𝑠 ) 𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠 𝜌
= 2𝑔 𝐻 − 1 +
𝐴 𝐴 2 𝜌

This yields an exceedingly interesting result, namely that the ratio of the average water

flow rate into a wind tank (from 𝑠 to 𝑠 ) to its airway valve’s cross-sectional area is a constant,

granted that 𝑔, 𝐻, 𝐴 , 𝐴 , 𝜌 , and 𝜌 are fixed.

Then, recall from (1) and (3) that:

𝑄(𝑠 , 𝑠 ) 𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠 𝜌
𝑣 = = 2𝑔 𝐻 − 1 + (𝟑)
𝐴 𝐴 2 𝜌

1
And 𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝐴 𝜌 𝑣 (𝟏)
2

1 𝑄(𝑠 , 𝑠 ) 𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠 𝜌
→𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝐴 𝜌 2𝑔 𝐻 − 1 +
2 𝐴 𝐴 2 𝜌

𝐴 𝑠 +𝑠
→𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) = 𝑄(𝑠 , 𝑠 )𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+
𝐴 2

Which is a generalisation of (7), taking the initial height of the wind tank’s water level to

be 𝑠 . This result implies that, keeping 𝐻, 𝐴 , and 𝐴 constant, but allowing 𝐴 to vary (to vary

the water flow rate) in a quasistatic situation:

𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) ∝ 𝑄(𝑠 , 𝑠 )
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Where the constant of proportionality = 𝜌 𝑔 𝐻− 1+

However, if instead 𝐴 is kept as a constant and 𝐻, 𝐴 , and / or 𝐴 are allowed to vary

(to vary the water flow rate) then:

𝑃 (𝑠 , 𝑠 ) ∝ 𝑄(𝑠 , 𝑠 )

Where the constant of proportionality = 0.5𝜌 𝐴

Finally, we observe the reason the 𝑃 calculated from both equations for this wind tank

was approximately the same was because the water flow was, indeed, approximately quasistatic.
.
The average velocity of the wind tank’s water level was = = 0.016ms ≈ 0.
.

So, why was the average actual power input to the STWPS less than the theoretical? There

are 3 key reasons.

1. Some power was transferred to the water, which gained kinetic energy (i.e., its velocity

was not exactly 0).

2. Some power was lost due to friction between the water and the STWPS’s parts (e.g.,

the PE pipe).

3. Some power was lost due to compression of the air within the wind tank.

Because there shall always be such power losses, 𝑃 < 𝑃 .

Conclusion
The purpose of this extended essay was to ascertain how the water flow rate into a wind

tank affects the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it. Theory supplemented

by experimentation revealed that a wind tank’s maximum theoretical wind power varies directly

with its water flow rate when the initial height of water in the reservoir tank, the cross-sectional

area of the reservoir tank, and the cross-sectional area of the wind tank are kept constant.
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Alternatively, the maximum theoretical wind power varies with the cube of the water flow rate

when the cross-sectional area of the airway valve is kept constant. However, the actual wind power

input to the windmill in a wind tank must always be lower than this theoretical maximum for the

reasons which were mentioned.

Application
I believe efforts like I have undertaken to study the STWPS are worthwhile because it could

enhance renewable energy. The largest obstacle currently facing our chief renewable energy

resource, hydroelectricity, is the environmental impact it has on marine life, the present solutions

to which are only raising its operational costs. Water containing marine life is typically “sluiced

over dam spillways, collected and transported around dams in barges and tank trucks.” ix Not only

is this expensive, but these measures “block fish from moving along their natural pathways …

causing interruptions in their life cycles that limit their abilities to reproduce.” x A large scale model

of a STWPS used instead of hydroelectric dams can potentially solve this problem because the fish

can flow through the wind tank uninterrupted. More research will need to be done to ascertain

whether this is feasible.

Evaluation
Initiative to do Research
While I eventually succeeded in building the necessary components and assembling the

STWPS that finally worked, and allowed me to collect data, I suffered two failed experiments.

At my first attempt, I actually tried to set up a very miniature model of the double tank

wind power system (DTWPS), shown in figure 9 below.

 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Figure 9: First experimental setup

This failed as the airway valve, which can be seen between the 2 jerrycans that served as

tanks on figure 9, was too wide and the solenoid valves were too small (meaning the water flow

rate was too slow) to create wind speeds with enough power to propel the windmill.

So, at my second attempt, I switched to a larger water valve, which required a larger tank,

and fabricated a smaller windmill that could operate within a smaller airway valve. But the larger

tank was expensive and I could only afford to buy one which is why I decided to focus my EE on

testing the STWPS rather than the DTWPS.

Figure 10: Second experimental setup

Sadly, the second setup I made also failed to generate electricity because the larger plastic

tank I purchased (see figure 10) was not airtight leading to air leakages, and it also had a low tensile
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

strength, so it expanded and contracted a little when water entered and exited it, contributing to

power losses.

At my last attempt, I transferred to using a metal drum for the wind tank, which was not

only airtight but had a high tensile strength and thus exhibited less expansionary plus

contractionary behaviour. Additionally, I succeeded in boosting the water flow rate into the wind

tank by elevating the reservoir tank so creating a high-pressure head. So, following my first two

failures, which led to these improvements and improvisations, the STWPS I assembled in my third

attempt (see figure 11) finally worked and produced electricity.

Figure 11: Third experimental setup

Strengths
A big strength to this exploration was the choice to combine both theory and

experimentation to answer the research question as these approaches illuminated one another.

Furthermore, the experimentation itself benefited from the usage of high-quality materials

to manufacture the STWPS and precise measuring instruments that reduced the measure of errors.
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

Weaknesses
The biggest weakness in this exploration was the inability to experimentally measure the

wind power input at different flow rates due to the high cost of equipment necessary to do so and

thus the analysis was confined to just 1 data point.

Improvements
To improve this investigation, the flow rates could be varied by using wider water valves

or by raising the reservoir higher and multiple data points for the average flow rate and power

input could be calculated.

Extensions
Building on this EE, possible research questions for further exploration include:

1. “How does the size of a wind tank’s airway valve affect the maximum power input to

its windmill?”

2. “How does the shape of the wind tank affect the ratio of its actual wind power to its

theoretical maximum wind power?”

3. “What is the optimal design for the water inlet / outlet valve of a wind tank that will

minimise the power needed to open it against the pressure of the water?”

References

i
Šafárik, B. (2019, July 18). The early history of Water Power. Fuergy. Retrieved March 12,
2022, from https://www.fuergy.com/blog/the-early-history-of-water-power
ii
The flow of water produces hydroelectricity. U.S. Geological Survey. (n.d.). Retrieved March
12, 2022, from https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/flow-water-produces-hydroelectricity
iii
Singh, O. (2022, February 11). Wind Energy Formula. GeeksforGeeks. Retrieved March 12,
2022, from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/wind-energy-formula/
 How does the water flow rate into a wind tank affect the maximum power that is extractable from the air exiting it?

iv
Lucas, J. (2022, February 7). What is the Second law of thermodynamics? LiveScience.
Retrieved March 14, 2022, from https://www.livescience.com/50941-second-law-
thermodynamics.html
v
Fairclough, C. (2015, October 19). Exploring the Venturi effect. Comsol Blog. Retrieved March
13, 2022, from https://www.comsol.com/blogs/exploring-the-venturi-
effect/#:~:text=The%20Venturi%20effect%20states%20that,of%20conservation%20of%2
0mechanical%20energy.
vi
Sarhan, A. (2019, June 21). Well manometer principle. Inst Tools. Retrieved March 13, 2022,
from https://instrumentationtools.com/well-manometer-principle/
vii
Difference between gauge pressure and absolute pressure. Difference Between Similar Terms
and Objects. (2018, November 8). Retrieved March 13, 2022, from
http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-gauge-pressure-and-
absolute-pressure/
viii
Velocity escaping compressed air equation and calculator. Engineers Edge. (n.d.). Retrieved
March 12, 2022, from
https://www.engineersedge.com/fluid_flow/velocity_escaping_14031.htm
ix
Fish passage at dams. Fish Passage at dams. (n.d.). Retrieved March 14, 2022, from
https://www.nwcouncil.org/reports/columbia-river-history/fishpassage/
x
Cafasso, S. (2020, February 3). Hydropower dams threaten fish habitats worldwide. Stanford
Earth. Retrieved March 14, 2022, from https://earth.stanford.edu/news/hydropower-dams-
threaten-fish-habitats-worldwide#gs.t2v4gs