Chapter 2 and 6 PS

1. What is political ideology?

2. What are the functions of ideology?
3. What are the major political ideologies?
4. What is the future of ideologies?
5. Reflective question: what is your own ideology? (students can choose to share in the
post-discussion if they feel comfortable)

CHAPTER 2 IDEOLOGIES

 « Classical » ideologies = liberalism, conservatism, socialism

WHAT IS POLITCIAL IDEOLOGY ?

 Ideology: From a social-scientific viewpoint, an ideology is set of ideas providing a

basis for organized political action, whether this is intended to preserve, modify or
overthrow the existing system of power relationships.
 Ideologies (1) offer an account of the existing order, usually in the form of a ‘world-
view’, (2) provide a model of a desired future, a vision of the Good Society, and (3)
outline how political change can and should be brought about. They are fluid sets of
ideas that overlap with one another at a number of points

Changes over time

 De Tracy (1796) referred to it as « the new science of ideas » idea-ology, setting out to
uncover the origins of conscious thoughts and ideas
 Marx, refered to the ideas of the « ruling class », thus uphold the class system and
perpetuated exploitation
o for him, ideology is false it mystifies and confuses subordinate classes by
concealing from them the contradictions on which all class societies are based
o BUT said his work was not ideological but scientific, Science = truth and
ideology = falsehood
o This changed with lenin fe, he referred to the « socialist ideology »
 Karl Popper (1902-94) and Hannah Arendt (liberals), viewed it as an instrument of
social control to maintain compliance and subordination (fascism and communism)
o Liberal ideas were « open », free debate, opposition and criticism and ideology
as a « closed » system with monopoly of truth and intolerant to opposition

Can politics exist without ideology « 2 views 1 debate »

 YES: ideologies are political religions, ppl unable to think beyond => solution: see the
world as it is with the application of value-free scientific method
o The purpose of political science is thus to disengage politics from ideology
o Ideological politics has given way to technocratic politics and
o consumerist politics (elections formulate « products » = policies hoping to
attract « consumers » = voters, electoral politics thus contributes to a process
of party de-ideologization
  NO : ideology is an intellectual framework, helps ppl make sens of the world, neither
true nor false, Science itself is constructed on the basis of paradigms that are destined
to be displaced over time (Kuhn)
o its survival is due to its flexibility, endless redefining and renewal
o the relevance of the left/right divide has opened up to new ideologies
o it gives ppl reason to believe in smt, without it there would be no hope,
politicians would be power-seeking without it
 Oakeshott – (conservative)views ideologies as abstract « systems of thought », sets of
ideas that distort political reality by claiming to explain the incomprehensible
 For him (and others) conservatism is an « attitude of mind », placing faith in
pragmatism, tradition and history
 Rationalism: The belief that the world can be understood and explained through the
exercise of human reason, based on assumptions about its rational structure.
 Pragmatism: A theory or practice that places primary emphasis on practical
circumstances and goals; pragmatism implies a distrust of abstract ideas.
 Marx, for instance, insisted that his ideas were scientific, not ideological, liberals
have denied that liberalism should be viewed as an ideology, and conservatives
have traditionally claimed to embrace a pragmatic rather than ideological style
of politics
 «Ideologies should be treated as an action-oriented belief system, an interrelated set of
ideas that in some way guides or inspires political action »

CLASSICAL IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS

 « classical ideologies » = liberalism, conservatism and socialism developed as

attempts to shape the emerging industrial society
o Battle of that period : capitalism vs socialism (Political ideology as an
economic focus)
 « new ideologies » = fe : feminism and green ideology, blurring the divisions of
the former ones
o Locke (1632-1704) key thinker of early liberalism, emphasized the ‘natural’ or God-
given rights = rights to life, liberty and property

Liberalism: sometimes seen as a meta-ideology, reflecting the beliefs of rising industrial

middle class (some see it as = to capitalism)

o Individualism = importance of the individual as equal moral and possess

unique identities, goal is to attain a society where individuals can flourish and
develop, pursuing « the good »
o Freedom = individual freedom or liberty as the priority, BUT « freedom under
law » => one person’s libert could be a threat to others
o Reason = use of human reason, liberals believe in progress and the ability of
humans to resolve their differences by debate and argument
o Progress = human advancement bc of acc. of knowledge
 Equality = born equal in moral worth, legal and political equality
o Meritocracy = rule by the talented
 Toleration = cultural and political diversity is healthy and promotes
debate and intellectual progress
 o Consent = willing agreement, gov be based on the consent of the governed,
liberal democracy here encouraged
o Constitutionalism = limited gov, checks and balances, separation of powers,
written constitution
o Against absolutism, feudal privileges
o For constitutional and representative gov
o Laissez-faire => centerpiece of 19th cent liberalism
 Economic liberalism: A belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism tending
naturally to deliver general prosperity and opportunities for all.
o Social liberalism emerged => welfare reform and economic intervention
 Meta-ideology: A higher or second-order ideology that lays down the grounds on
which ideological debate can take place
 Classical liberalism committed to an extreme individualism as human beings are
egoistical
 Atomism: The belief that society is made up of a collection of largely self-sufficient
individuals who owe little or nothing to one another, negative attitude towards the
state
 Paine’ s « necessary evil » state establishes order and security => classic liberal
ideal = « nightwatchman » sate
 Modern liberalism more sympathetic attitude towards state intervention
o Support from « big » gov, bc industrial capitalism generated injustices
 Big government: Interventionist government, usually understood to imply economic
management and social regulation.
 « New liberals » = Green, Hobhouse, Hobson => had a positive view of freedom,
the individual’s ability to gain fulfillment and self-realization
 State intervention in the form of social welfare enlarges liberty by safeguarding
individuals from social evils : « want, ignorance, idleness, squalor and disease »
 Modern attempt to reconcile the principles of liberalism with the politics of
welfare and redistribution by John Rawls
 Redistribution: A narrowing of material inequalities brought about through a
combination of progressive taxation and welfare provision.

Conservatism: reaction against the economic and political change, symbolized by French
revolution
o Tradition: desire to conserve, respect for established customs, and institutions
that have endured through time, promotes a sense of social and historical
belonging
o Pragmatism: limitations of human rationality, distrust of abstract principles, faith
in experience, history, action should be shaped by practical circumstances and
practical goals, Conservatives preferred describing their beliefs as an ‘attitude of
mind’ or ‘approach to life’, rather than ideology
o Human imperfection: Pessimistic view on human nature, human beings are
limited, dependent and security-seeking creatures, needing to live in stable and
orderly communities. They are morally corrupt: selfishness, greed and the thirst
for power. Crime + disorder reside within the individual rather than society. THUS
requires a strong state, strict laws, and stiff penalties
o Organicism: view society as an organic whole or living entity. Society is thus
structured by natural necessity, with its various institutions, (families, local
 communities, the nation, and so on), contributing to its health and stability the
whole is more than a collection of its individual parts. Shared values + common
culture vital to maintain the community and social cohesion
o Hierarchy: gradations of social position and status = natural and inevitable,
differing roles and responsibilities of employers and workers fe, BUT hierarchy
and inequality do not give rise to conflict, bc society is bound by mutual
obligations and reciprocal duties.
o Authority: authority is always exercised ‘from above’, providing leadership,
guidance and support for those who lack the knowledge, experience or education
to act wisely in their own interests. It is a source of social cohesion, giving people
a sense of who they are and what is expected of them
o Natural aristocracy: Talent and leadership are innate or inbred qualities that
cannot be acquired through effort or self-advancement
o Property: property ownership is vital for conservatives, gives ppl security and
independence from gov.,
o Burke: Deeply critical of French politics in accordance with abstract principles such as
liberty, equality and fraternity, arguing that wisdom resided largely in experience,
tradition and history, state could prevent evil but rarely promote good, supports
free-market economics by it reflects « natural law »
 Resist the pressures of liberalism, socialism and nationalism
 Ancien régime: ‘old order’; usually linked with the absolutist structures that predated
the French Revolution
 Paternalistic conservatism combination of prudence and principle, fear of social
revolution, reform form above better than revolution from below, the powerful and
propertied responsible to look after the less well-off in the broader interests of social
cohesion and unity
 Paternalism: An attitude or policy demonstrating care or concern for those unable to
help themselves, as in the (supposed) relationship between a father and a child
 Noblesse oblige: ‘obligations of the nobility’; the responsibility to guide or protect
those less fortunate or less privileged
 Toryism: An ideological stance within conservatism characterized by a belief in
hierarchy, an emphasis on tradition, and support for duty and organicism
 No laissez-faire capitalism and no state socialism —> solution = mix of market
competition and gov regulation « private entreprise without selfishness »
 1945 Continental European conservatives wanted Christian democracy
 Christian democracy: An ideological tendency within European conservatism,
characterized by commitment to social-market (used for the greater benefit of
society) principles and qualified interventionism
 The New Right 1970s, ideas impacted the UK and USA => Thatcherism and
Reaganism, shift from state- to market-oriented forms of organization, neolibaralism
and neoconservatism both want a strong but minimal state
o counter-revolution against the post-1945 movement towards state intervention and
the spread of liberal or progressive social values. New Right ideas can be traced back
to the 1970s and the conjunction between the apparent failure of Keynesian social
democracy, signaled by the end of the postwar boom, and growing concern about
social breakdown and the decline of authority. Such ideas had their greatest impact
in the UK and the USA, where they were articulated in the 1980s in the form of
Thatcherism and Reaganism. They have also had a wider, even worldwide, influence
 in bringing about a general shift from state- to market-orientated forms of
organization. The New Right attempts to combine ‘neoliberalism’ and ‘neo-
conservatism’. Although there are political and ideological tensions between these
two, they can be combined in support of the goal of a strong but minimal state: ‘the
free economy and the strong state’
o Hayek: His writings mixed liberal and conservative elements, which had considerable
impact on the emergent New Right
 Neoliberalism: later version of classical political economy, its focus : the market and
the individual, unregulated market capitalism will bring efficiency, growth and
prosperity
o has two central pillars: the market and the individual. The principal neoliberal goal is
to ‘roll back the frontiers of the state’, in the belief that unregulated market
capitalism will deliver efficiency, growth and widespread prosperity  condemns the
nanny state (a state with extensive social responsibilities) because it undermines
freedom and causes a culture of dependence  faith is placed in self-help, individual
responsibility and entrepreneurialism  advanced through the process of
globalization. Focuses on the market rather than the normative elements of
liberalism.

o Margaret Thatcher: « there is no such thing as society, only individuals and their
families », the nanny state
 Nanny state: A state with extensive social responsibilities; the term implies that
welfare programmed are unwarranted and demeaning to the individual
 Neoconservatism: the conservative New Rights wishes to restore authority for social
stability and restore traditional values, view diversity in religion and culture as
conflict prone
o Their enemies are permissiveness: Willingness to allow people to make their
own moral choices; permissiveness suggests that there are no authoritative
values
o wants to restore authority and return to traditional values, especially those linked to
family, religion and nation. The enemies of neo-conservatism are permissiveness (the
willingness to allow people to make their own moral choices; permissiveness
suggests that there are no authoritative values). Another aspect of neo-conservatism
is the tendency to view the emergence of multicultural and multi-religious societies
with concern, on the basis that they are conflict-ridden and inherently unstable. This
position also tends to be linked to an insular form of nationalism that is skeptical
about both multiculturalism and the growing influence of supranational bodies such
as the UN and the EU
Socialism :
o Community: Humans are social creatures linked by the existence of common
humanity, importance of a community
o Fraternity: Humans are bound together by comradeship and fraternity, prefer
cooperation to competition, collectivism over individualism
o Social equality: an equality of outcome as opposed to equality of opportunity,
egalitarianism = belief in primacy of equality over other values, socialists
disagree about the extent to which social equality can and should be brought
about
o Marxists believed in absolute social equality, by the collectivization of
production wealth
 o Social democrats favoured narrowing material inequalities, often being
more concerned with equalizing opportunities than outcomes
o Need: material benefits should be given if needed
o Social class: socialists analyse society in terms of the distribution of income or
wealth, and they have thus seen social class as important, socialism is associated
with the interests of an oppressed + exploited working class, and seen the
working class as an agent of social change, even social revolution. BUT, class
divisions are remediable: the socialist goal = the eradication of economic and
social inequalities, or their substantial reduction
o Common ownership: for the socialist case it is a means harnessing material
resources to the common good, with private property = selfishness,
acquisitiveness and social division. BUT Modern socialism, moved away from
this narrow concern with the politics of ownership
 early 19th cent, reaction to emergence of industrial capitalism
 At 1st it had a fundamentalist, utopian and revolutionary character, goal = abolish
capitalist economy
 Late 19th reformist socialist tradition, improvement in working conditions: wages,
growth of trade unions and socialist political parties
 Reformist socialism drew on the humanist tradition of ethical socialism and a
revisionist Marxism
 Revisionism: The modification of original or established beliefs
 2 camps in 20th cent : Revolutionary socialists (Lenin and the Bolscheviks) =>
communists AND Reformist socialists embraced « social democracy » and
fundamentalist principles such as common ownership and planning, wanted
socialism in terms of welfare, redistribution and economic management and not the
fundamentalist principles (common ownership fe)
 Marx’s ideas were most influential, foundation of 20th cent communism
 Marxism : the collapse of communism, does not imply the death of Marxism as a
political ideology; indeed, it may give Marxism, now divorced from Leninism and
Stalinism, a new life
 Leninism: Lenin’s theoretical contributions to Marxism, his belief in the need for a
‘vanguard’ party to raise the proletariat to class consciousness
 Stalinism: The structures of Stalin’s USSR, especially a centrally placed economy
linked to systematic and brutal political oppression
 Dialectical materialism or orthodox Marxism: The crude and deterministic form of
Marxism that dominated intellectual life in orthodox communist states
Classical Marxism
It is a philosophy of history described by Engels as « materialist conception of
history » =
 historical materialism: The Marxist theory holding that economic conditions
ultimately structure law, politics, culture and other aspects of social existence
o the economic « base » consisting of the mode of production determines the
ideological and political superstructure
o historical change is the consequence of conflicts within the mode of production
1. Conflict btw bourgeoisie and the proletariat => capitalism is thus doomed to
collapse
2. Full class consciousness will bring to the proletarian revolution
 3. Transitionary socialist period of development with dictatorship of the
proletariat
4. Class antagonism fades => communist society starts with no state and no
classes
 Dictatorship of the proletariat: A temporary proletarian state, to prevent counter-
revolution and transition from capitalism to communism
 Marx: worked with Engels, Communist Manifesto (1948 (1967))
Orthodox communism
Marxism modified by Lenin
 His theory of the revolutionary or vanguard party = Lenin feared the proletariat
could not achieve its revolutionary state, THUS a revolutionary party, armed with
Marxism, was therefore needed to serve as the ‘vanguard of the working class’ =
model for communist parties
 Stalin’s second revolution 1917 Bolshevik revolution, the 5-year plan,
collectivization of agriculture, all resources under control of the state, purges => led
to a dictatorship, turned the USSR into a totalitarian dictatorship
 Herbert Marcuse: developed a form of neo-Marxism that drew heavily on Hegel and
Freud, leading thinker of the New Left and a ‘guru’ of the student movement, his
hopes rested not on the proletariat, but on marginalized groups : students, ethnic
minorities, women and workers in the developing world
 China: political Stalinism survives in China, despite the embrace of market reforms,
and NK remains a thoroughgoing orthodox communist regime
 Perestroika: ‘restructuring’; attempt to liberalize and democratize the Soviet system
within a communist framework
Neo-Marxism
Complex and subtle form of Marxism in Western Europe
 Influenced by Hegelian ideas, humans as the makers of history and not subject to the
material forces, unwillingness to treat the class struggle as the beginning and end of
social analysis
 Marxist Georg Lukács (1885–1971) presented Marxism as a humanistic philosophy
o He emphasized the process of ‘reification’, through which capitalism
dehumanizes workers by reducing them to passive objects or marketable
commodities
 Frankfurt theorists (Adorno and Horkheimer main leaders), developed the « critical
theory », a mix of hegelian philo and Freudian psych and marxist political economy
Is socialism a dead ideology ? book debate
 YES : Democratic socialist parties in many parts of the world are more closely related
to liberalism and conservatism than to any recognizable form of socialism
 Except maybe China ?
 NO : Socialism is destined to survive if only because it serves as a reminder that
human development can extend beyond market individualism. Moreover,
globalization may bring opportunities for socialism as well as challenges.
 Revival of socialism in the emergence of left-wing populist parties and movements:
o UK Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn
o Bernie Saunders’ campaign for the Democratic nomination in the 2016 US
presidential election …
Social democracy :
 Balance btw the market and the state, a balance btw the individual and the
community (NOT classical liberalism = commits to market or fundamentalist socialism
= A form of socialism that seeks to abolish capitalism and replace it with a
qualitatively different kind of society, common ownership
 Accepting capitalism to generate wealth and distribute the wealth with moral values
 Modern social democracy is characterized with a concern for the weak and
vulnerable
 Main principles = welfarism, redistribution and social justice
 Humanize capitalism through state intervention => Keynesian social democracy
« New » social democracy or Third Way
 Third Way = idea of an alternative to both capitalism and socialism. Term is now
firmly linked to ‘new’ or modernized social democracy.
 It is an alternative to :
o Old-style Social democracy => rejected bc it is wedded to statist structures
that are inappropriate to the modern knowledge-based and market-
orientated economy
o And Neolibarlism => rejected bc it generates a free-for-all that undermines
the moral foundations of society
 New Social-democratic parties from Germany, Italy, NL, UK, New Zealand
 Reconcile old-style social democracy with, the electorally attractive aspects of
neoliberalism
 Characteristics are varied but the common ones are :
1. Socialism is dead, acceptance of globalization, belief that capitalism is now a
« knowledge economy » (technology, individual skills…), the state is a means of
promoting international competitiveness by education and skills
2. Embraces the liberal ideas of equality of opportunity and meritocracy
Critics of new social democracy
 Argue it to be contradictory, bc it simultaneously endorses the dynamism of the
market and warns against its tendency to social disintegration, or that, far from being
a centre-left project, it amounts to a shift to the right

OTHER IDEOLOGICAL TRADITIONS:

Anarchism, fascism, feminism, green ideology, cosmopolitanism, religious fundamentalism,
populism
ANARCHISM maybe same as Last state of society for Marx
 Never succeeded in winning power on a national level
 But mvmts in Mexico, France, Russia, Spain
 Challenge the indispensability of government, law and the state (Political authority is
evil and unnecessary)
 Influential within the anti-capitalist and anti-globalization mvmts
 Stateless society —> 2 rival traditions :
o Liberal individualism
o Socialist communitarianism
 Anarchism is the intersection btw liberalism and socialism = ‘ultraliberalism’ and
‘ultrasocialism’
 Individualist anarchists: fe Godwin : human beings that are free and rational can
manage their affairs peacefully the gov is merely a form of un wanted coercion
  Modern individualists: developed a form of anarcho-capitalism (extreme version of
free-market economic)
 Anarcho-capitalism: An anarchist tradition holding that unregulated market
competition can and should be applied to all social arrangements, making the state
unnecessary
 Collectivist anarchists or social anarchists : fe Proudhon, developed what he called
‘mutualism’
 Mutualism: A system of fair and equitable exchange, in which individuals or groups
trade goods and services with one another without profiteering or exploitation.
 Peter Kropotkin : advanced anarcho-communism
 Anarcho-communism: An anarchist tradition which takes common ownership to be
the sole reliable basis for social solidarity, thereby linking statelessness to
classlessness
FASCISM
 20th cent, interwar phenomenon
 Mussolini fascist dictatorship (1922-43), Hitler’s Nazi dictatorship (1933–45)
 Neofascism and neo-Nazism have resurfaced taking advantage of economic crises
and political instability
 It constituted a revolt against the ideas and values (rationalism, progress, freedom
and equality) that dominated Western political thought since the French Revolution
 Those values were replaced with struggle, leadership, power, heroism and war
 Defined by what it opposes : anti-capitalism, anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, anti-
communism…
 Want a unified national community « strength through unity « the Individual is
nothing
 Some fascist ideal is the « new man » or hero motivated by honor and self-sacrifice to
dictate his life for his nation or race and gives unquestioned obedience to his leader
 BUT not all fascist like that
 Italian fascism = extreme form of statism => unquestioning respect and loyalty
towards the « totalitarian » state, « everything for the state »
 Nazism = based on racialism (Aryanism and anti-semitism)
FEMINISM
 Developed political theory by Mary Wollstonecraft ((1792) 1985)
 « 1st wave feminism » Suffrage mvmts in 1840s and 50s feminist ideas reached a
wider audience
 «2nd wave » 1960s, WLM (women’s liberation mvmt)
 The feminist doctrines are diff but have a same goal: enhance the social role of
women
o Society is characterized by sexual or gender inequality
o Structure of male power can, and should, be overturned
 Liberal feminists: equal rights feminism, essentially reformist of the public sphere
Liberal feminism: A feminist tradition whose core goal is equal access for women and men
to the public realm, based on a belief of genderless personhood.
 socialist feminists: women confined to domestic life
Socialist feminism: A feminist tradition that seeks to restructure economic life to achieve
gender equality, based in links between patriarchy and capitalism.
  radical feminists: 2nd wave emergence, all societies historical and contemporary are
characterized by patriarchy, Kate Millett (1970) ‘that half of the population which is
female is controlled by that half which is male’, proclaim the need for sexual
revolution => restructure personal, domestic and family life, « the personal is the
political »
Radical feminism: A feminist tradition that aims to overthrow patriarchy through a radical
transformation of all spheres of life, but especially ‘the personal’
‘New feminism’ or ‘third-wave feminism’: tend to be characterized by doubts about the
conventional goal of gender equality, placing an emphasis instead on differences, both
between women and men and between women themselves

GREEN IDEOLOGY
 19th cent revolts against industrialization, reflects concern about the damage done
to the natural world by the increasing pace of eco development, anxiety abt the
declining quality of human existence and their survival
 Offers an alternative to the anthropocentric view expressed by all other ideologies
 Anthropocentrism: The belief that human needs and interests are of overriding moral
and philosophical importance; the opposite of ecocentrism
 Gaia hypothesis by James Lovelock (1979, 2002), portrays the Earth as a living
organism that is primarily concerned with its own survival
 Shallow or humanist ecologists: believe appeal to self- interest and common sense
will persuade humankind to adopt ecologically sound policies and lifestyles,
sustainability
 Deep ecologists : ecosystem before individuals
 Holism: Belief that the whole is more important than its parts, implying that
understanding is gained only by studying relationships among its parts
 Ecologism: political doctrine or ideology constructed on the basis of ecological
assumptions, about the link btw humankind and the natural world: humans are part
of nature, not its ‘masters’
 Ecology = study of the relationship btw living organisms and their environment
  Be found in the anti-party, green parties all around Europe since 1970s

COSMOPOLITANISM
 Since 1990s, ideological expression of globalization
 Belief in the cosmopolis « world state »
 « political » cosmopolitanism (quest for global political institutions) = irrelevant now
bc of the unfashionable idea of « world government »
 THUS has a moral and cultural character
 World government: The idea of all of humankind united under one common political
authority, whether a unitary world state with supranational authority or a federal
body that shares sovereignty with nation-states.
 Moral cosmopolitanism = belief the world is a single moral community, ppl have
obligations towards all other ppl of the world
o The individual is the principle focus of concern
o Asserted through HR
 Liberal cosmopolitanism expressed in 2 ways :
o universalize civic and political rights fe : right to life, liberty and property etc
o universalize market society, to widen individual freedom and promote
material advancement
 Socialist cosmopolitanism
o Quest for global social justice, implying a substantial redistribution of wealth
from the global North to the global South
 Cultural Cosmopolitanism : highlights the extent to which ppl think of themselves as
« global citizens » rather than citizens of the state
 evidence for this is the shift from nationalism to multiculturalism
 Has had a growing impact on ethical thinking but limited impact on cultural
restructuring
RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM
  Fundamentalism : style of thought in which certain principles are recognized as
essential ‘truths’ with unchallengeable and overriding authority. Although it is
usually associated with religion and the literal truth of sacred texts, it can also be
found in political creeds. The term is controversial because it is often used
pejoratively, to imply inflexibility, dogmatism and authoritarianism
 Since the 1970s, most significant one => Islamic fundamentalism
o Related with the Islamic revolution in Iran (1979)
 Found in the Middle East, parts of north Africa and Asia
 Christian fundamentalism (USA), Hindu fundamentalism and Sikh fundamentalism
(India), and Buddhist fundamentalism (Sri Lanka and Myanmar) also emerged
 Arises in deeply troubled societies, particularly societies afflicted by an actual or
perceived crisis of identity
 Politics is religion
o Religious values and beliefs are the organizing principles of public existence,
including law, social conduct and the economy as well as politics
 Factor prone to these crises = secularism, search for a non -Western political
identity in post colonies
 Secularism: The belief that religion should not intrude into secular (worldly) affairs,
usually reflected in the desire to separate the state from institutionalized religion
 Hindu, Sikh, Jewish and Buddhist forms of fundamentalism more narrowly concerned
with clarifying or redefining national or ethnic identity, THUS better classified as
examples of ethnic nationalism
POPULISM
 Early 2000s, especially after the global financial crisis (2007-09) = the age of
populism
 Trump, Marine le Pen, Geert Wilders…
 Not new, traces back to late 19th cent
 Treated as an ideology, syndrome and political style
 Populism (from the Latin populus, meaning ‘the people’) used to describe both
distinctive political movements and a particular tradition of political thought. Mvmts
or parties described as populist are characterized by their claim to support the
common people in the face of ‘corrupt’ economic or political elites. As a political
tradition, populism reflects the belief that the instincts and wishes of the people
provide the principal legitimate guide to political action. THUS Populist politicians
make a direct appeal to the ppl, and claim to give expression to their deepest hopes
and fears
 Division of the ‘pure’ people (strictly unified and homogenous) and the ‘corrupt’ elite
(which most of the time have a liberal character)
 Left-wing populists : conceive of the ppl in class terms, so tend to prioritize socio-
economic concerns such as poverty, inequality and job insecurity
 Right-wing populists : view the ppl in narrower and often ethnically restricted terms.
As their focus is on matters related to identity, they tend to prioritize sociocultural
concerns such as immigration, crime and corruption.
o Often divided into national populism (culture and interests of the nation) and
authoritarian populism (imposition of social and moral order, cynicism abt
individual rights)
CHAPTER 6 NATIONS AND NATIONALISM
 « Nationalism is an infantile disease. It is the measles of mankind »
 Nationalism has been linked to different ideological traditions (from liberalism to
fascism)
WHAT IS A NATION ?
 Nation = complex phenomena shaped by various factors
o Culturally, it is a group of ppl bound together by a common language, religion,
history and traditions
o Politically, it is a group of ppl regarding themselves as a natural political
community, expressed through the quest for sovereign statehood
o Psychologically, it is a group of ppl distinguished by a shared loyalty or
affection in the form of patriotism
 They are cultural entities (language, religion, history etc) those factors shape the
politics of nationalism
o FE : Nationalism of the Québecois
 BUT they all have cultural, ethnic and racial diversity
 —> THUS can only be identified subjectively by their members
 Psycho-political they regard themselves as a nation, distinctive political community
 UNLIKE an ethnic group lacks collective political aspirations
 Ethnic group: A group of people who share a common cultural and historical identity,
typically linked to a belief in common descent
 Nationalism changes with the respective views of ppl abt their nation
o For 1 : it is cultural community, importance of ethnic ties and loyalties
o For the other : political community, importance of civil bonds and allegiances

NATIONS AS CULTURAL COMMUNITIES

 JOHANN GOTTFRIED HERDER (1744–1803)
o Father of cultural nationalism, sees the nation as an organic group
characterized by a distinctive language, culture and ‘spirit’ helped both to
found cultural history, and to give rise to a particular form of nationalism that
emphasized the intrinsic value of national culture
Late 18th cent —> Nation as ethnic or cultural entity
o Herder – importance of language, each nation possesses a Volksgeist
revealing itself through myths, legends and songs = creativity of the nation
 THUS his nationalism is a form of culturalism 
 Volksgeist: the spirit of the people; the organic identity of a people reflected in their
culture and, particularly, their language
 Culturalism: The belief that human beings are culturally defined creatures, culture
being the universal basis for personal and social identity
 Enest Gellner – nationalism is linked to modernization, to the process of
industrialization, agroliterate societies structure by feudal bonds and loyalties BUT
industrial societies promote social mobility, self- striving, and competition which
requires cultural cohesion provided by nationalism
 For him, nationalism is now ineradicable, as a return to premodern loyalties and
identities is unthinkable
Late 18th cent early 19th in Europe and 10th in Asia and Africa
  Anthony Smith — challenged this idea, highlights the continuity btw modern
nations and premodern ethnic communities, he called ‘ethnies’
o Nations are historically embedded
o Admits that nations existed only when established ethnies were linked to
the emerging doctrine of political sovereignty
Cultural nationalism
 Cultural nationalism form of nationalism that emphasizes the regeneration of the
nation as a distinctive civilization, rather than as a discrete political community.
Whereas political nationalism is ‘rational’, and usually principled, cultural nationalism
is ‘mystical’, in that it is based on a romantic belief in the nation as a unique,
historical and organic whole, animated by its own ‘spirit’. Typically, it is a ‘bottom-up’
form of nationalism that draws more on ‘popular’ rituals, traditions and legends than
on elite, or ‘higher’, culture
 FE : Welsh nationalism, focuses more on preservation of Welsh language and
Welsh culture than search for political independence
 Friedrich Meinecke — separate « cultural » nations and « political nations »
o Greeks, the Germans, the Russians, the English and the Irish = cultural
nations BUT also to Kurds, the Tamils and the Chechens
 Rather exclusive, impossible to become a German, a Russian or a
Kurd simply by adopting the language and beliefs of the ppl
NATIONS AS POLITICAL COMMUNITIES
 Emphasize civic loyalty and political allegiances, rather than cultural identity
 Nation = shared citizenship, regardless of their cultural, ethnic and other loyalties
 Rousseau — does not speak abt nation or nationalism BUT sovereignty expressed in
the general will —> French revolution
o Nationalism emerging from the FRevo = ppl or nation governing itself
 Eric Hobsbawm — nations are « invented traditions », nationalism creates nations,
not the other way round
Late 19th cent
 Nationhood appeared : by the invention of national anthems and national flags, and
the extension of primary education
 National language can be seen as absurd bc until the 19th a lot of ppl had no
knowledge of the written form and spoke a regional dialect (not the same as the
elite’s language)
 Benedict Anderson — modern nation is « an imagined community »
o Nations are mental images, they exist as imagined artifices
 Marxist — is a species of bourgeois ideology « invented or imagined »
 Rousseau — « nation is animated by ideas of democracy and political freedom »
 Meinecke — a political nation is one in which citizenship has greater political
significance than ethnic identity, marked by cultural heterogeneity
o FE : UK, USA and France
o Have in common : acceptance of a common set of principles or goals, as
opposed to an existing cultural identity
 Described as political in 2 senses
o Have achieved statehood (in many cases) bc of struggle against colonial rule,
unified by west for freedom and national liberation
 o Have often been shaped by territorial boundaries by their former colonial
rulers, especially Africa (wide range of ethnic, religious and regional groups
that are bound together by little more than a shared colonial past)
 Attempt to make Africa build nations after sought statehood, diff to achieve bc of
political and ethnic mismatch, by no means these conflict are only bc of tribalism
 Tribalism: Group behaviour characterized by insularity and exclusivity, typically
fuelled by hostility towards rival groups
 Racialism, racism : Racialist theories are based on the assumption that cultural,
intellectual and moral differences amongst humankind derive from supposedly more
fundamental genetic differences, humankind is divided through distinct races
Are nations « natural » political communities ? — debate in book
YES : « natural » communities, vehicle for democracy, benefits of national partiality
NO : « invented » communities, hollowed-out nations, miniaturizing humanity

VARIETIES OF NATIONALISM
 + progressive and liberating force, national unity or independence
 - irrational and reactionary creed allowing political leaders to conduct military
expansion and war for the nation
 Nationalism should be viewed as series of nationalism (each underlying the
importance of the nation) and not one single political phenomenon
 FE : When nationalism is a product of social dislocation and demographic change, it
often has an insular and exclusive character, and can become a vehicle for racism and
xenophobia
 Xenophobia: A fear or hatred of foreigners; pathological ethnocentrism
 liberals, conservatives, socialists, fascists and even communists have been attracted
to nationalism (of the major ideologies, perhaps only anarchism is entirely at odds
with nationalism). In this sense, nationalism is a cross-cutting ideology
The main political manifestation of nationalism are :
liberal nationalism, conservative nationalism, expansionist nationalism, anti-
colonial and postcolonial nationalism
LIBERAL NATIONALISM
Goal = construction of a world of nation-states
 GIUSEPPE MAZZINI (1802-72)
o Italian nationalist and apostle of liberal republicanism, Mazzini’s liberal
nationalism influenced Europe, and immigrant groups in the US
 Seen as the classic European liberalism, dates back to FR + embodies many of its
values
 Mid-19th cent : to be liberal = to be nationalist
 FE : Simon Bolivar (1783–1830)— led Latin-American independence mvmt
 FE : Woodrow Wilson — 14 point express liberal nationalism (basis fo reconstruction
after WW1)
 IDEAS :
o Humankind is naturally divided into a collection of nations, each possessed of
a separate identity
o Nations are organic communities NOT creation of political leaders
o Links the idea of nation with a belief in popular sovereignty (derived from
Rousseau)
 o Fought autocratic and oppressive empire, Mazzini wanting to unite Italy and
throw off autocratic Austria
o Main theme = national self-determination, goal = construct the nation-state
 National self-determination: The principle that the nation is a sovereign entity; self-
determination implies both national independence and democratic rule
o LN Proclaims that each nation has a right to freedom and self-determination,
all nations are equal
 Internationalism : theory or practice of politics based on transnational or global
cooperation
o Liberal internationalism = based on individualism reflected in the assumption
that human rights have a ‘higher’ status than claims based on national
sovereignty
o Socialist internationalism = belief in international class solidarity (proletarian
internationalism), underpinned by assumptions about a common humanity
 LN mechanism for securing a peaceful ans stable world order
 Promotes unity within each nation and brotherhood amongst nations
Does liberalism look beyond the nation ?
1. Individualism implies that all humans are equal of moral worth THUS subscribes to
universalism, commonly expressed in HR, individual above nation
2. Freedom must always be subject to the law this applies to nations and individuals FE :
UN, EU
Here, internationalism complements nationalism
 Universalism: The theory that there is a common core to human identity shared by
people everywhere
 Human rights: Rights to which people are entitled by virtue of being human;
universal and fundamental rights
Critics
- Liberals are naive and romantic, ignorant of the darker face of nationalism
(tribalism distinguishes us form them), ignorant of the emotional power of
nationalism (pushes war, die for your country)
- Their goal is misguided, nation-states consist of groups which can call
themselves a nation leading to what Nazis recognized : only way of
achieving a politically unified and culturally homogeneous nation-state is
through a programme of ethnic cleansing
 Ethnic cleansing: The forcible expulsion or extermination of ‘alien’ peoples; often
used as a euphemism for genocide
CONSERVATIVE NATIONALISM
Goal = patriotism to promote national identity
 Patriotism : Latin : fatherland, psychological attachment to one’s nation, Patriotism
provides the affective basis for that belief of nationalism, It underpins all forms of
nationalism, you could say you need patriotism for nationalism
 Later than liberal nationalism ( latter mid 19th cent)
 Link btw conservatism and nationalism => FE : Bismarck’s willingness to recruit
German nationalism to the cause of Prussian aggrandisement, …
 In modern politics nationalism has become an article of faith for most conservatives
o FE : Thatcher’s triumphalist reaction to victory in the Falklands War of 1982,
and it is evident in the engrained ‘Euroscepticism’ of the Conservative right.
 o FE : Ronald Reagan’s more assertive foreign policies
 Euroscepticism: Opposition to further European integration, usually not extending to
the drive to withdraw from the EU (anti- Europeanism)
 CN is less concerned by the universal self-determination and more with the
sentiment of national patriotism as a promise to social cohesion
 For them human beings seek security and identity through membership of a national
community
 Patriotic loyalty and a consciousness of nationhood is rooted in the idea of a shared
past, turning nationalism into a defence of values and institutions that have been
endorsed by history. Nationalism thus becomes a form of traditionalism
o FE : Royal family in the UK plays an prominent role in national celebrations
 CN develops mostly in already established nation-states, inspired by the perecption
that the nation is somehow under threat (within or without)
 Conservatives see nationalism as the antidote to social revolution
o When patriotic loyalties are stronger than class solidarity, the working class
is, effectively, integrated into the nation
 Enemies within that threaten national identity = immigration and supranationalism
(EU)
Critics
- CN is an elite manipulation or ruling class ideology
- The nation is invented/defined by political leaders or elites
- CN promotes intolerance and bigotry
- Exclusive ethnic community member or alien
- Immigrants, foreigners as a threat and promote racialism and xenophobia
EXPANSIONIST NATIONALISM
Fusion of racialism and nationalism
 Agressive, militaristic and expensionist character
 Opposite of equal rights and self-determination
 Late 19th cent, « Scramble for Africa »
 European imperialism was linked to the idea that prestige = possession of an empire
 Which resulted in popular enthusiasm and jingoism
 Jingoism: A mood of public enthusiasm and celebration provoked by military
expansion or imperial conquest
 WW1 and WW2 (japan, italy and Germany) resulted in EN
 Race : physical and genetic differences amongst humans, it is a group of ppl who
share common ancestry, controversial term scientifically and politically
 Charles Maurras (1868-1952) : leader of right-wing Action Française, « the nation is
everything and the individual is nothing », fanatical patriotism, democracy = source
of weakness and corruption => restoration of monarchical absolutism
 Breaks the link btw nationalism and democracy by saying national unity requires
discipline and obedience to a single supreme leader
 Thus not all nations are equal, some are suited to rule and some are suited to BE
RULED
 Doctrines of ethnic and racial superiority, fusion of racialism and nationalism
 Another nation or race is seen as a threat or enemy => intensifies the sense of own
identity and importance, them and us distinction, in and out group
  The ‘out group’ = all the misfortunes and frustrations suffered by the ‘in group’, FE
seen in anti-Semitism by Nazis Aryan vs Jews
 Theme : National rebirth or regeneration => national glory FE : Mussolini + Italian
Facsists looked back at the Imperial Rome days
 War is the testing ground of the nation
 Quest for expansion or a search for colonies, in forms of pan-nationalism
 Pan-nationalism: A style of nationalism dedicated to unifying a disparate people
through either expansionism or political solidarity (‘pan’ means all or every).
 Anti-Semitism : prejudice or hatred specifically towards Jews, religious anti-Semitism
reflected the hostility of the Christians towards the Jews, Economic anti-Semitism
distaste for Jews in their capacity as moneylenders and traders, Racial anti-Semitism
condemned the Jewish peoples as fundamentally evil and destructive
ANTICOLONIAL AND POSTCOLONIAL NATIONALISM
 Colonialism, succeeded in turning nationalism into a political creed of global
significance (Ironic)
 helped forge a sense of statehood in Afric and Asia => « national liberation »
 20th cent, independence mvmts
 The empires of Britain, France, the Netherlands and Portugal crumbled in the face of
rising nationalism, many examples : India 1947 independence, China 1949, Vietnam
1975
 Liberation mvmts in Africa : under leaders such as Nkrumah in Ghana, Dr Azikiwe in
Nigeria, Julius Nyerere in Tanganyika (later Tanzania)…
 Colonialism : theory or practice of establishing control over a foreign territory and
turning it into a ‘colony’, form of imperialism, by settlement and by economic
domination
 Early forms of anti-colonialism => Inspired by the idea of self-determination
 BUT for African and Asian nations => quest for political independence, desire for
social development and end of subordination, SO « national liberation » had
economic and political dimensions, reason for socialism rather than liberalism
 Values of community and cooperation that socialism embodies are deeply
established in the cultures of traditional, pre-industrial societies
 Socialism, and especially Marxism, provide an analysis of inequality and exploitation
through which the colonial experience could be understood and colonial rule
challenged
o China, NK, Vietnam and Cambodia, anti-colonial movements openly embraced
Marxism–Leninism
o African and Middle Eastern states => less ideological form of nationalistic
socialism, practiced in Algeria, Libya, Zambia, Iraq and South Yemen, with an
appeal to a unifying national cause or interest, typically championed by a
powerful ‘charismatic’ leader
 BUT not always used socialism FE : Gandhi
 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869–1948) : Indian spiritual and political leader,
became the leader of the nationalist movement, campaigning tirelessly for
independence, ethic of non-violent resistance,
 Since 1970s Marxism-Leninism displaced by religious fundamentalism FE : Islamic
fundamentalism
THE FUTURE OF NATIONALISM
  End of the 20th cent, fashionable to declare the end of nationalism bc it had
completed its task : the world had become a world of nation-states
 108 states have come into being since 1959, these changes are largely due to the
quest for national independence
 BUT Independence movements remain active in many parts of the world
o FE : Catalonia, Scotland, Tibet, Quebec, South Ossetia, Kurdistan, Western
Sahara, Padania and Palestine
 WW1, WW2 and the collapse of Communism in Eatsern Europe, gave power to teh
concept of nation as a principle organization
 Since 1991, 22 new states exist and all claim to be nation-states
 Strength of the nation-state => offers the prospect of both cultural cohesion and
political unity
 Thus why nationalist believe the nation-state is the only viable political unit
o Implies EU or other supranational bodies will never be able to compete with
the capacity of national gov to establish legitimacy and command popular
allegiance
 SO there should be clear limits to European integration bc ppl with diff language,
cultures and histories can never think of themselves as a united political community
BEYOND NATIONALISM ?
 Powerful forces have emerged that threaten the nation-state
 External and Internal pressure = crisis of the nation-state
 Internally :
o upsurge in ethnic, regional and multicultural politics, in the context of
economic and cultural globalization nations can no longer provide the
collective identity or social belonging
o nationalism is going to be replaced by multiculturalism
o nations, ethnic, regional or cultural groups are not viable political entities in
their own right, and have thus sometimes looked to forms of federalism and
confederalism to provide an alternative to political nationalism
 FE : Flanders and Wallonia have achieved such a degree of self-
government that Belgium remains a nation-state only in a strictly
formal sense
 Externally :
o technology of warfare, especially the nuclear age demands that world peace
be policed by intergovernmental or supranational bodies
 Led to creation of UN
o economic life has been progressively globalized
 Markets => world markets, businesses =>transnational corporations,
capital is moved around the globe
o nation-state may be the enemy of the natural environment and a threat to
the global ecological balance
 Nations concerned primarily with their own strategic and economic
interests, and most pay little attention to the ecological consequences
of their actions

Article by Heywood
What is ideology?
 No settled definition only a collection of rival definitions, contested concepts thick
(liberalism, conservatism and socialism) or thin —> see article
o A political belief
o An action-oriented set of political ideas
o The ideas of the ruling class
o …
 De Tracy: ideology = science of ideas, thus objective
 Marxist view : the idea of the ruling class, ideology is about delusion and
mystification, he classed his ideas as scientific, ideology is linked to class systems,
reflects the interests and perspectives on society of the ruling class, it is a
manifestation of power (ideology serves to hide from the exploited proletariat the
fact of its own exploitation), the proletariat does not need it, it is a temporary
phenomenon
o Lenin: socialist ideology
o Gramsci: ideology is embedded at every level in society
o Frankfurt school: society has dev a totalitarian character through the capacity
of its ideology to manipulate thought and deny expression to oppositional
views
 Non-Marxist view
o Mannheim rid ideology of its negative implications, they are thought systems
that serve to defend a particular social order, and express the interests of its
dominant or ruling group
 Divide them in 2
 Total ideologies: world-view of a social-class, society or
historical period
 Particular ideologies: the ideas an beliefs of specific individuals
Perspectives on ideology -> see article
 Popper, Arendt, Crick: use ideology in a restrictive manner seeing fascism and
communism as the prime examples
o They are Closed systems of thoughts => monopoly of truth
o Liberalism is an open system of thought
 Oakeshott: conservative concept of ideology, they are abstract systems of thought
that are destined to simplify and distort social reality bc they claim to explain what is
incomprehensible, he is in favor of pragmatism
 1960s: ideology is a neutral and objective concept, a set of ideas through which men
explain and posit …, neither true not false, neither closed nor open
 Why so difficult ?
o All concepts of ideology require a link btw theory and practice
o Not able to stand apart from the ongoing struggle btw and among political
ideologies
What are the functions of ideology?
Can shape unite and bring new political systems
 Influence the political life
o By structuring political understanding, set goals and inspire activism
 Provide a Lens through which we can perceive the world
 Inspire political activism
 Politicians want power BUT bc they possess belief, values …
o Shape the nature of political systems
o Act as a form of social cement
 Providing social groups with sets of unifying beliefs and values
 Associated with social classes : liberalism with middle classes,
conservatism with the aristocracy …
 Help foster a sense of belonging and solidarity

Classification of ideology

Left (positive view) and right (pessimistic view on human nature)

 Helps to provide insight into the nature of particular ideologies and uncovers
relationships btw political ideologies

 Left-wing welcoming change, belief in progress

 Right-wing resists change and defend the status quo
 BUT we can also divide them bc of their attitude towards economic organization and
the role of the state
o Left : support intervention and collectivism
o Right: favor the market and individualism
 Bobbio (1996) divided them as such : left = want greater equality, right = treat
equality as impossible or undesirable

Drawback of the linear spectrum

 Ideologies contain rival or contradictory elements THUS to put them on a line is

difficult FE: Anarchism is either ultra left-wing or ultra right-wing
 The extremes on both ends usually have more in common FE: fascism and
communism share a tendency towards totalitarianism
o This view led to the idea the spectrum should be horseshoe-shaped NOT
linear
 They all manifest themselves differently in diff geographical contexts, impossible to
assign them an agreed left/right identity, FE: USA liberalism is viewed as more left-
wing than conservatism as for in Europe liberalism is associated with free-market
thinking and conservatism with social intervention
 They are fluid entities, re-invent themselves, thus left and right must constant be
updated, FE: some socialist reformist parties distanced themselves from
nationalization and welfare instead embraced market economics
  The ideological debate has broadened and developed throughout the years thus the
linear spectrum is simplistic

What is the future of ideology ?

Will persist:
 “Despite its varied obituaries, political ideology has stubbornly refused to die: while particular
ideologies may rise or fall, ideological forms of politics seem to be an enduring feature of world
history.”
 Ideology is an intellectual framework and helps politicians; parties and other political actors
make sense of the world. It is flexible and can be redefined and renewed: as old ideologies fade,
new ones emerge  preserve relevance of political ideology. The end of the left/right led to the
emergence of feminism, green ideology, multiculturalism and cosmopolitanism. On top of that,
 If politicians can’t use ideology, they might be viewed as power-seeking without coherence and
direction
 Although ideological debate has became richer and certainly progressively more diverse since the
1960s, not least as a result of the rise of so-called ‘new’ ideologies such as feminism and green
ideology, the classical ideologies have retained their central importance. In large part, this has
been because of their capacity to reinvent themselves. In the process of doing so, the dividing
lines between them have often been blurred.
 Even if the ‘classical’ ideologies are replaced by ‘new’ ideologies, those are still ideologies.
There will be a shift from economics to culture: orientated around people’s values, beliefs
and way of life; a shift from social politics to identity politics: ‘new’ ideologies offer
individuals a range of ideological options, making political activism a lifestyle choice and a
shift from universalism to particularism: stress the importance of individual differences
‘End of ideology’:
 The ‘end of ideology’ debate: book by Daniel Bell (1960) inspired by the collapse of fascism at the
end of WWII and decline of communism in the West  “ideological questions have become
irrelevant because Western parties compete for power by promising economic growth and
welfare.”
 End of the left/right divide, echnocratic politics, consumerist politics and electoral politics
contribution to party de-ideologization
 According to Marx, ideology only exists as long as there is a class system.

> Socialism: is socialism dead?

Early 20th century: SPD largest in Germany (1914), Russian Revolution (1917), orthodox communism
in China, Cuba and Eastern Europe, success of social democrats
1989-1991: fall of communism, social democrats become more liberal/conservative
 Yes: superiority of capitalism over socialism
 No: imperfections of the capitalist system, socialism is a reminder that human development can
extend beyond market individualism. Socialism may be in the process of transforming into a
critique of global exploitation and inequality. On top of that, there is evidence of a revival of
socialism in the emergence of left-wing populist parties and movements.

> The future of nationalism

From the final decades of the 20th century, it was a popular view that the age of nationalism was
over, because its task had been completed: the world had become a world of nation-states.
Will persist: although the number of aspiring nations has fallen markedly, independence movements
remain active in many parts of the world (e.g. Catalonia, Scotland, Tibet, Quebec, South Ossetia,
Kurdistan, Western Sahara, Padania and Palestine). A combination of internal pressures and external
threats has produced what is commonly referred to as a ‘crisis of the nation-state’.
Will end: nation-states have been subject to upsurges in ethnic, regional and multicultural politics 
reflect that, in a context of economic and cultural globalization, nations are no longer able to provide
a meaningful collective identity or sense of social belonging. On top of that, all nation-states embody
cultural diversity that challenges the principle of the nation  nationalism is in the process of being
replaced by multiculturalism. External threats to the nation-state are advances in the technology of
warfare ( demands that world peace should be policed by intergovernmental or supranational
bodies  League of Nations and the United Nations); economic life has been progressively
globalized, and the nation-state may be the enemy of the natural environment and a threat to the
global ecological balance.

 Fluid sets of ideas that overlap with other ideologies and shape into one another
 Hybrid ideological forms such as liberal conservatism, socialist feminism and
conservative nationalism
 New ideologies are
o Shift from economics towards culture
o Shift from social politics towards identity politics
o Shift from universalism to particularism
 Reflective question: what is your own ideology? (students can choose to share in the
post-discussion if they feel comfortable)
 Parts of feminism (equality is important), ecologism (not radical) and cosmopolitanism
(sounds ideal, but would it work?)
 Social democracy