DBMS LAB SYNTAX

Table creation:

create table tablename

(
Field1 datatype1(size1);
……..
Fieldn datatypen(sizen);
)

For characters: varchar2(size)

For numbers: number( numberOfDigits)
OR
number(numberOfDigits, numberOfdecimals);

for date: field1 date; (DD-MMM-YY format).

Command to get structure:

Sql> Desc tablename

Inserting records into table:

Inserting multiple attribute values:

insert into tablename

values(val1,val2,val3,……);

// it must match number of fields and datatype of field

Inserting some attributes value:

Insert into tablename(Attributename1,attributename2…)

Values(attributeval1,attributeval2….);

ALTER COMMAND:

1.add extra columns:

Alter table tablename

Add(field1 datatype1(size), ………);

2. modify:

Alter table tablename

Modify fieldname datatype(size);

3. to remove column:

Alter table tablename

Drop column columnname;
4. to rename column:

Alter table tablename

Rename column oldname to newname;

TRUNCATE:

// deletes all the content in the table

Truncate table tablename;

DROP:

// deletes table from the database

Drop table tablename;

RENAME:

// to rename table.

Rename oldtablename to newtablename;

DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE(DML):

DELETE:

//to delete one or more records from the table

Delete from tablename

[where condition] ;
// delete from tablename; is similar to TRUNCATE

UPDATE:

// to modify contents in the table

Update tablename
Set field1 = val1, field2 = val2 ……………….
[where condition];

SELECT:

// to display records based on given conditions.

Sql> Select clause

From clause
[where clause]
[group by clause]
[having clause]
[order by clause];

DISTINCT/UNIQUE:

// to display unique values.

Select distinct fieldname from tablename;

CREATING ALIAS:

// to temporarily change fieldname while displaying

Select fieldname as aliasname from tablename;

CONSTRAINTS:

// restricts data put into table.

1. NOT NULL:
// does not allow null values
Using create:

Create table tablename

(
Field1 datetype not null;
……………
)

Using alter:

Alter table tablename

Modify fieldname datatype not null;

2. UNIQUE:
// does not allow duplicate values

Using create:

Create table tablename

(
Field1 datetype not null;
 ……………

Constraint constraintname unique(fieldname)

);

Using alter:

Alter table tablename

Add constraint constraintname unique(field1,field2,….);

3. PRIMARY KEY:

// unique + not null

// one table can have only one primary key

Using create:

Create table tablename

(
Field1 datetype not null;
……………

Constraint constraintname primary key(fieldname)

);

Using alter:

Alter table tablename

Add constraint constraintname primary key(field1);

4. CHECK:
// allows the values which lie between given boundaries only

Using create:
 Create table tablename
(
Field1 datetype not null;
……………

Constraint constraintname check(fieldname between x and y)

);

Using alter:

Alter table tablename

Add constraint constraintname check(field1 between x and y);

5. FOREIGN KEY:
// establishes relation between two tables
// values of foreign key are subset of primary key

Using create:

Create table tablename

(
Field1 datetype not null;
……………

Constraint constraintname foreign key(fieldname1) references

tablename2(fieldname2)
);

Using alter:

Alter table tablename

Add constraint constraintname foreign key(field1) references
tablename2(field2);
 Note:

// can be used to modify the foreign key when primary key gets
updated or deleted

constraint constraintname foreign key(field1) references

tablename2(field2) on delete cascade;
or
on update set null;

DROPPING A CONSTRAINT:

Alter table tablename

Drop constraint constraintname;

MORE ON SELECT STATEMENT:

1. ORDER BY:

// used to sort the records in either ascending or descending order

Order by field1 [asc/desc] [field2[asc/desc]……………..];

// one field mandatory
// default is ascending order

2. WHERE CLAUSE:
// used to filter the records based on given condition

1.relational and logical operators: > or < or >= or <= or != or

AND or OR

Select * from tablename

Where field1 > x and field2!=y ……..;

2. membership operators: IN , NOT IN

 Select * from tablename
Where field1 in (x,y,z,……..) or field2 not in (m,k,l….);

3. range operators: BETWEEN , NOT BETWEEN

Select * from tablename

Where field1 between x and y; (both inclusive)

4. pattern matching: LIKE, NOT LIKE

// underscore (_) : single character

// percentage (%) : 0 or more characters

Select * from tablename

Where field1 LIKE ‘_ _ _ _’ and field2 NOT LIKE ‘%s’; (both inclusive)

5. null operators : IS NULL, IS NOT NULL

Select * from tablename

Where field1 is null and field2 is not null;

SQL AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS:

1. SUM() :
// used to calculate sum of all the attribute values

Select sum(field1) from tablename;

2. AVG() :
// used to calculate average of all the attribute values

Select avg(field1) from tablename;

3. COUNT():
// used to find number of records

Select count(field1) from tablename;

4. MAX():
// gives maximum value from given attribute values

Select max(field1) from tablename;

5. MIN():
// gives minimum value from given attribute values

Select min(field1) from tablename;

NESTED QUERIES:

// a query inside another query is called as nested query.

EXAMPLE:

Select * from tablename

Where field1 in (select field2 from tablename where field2 > x);

GROUP BY CLAUSE:

// used to group records based on duplicate values

Example:

Select count(emp),deptno from emp group by deptno;

SET OPERATORS:

1. UNION:

Select field1 from tablename

Where field1 = x

UNION

Select field1 from tablename

Where field1 = y;

2. INTERSECT:

Select field1 from tablename

Where field1 = x

INTERSECT

Select field1 from tablename

Where field1 < y;

3. MINUS:

Select field1 from tablename

Where field2 = x

MINUS

Select field1 from tablename

Where field2 = y;
JOINS:

1.CROSS JOIN:

//every record of one relation is mapped with every record of another

relation.

Select * from tablename1,tablename2;

2.NATURAL JOIN:

// there must be atleast one common field.

// common fields are displayed only once.

Select * from tablename1 natural join tablename2;

3.OUTER JOIN: (LEFT,RIGHT,FULL)

// returns all matched records and all unmatched records of any one or
both tables based on left, right or full outer join.

Select * from tablename1 left join tablename2 on [condition];

CORRELATED NESTED QUERIES:

// every outer record executes inner record once.

// outer record variables are used in inner record.

EXAMPLE:

Select * from emp e

Where sal > (select avg(sal) from emp f where f.deptno = e.deptno);
PL SQL:

[ DECLARE

// required variables are declared here

BEGIN
………

END;
/

DATATYPES:

Number(size)
Number(size,decimals)
Char(size)
Varchar2(size)
Boolean
%type
%rowtype

To print output:

// in sql > set serveroutput on;

//in program

Dbms_output.put_line();

IMPORTANT: to assign values use ‘:=’ and not ‘=’.

To open editor:

Sql> ed d:/foldername/filename.sql

To execute:

Sql> @ d:/foldername/filename.sql

IF STATEMENT:

IF condition then

………..

ELSIF condition2 then

…………..

[
ELSE
………
]

END IF;
LOOPS:

1.simple loop:

LOOP
……..
Exit when condition;
END LOOP;

2. while loop:

While condition
LOOP
……..
End loop;

3.for loop:

for var in [reverse] lowerbound..upperbound //(inclusive)

LOOP
……
END LOOP;

SELECT STATEMENT:

Select field1,field2.. into var1,var2…. From tablename

Where condition;

Note: if data type is unknown, %type is used.

Example:
Num student.sno%type;
 %ROWTYPE:

// used to create a table variable which can store all the attribute
values similar to a structure variable

Example:

Recvar student%rowtype;

Select * into recvar from student where sno = 501;

CURSORS:

//used to iterate through the records of a table.

SYNTAX:

1. declare:
Cursor cursorname IS select statement;

2. open the cursor:

Open cursorname;

3. fetch the records:

Fetch cursorname into <variables>;

4. close the cursor:

Close cursorname;

NOTE:
// while using loop

LOOP
Fetch cursorname into <variables>;
EXIT WHEN cursorname%NOTFOUND; //(to exit when reached end)
End loop;
PROCEDURES:

SYNTAX:

Create or replace procedure procedurename[(var1 datatype1,……)]

IS

………….. // this is the declaration section

BEGIN

……….

END;
/

// variables can be IN or OUT or IN OUT

// IN – constant

// OUT – change in value affects actual parameter

// IN OUT – can modify and return

NOTE: sql> show errors; // shows errors

FUNCTIONS:

SYNTAX:

Create or replace function functionname[(var1 datatype1,……)]

Return datatype
IS

………….. // this is the declaration section

BEGIN

……….

Return x;
END;
/
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS ON PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS:

1. Write a PL/SQL procedure to display output as follows:

EMPLOYEE SUMMARY DETAILS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Departments: 4
Number of Employees: 14
Name of the President: KING
Department Number (Max. no.of Employees): 30
Department Number (Min. no. of Employees): 40
____________________________________________________________
END SUMMARY

SOLUTION:

create or replace procedure empdisplay

is

dcount number(3);
ecount number(3);
pname emp.ename%type;
dmax number(3);
dmin number(3);

begin

select count(deptno) into dcount from dept;

select count(empno) into ecount from emp;
select ename into pname from emp where job = 'PRESIDENT';
select deptno into dmax from emp having count(empno) = (select
max(count(empno)) from emp group by deptno) group by deptno;
select dept.deptno into dmin from dept left join emp on dept.deptno
= emp.deptno having count(empno) = (select min(count(empno)) from
dept left join emp on dept.deptno = emp.deptno group by dept.deptno)
group by dept.deptno;
dbms_output.put_line(''||' '||'EMPLOYEE SUMMARY DETAILS'||'
');
dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-------');
dbms_output.put_line('Number of Departments: '||dcount);
dbms_output.put_line('Number of Employees: '||ecount);
dbms_output.put_line('Name of the President: '||pname);
dbms_output.put_line('Department Number(Max. no. of Employees):
'||dmax);
dbms_output.put_line('Department Number(Min. no. of Employees):
'||dmin);
dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-------');
dbms_output.put_line(''||' '||'END SUMMARY'||'
');

end;
/

2. Write a PL/SQL procedure or function to display output as follows:

EMPLOYEE DETAILS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Employees: 14
Name of the President: KING
Name of the Employee (Highest Salary):
Name of the Employee (Lowest Salary):
Name of the Employee (Most Senior):
Name of the Employee (Most Junior):
____________________________________________________________
END

SOLUTION:

create or replace procedure empshow3

is

ecount number(3);
pname emp.ename%type;
maxsalname emp.ename%type;
minsalname emp.ename%type;
seniorname emp.ename%type;
juniorname emp.ename%type;
begin

select count(empno) into ecount from emp;

select ename into pname from emp where job = 'PRESIDENT';
select ename into maxsalname from emp where sal = (select max(sal)
from emp);
select ename into minsalname from emp where sal = (select min(sal)
from emp);
select ename into seniorname from emp where hiredate = (select
min(hiredate) from emp);
select ename into juniorname from emp where hiredate = (select
max(hiredate) from emp);

dbms_output.put_line('| '||'EMPLOYEE DETAILS'||'

|');
dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-------');
dbms_output.put_line('Number of Employees: '||ecount);
dbms_output.put_line('Name of the President: '||pname);
dbms_output.put_line('Name of the Employee(highest salary):
'||maxsalname);
dbms_output.put_line('Name of the Employee(lowest salary):
'||minsalname);
dbms_output.put_line('Name of the Employee(most senior):
'||seniorname);
dbms_output.put_line('Name of the Employee(most junior):
'||juniorname);
dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-------');
dbms_output.put_line('| '||'END'||'
|');

end;
/

1. 3. Write a PL/SQL procedure or function to display output as follows:

EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT DETAILS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Departments: 4
Deptno Deptname
10 ----
20 -----
30 ----
 40 ------
Number of Employees in Each Department:
Deptno No.Of Emplotees
10 ----
20 -----
30 ----
40 ------

____________________________________________________________
END

SOLUTION:

create or replace procedure deptshow

is

dcount number(3);

cursor cdept is select deptno,dname from dept;

cursor cemp is select dept.deptno,count(empno) from dept left join

emp on dept.deptno = emp.deptno group by dept.deptno;

deptnoo dept.deptno%type;

empcount number(2);

rowdept cdept%rowtype;

begin

open cdept;
open cemp;

select count(deptno) into dcount from dept;

dbms_output.put_line('| '||' EMPLOYEE AND

DEPARMENT DETAILS'||' |');
dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------');
dbms_output.put_line('Number of Departments: '||dcount);
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno'||' '||'Deptname');

loop
fetch cdept into rowdept;
exit when cdept%NOTFOUND;
dbms_output.put_line(rpad(rowdept.deptno,10,' ')||rowdept.dname);
end loop;
close cdept;

dbms_output.put_line(' ');
dbms_output.put_line('Number of Employees in each department: ');
dbms_output.put_line(' ');
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno'||' '||'No.Of Employees');

loop
fetch cemp into deptnoo,empcount;
exit when cemp%NOTFOUND;
dbms_output.put_line(rpad(deptnoo,15,' ')||empcount);
end loop;
close cemp;

dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------');
dbms_output.put_line('| '||' END
'||' |');

end;
/

1. 4. Write a PL/SQL procedure or function to display output as follows:

EMPLOYEE SALARY DETAILS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Employees: 14
Total Salary of All Employees: ----
Deptno Total Salary
10 ----
20 -----
30 ----
40 ------
Highest Salary Details:
Employeename salary Deptno
Lowest Salary Details:
 Employeename salary Deptno

____________________________________________________________
END

SOLUTION:

create or replace procedure empfinal

is

ecount number(3);

cursor cdept is select dept.deptno,sum(sal) from dept left join emp

on dept.deptno = emp.deptno group by dept.deptno;

deptnoo dept.deptno%type;

ttsal number(6);

tsal number(6);

hsal emp%rowtype;

lsal emp%rowtype;

begin

open cdept;

select count(empno) into ecount from emp;

select sum(sal) into tsal from emp;
select ename,sal,deptno into hsal.ename,hsal.sal,hsal.deptno from
emp where sal = (select max(sal) from emp);
select ename,sal,deptno into lsal.ename,lsal.sal,lsal.deptno from
emp where sal = (select min(sal) from emp);

dbms_output.put_line('| '||' EMPLOYEE SALARY

DETAILS'||' |');
dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------');
dbms_output.put_line('Number of Employees: '||ecount);
dbms_output.put_line('Total Salary of All Employees: '||tsal);
dbms_output.put_line('Deptno'||' '||'Total Salary');

loop
fetch cdept into deptnoo,ttsal;
if ttsal is null then
ttsal:=0;
end if;
exit when cdept%NOTFOUND;
dbms_output.put_line(rpad(deptnoo,15,' ')||ttsal);
end loop;
close cdept;

dbms_output.put_line(' ');
dbms_output.put_line('Highest salary details: ');
dbms_output.put_line('Employeename'||' '||'salary'||'
'||'Deptno');
dbms_output.put_line(hsal.ename||' '||hsal.sal||'
'||hsal.deptno);
dbms_output.put_line('Lowest salary details: ');
dbms_output.put_line('Employeename'||' '||'salary'||'
'||'Deptno');
dbms_output.put_line(lsal.ename||' '||lsal.sal||'
'||lsal.deptno);

dbms_output.put_line('----------------------------------------------
-----------------------------');
dbms_output.put_line('| '||' END
'||' |');

end;
/

NOTE:

// to execute procedures

Sql> execute procedurename[parameters];