FINAL CORE 4 - Earth and Life Science

196
CORE 4
EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES

196
CORE 4: Earth and Life Sciences 217
CONTENTS
EARTH SCIENCE
UNIT I: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH PAGE
A: The Universe and the Solar System 219
B: Earth and Earth Systems 228
UNIT II: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
A: Minerals and Rocks 233
B: Endogenic Processes 237
C: Exogenic Processes 240
D: Deformation of the Crust 240
E: History of the Earth 242
UNIT III NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND ADAPTATION

A: Geologic Processes and Hazards 243
B: Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards 249
C: Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects 257
LIFE SCIENCE
UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

A: Development of Biology As A Science 257
B: Definition of Life and the Characteristics of Living Organisms 259
C: Theories on the Origin of Life and Living Organisms 261
UNIT II BIOENERGETICS
A: Life at the Cellular Level 263
B: Life at the Ecological Level 265
LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNIT III THE PERPETUATION OF LIFE 268
UNIT IV PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 274
UNIT V ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 279
UNIT VI THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION 286
UNIT VII INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENCE 290

Earth and Life Sciences
Introduction
Science is a systematic body of knowledge derived through a series of
observations and experiments. In terms of scope, it is generally classified as Natural
and Social Sciences. Natural Science studies the environment that is not made by man,
both its physical aspects (those which are abiotic or non-living such as the origin and
structure of the Earth including its structure, composition, processes, and phenomena)
and its biological components (the different kinds of living organisms in terms of their
origin, structure, survival and perpetuation, classification, and interaction), Social
Science, on the other hand, is the study of human interactions in an environment known
as society.
Core 3 – Earth and Life Sciences shall be providing significant information about
both the abiotic and biotic aspects of the natural world. Apart from its theoretical
perspective, it would also focus on the significance of applying such information in
disaster risk-reduction and management as well as in the minimization of the negative
impacts of human population on our environment.
Earth Science
UNIT I. ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
A. The Universe and the Solar System

The Universe: Its Definition and Origin. Defined as the totality of the
materials and processes that exist, the universe is regarded as the largest
and most holistic aspect of reality or the natural environment – that which is
not made by man.
Ever since the dawn of science, the origin of the universe has always
been one of the topics that man has endeavored to understand. Through a
series of observations and experiments that constitute the scientific method
done over long periods of time and with developments in technology and
instrumentation, e.g. space exploration, it is now established that the
vastness of the universe consists of gravitational groupings of stars known as
galaxies that are separate from each other by immense space. Likewise,
theories explaining how the universe began had been formulated and
following are a number of such theories:
Steady State Theory. Proposed in 1948 by Hermann Bondi, Thomas

Gold, and Fred Hoyle, this theory is based on the perfect cosmological
principle which holds that the universe looks essentially the same from every
spot in it and at every time. It states that the number of galaxies in our
universe is constant and new galaxies which are forming continuously are

filling the empty spaces which are created by those heavenly bodies which
have crossed the boundary lines of observable universe.
Inflationary Theory. According to this theory, an extraordinary burst of

expansion in the very early stages of the universe inflated the size of the
cosmos / universe by a factor of 10 50. Purported In 1980 by Alan Guth, this
theory explained that that shortly after the beginning of the universe known as
Big Bang (around 10 -35 seconds, or 100 billion trillion trillionths of a
second), the universe underwent a period of extraordinarily rapid expansion,
inflating its size by a factor of 10 50.Before this inflationary period, the
universe’s constituents would have been in contact with one another, so they
would have reached the same temperature. And the rapid inflation would
make the universe’s expansion appear very flat, in the same way that the
surface of a balloon blown up by such a huge factor would resemble great
plains. Inflation supposedly ended by 10-30seconds after the Big Bang, and
since then the universe has expanded just as it would have in the standard
big-bang model.
Big Bang Theory. What began as a scientific paper written in 1931 by

Georges Lemaître, a Belgian cosmologist and Catholic priest, became the
most popular and most widely accepted theory on the origin of the universe.
Considering Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, Alexander Friedmann’s
application of Einstein’s Theory to cosmology, and Edwin Hubble’s
astronomical observation of an expanding universe / red-shift
phenomenon (relative to the Earth and all other observed bodies, galaxies
are receding in every direction at velocities that are directly proportional to
their distance from the Earth and each other), Lemaitre stated that the
beginning and expansion of the observable universe began with the
explosion of a single particle at a definite point in time. Accordingly, our
universe began as a "singularity" around 13.7 billion years ago. A
singularity is a zone of gravitational pressure that is so intense such that
finite matter is actually squished into infinite density. After the appearance of
this infinitesimally small, infinitely hot, infinitely dense singularity, it apparently
inflated (the "Big Bang"), expanded, and cooled, going from very, very small
and very, very hot, to the size and temperature of our current universe. It
apparently continues to expand and cool to this day and the Earth, as part of
the universe is inside of it.
Beginning at the latter parts of the 20 th century, further and more

advanced studies and the use of observatories both here on Earth and out
there in space resulted into a detailed account of the Big Bang from its first
milliseconds up to such time that the universe became what it has been for a
time now. Following is such account:

10-43 seconds. Known as the Planck Era, this is the closest that current
Physics can get to the absolute beginning of time. At this moment, the
universe is thought to be incredibly hot, dense, and turbulent, with the very
fabric of space and time turned into a roiling morass. All the fundamental
forces currently at work in the universe - gravity, electromagnetism and the
so-called strong and weak nuclear forces - are thought to have been unified
during this stage into a single "superforce".
10-35 seconds. The so-called Grand Unification Era, at the end of which
the “superforce” began to break apart into the constituent forces we see
today. Around this time, inflationary energy triggered a dramatic burst of
expansion, expanding the universe from far smaller than a subatomic particle
to far larger than the cosmic volume we can now know about. In the process,
the primordial wrinkles in space-time were smoothed out.
10-32 seconds. The energy dumped into the universe by the end of
inflation led to the appearance of particles of matter via Einstein's equation,
E=mc2. Initially, a mix of matter and antimatter, most of the particles
annihilated each other in a burst of radiation, leaving behind randomly
scattered pockets of matter.
10-11 seconds. The so-called Electroweak Era, when the last two
fundamental forces still unified with one another - electromagnetism and the
weak nuclear force - finally split, leaving the universe with the four separate
forces in the present-day universe.
10-6 seconds. As the universe continued to expand, it became cool

enough to allow the familiar particles of today's matter, protons, and
neutrons, to form from their constituents, known as quarks.
200 seconds. At a temperature of one billion degrees Celsius, protons

and neutrons started to come together to form nuclei, the charged cores of
atoms. Within 20 minutes, the temperature of the universe became too cold
to drive the process, which ceased with the formation of the nuclei of
Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He), the simplest and most common elements in
the universe. The formation of all the other elements - including Carbon (C),
Oxygen (O), and Nitrogen (N) needed for life - emerged with the first massive
stars millions of years later.
300,000 years. The universe cooled to about 1,0000C - cool enough for
electrons to pair up with nuclei to form the first atoms. By the end of this so-
called Recombination Era, the universe consisted of about 75% Hydrogen
and 25% Helium. With the electrons now bound to atoms, the universe finally

became transparent to light - making this the earliest epoch observable

today.
200 M years. Small, dense regions of cosmic gas started to collapse

under their own gravity, becoming hot enough to trigger nuclear fusion
reactions between Hydrogen atoms. These were the very first stars to light up
the universe.
0.5 – 1 B years. The force of gravity started to pull together huge regions
of relatively dense cosmic gases, forming the vast, swirling collections of
stars we now call galaxies. These, in turn, started to form clusters, of which
one - the so-called Local Group - contains our own Milky Way galaxy.
9 B years. The force of gravity trying to slow the cosmic expansion

began to lose out to the anti-gravitational effect of "dark energy", a
mysterious force which has been accelerating the cosmic expansion ever
since.
9.1 B years. A region of gas and dust from exploding stars in the Milky
Way galaxy started to collapse under its own gravity, forming a small star
surrounded by a disk of rocky material and gas which formed the Sun while
swarms of giant chunks of debris from within the disc, collided and merged,
forming the Earth, moon, and other planets. Thus, based on this timeline, the
present-day Universe that we are able to observe today, particularly the solar
system is already around 4.5 years old.
The Physical Position of the Solar System and the Earth in the
Universe. Alongside the endeavors to ascertain the origin and nature of the
universe are the efforts to describe the physical position of the Earth in such
realm.
Geocentric Concept. The Geocentric (Earth-centered) Concept formed

around 80 BC and believed to be correct until the first few years of 1500 AD
supposed that the Earth is the center of a finite universe. In accordance with
the Theocentric (God-centered) worldview when science was a mere subfield
of theology and created by Greek astronomers, the Geocentric Model
assumed that all celestial objects (e.g., Sun, moon, planets, and stars) all
move around a motionless Earth in a perfectly circular path. The universe
was then regarded as a perfect celestial sphere with the Earth positioned at
its center. The culmination of this model was formulated by Claudius Ptolemy
(90 B.C. - 168 A.D.) who devised complicated models in which planets
moved along circles (epicycles) that were superimposed on circular orbits
about the Earth. As astronomers improved their methods of observation and

measurement, however, these models became increasingly complicated, with

constant additions of epicycles and difficult to be accepted as correct.
Heliocentric Concept. The Scientific Revolution, which took place in the

16th and 17th centuries, was a time of unprecedented learning and discovery
during which, the foundations of modern science were laid due to
breakthroughs in the fields of Physics, Mathematics, and Astronomy. In
Astronomy, the most influential scholar was the Polish astronomer Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543), who formulated the Heliocentric (Sun-centered)
model of the universe. Based on ongoing observations of the motions of the
planets, as well as previous theories from classical antiquity and the Islamic
World, Copernicus’ proposed a model of the universe where the Earth, the
planets, and the stars all revolved around the Sun. Apart from Copernicus,
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), further strengthened the
validity of the Heliocentric model through his measurements of the positions
of the stars and planets prior to the invention of the telescope as well as his
observation of a comet’s path which he described as not at all circular. Then,
after Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) built a telescope and
turned it toward the heavens, more evidence supporting the Heliocentric
model started to accumulate. Through his refracting telescopes, Galilei saw
that Venus and Mercury go through phases similar to those of the Moon. The
geocentric model could not fully explain these changes in the appearance of
the inferior planets (the planets between the Earth and the Sun).
Furthermore, his observations of Jupiter having four moons revolving around
it made it clearer that celestial bodies do move about centers other than the
Earth. Around the time when Galilei began surveying the skies with his
telescope, the mathematician Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), used Brahe's
precise measurements to determine the exact paths of the planets and was
able to show that the planets did not move along circular paths but rather in
an elliptical course, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. The fact that the
orbits of the planets about the Sun are ellipses became known as Kepler's
first law. His second law stated that an imaginary line connecting the planet
to the Sun covers equal areas in equal times; and the third law, which was
later used by the physicist Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) in establishing the
universal law of gravitation, revealed that the time for each planet to make
one revolution (complete movement through its elliptical path around the Sun)
is constant. By the time Newton established the three laws of motion, laws
that he demonstrated to be valid for both celestial and Earthly objects, the
Geocentric model became fully invalidated by the Heliocentric Concept.
Island Universe Concept. As the Big Bang Theory became widely

accepted by the 20th Century, and as Edwin Hubble (1889 – 1953) was able
to demonstrate the red-shift phenomenon which proved the existence of an
expanding universe, it became clear that the dimensions of the universe

could not be definitely known. Thus, the quest to determine its center was
abandoned and the physical realm was described as immensely vast space
containing diffuse cosmic gases known as nebulae. Each nebula, through
gravitational condensation, forms a grouping of billions of stars known as a
galaxy. A galaxy, when it first forms, assumes an irregular shape. As
gravitational attraction continues to exert force on such a galaxy, more of its
gases (H and He) fuse to form stars, at which point, the galaxy becomes
spiral. Further on its lifespan, as most of its gases have become turned into
stars, a spiral galaxy turns elliptical in shape.
As per observatories and space laboratories, most of the galaxies so far

observed belong to the spiral category. One such galaxy, called as the Milky
Way, is where the star we call as the Sun may be found, around which the
planets, including the Earth, revolve at a definite path.
The Solar System in Focus. The solar system consists of the Sun, the
planets namely Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mar, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and
Pluto and their corresponding moons, and the asteroids. Comets, although
formed outside of the solar system, are likewise considered in many solar
system studies.
The Sun, classified as the main sequence – yellow dwarf star, was
formed through a process called as Cosmological Nucleosynthesis. This
occurred after the Big Bang when the temperature of the materials dropped to
1 B degrees Celcius, creating H atoms, some of which fusing to form He.
This process also created other star types like red giants and supernovae,
much larger stars that further combined in a process known as Stellar
Nucleosynthesis that created C, N, O, and other heavier elements, mostly
metals which eventually formed the planets. Both Cosmological and Stellar
nucleosynthesis are driven by the force of gravity referred to as gravitational
condensation. Gravitational condensation of gaseous particles leading into
the formation of stars and gaseous planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
and Neptune is specifically termed as coalescence while such process
involving the formation of rocky, metallic entities like Mercury, Venus, Earth,
and Mars is called as accretion.
The Sun. A normal main-sequence star and one of more than 100 B stars
in our galaxy, the Sun has a diameter of 1, 390, 000 km, mass of 1.989 x 10 30
kg, and a temperature of 5,800 K at the surface and 15.6 M Kelvin at the
core. At present, it is about 70% H and 28% He by mass with everything else
amounting to less than 2%. This changes slowly over time as the Sun
converts hydrogen to helium in its core through a reaction known as nuclear
fusion. The Sun is the largest object in the solar system, containing more
than 99.8% of the region’s total mass. The outer layers of the Sun exhibit

differential rotation: at the equator, the surface rotates once every 25.4 days;
near the poles, it's as much as 36 days. This odd behavior is due to the fact
that the Sun is not a solid body like the Earth. Conditions at the Sun's core
are extreme - temperature is 15.6 M Kelvin, pressure is 250 B atm, and its
central core’s density is more than 150 times that of water. Solar power
(about 386 B megawatts) produced through fusion consists of about 700 B
tons of H becoming converted to about 695 B tons of He, and 5 B tons of
energy in the form of gamma rays. As it travels out toward the surface, the
energy is continuously absorbed and re-emitted at lower and lower
temperatures so that by the time it reaches the surface, it is primarily visible
light. The surface of the Sun, called the photosphere, is at a temperature of
about 5800 K. It may contain sunspots, only 3,800 K in temperature and can
be very large, as much as 50,000 km in diameter. Sunspots are caused by
complicated interactions with the Sun's magnetic field. A small region known
as the chromosphere lies above the photosphere. The highly rarefied region
above the chromosphere, called the corona, extends millions of kilometers
into space but is visible only during a total solar eclipse and with Temperature
of over 1 M K. In addition to heat and light, the Sun also emits a low density
stream of charged particles (mostly electrons and protons) known as the
solar wind which propagates throughout the solar system at about 450
km/sec. The solar wind and the much higher energy particles ejected by solar
flares can have dramatic effects on the Earth ranging from power line surges,
radio interference and polar lights known as aurora. The Sun is about 4.5
billion years old and since its birth it has used up about half of the Hydrogen
in its core. It will continue to radiate "peacefully" for another 5 billion years or
so (although its luminosity will approximately double in that time). But
eventually it will run out of H fuel. It will then be forced into radical changes
which will result in the total destruction of the Earth and probably the creation
of a planetary nebula.
The Planets. All the eight planets of the Solar System move around the
Sun through an elliptical path known as its orbit. This movement is called as
revolution is also referred to as a solar year. While revolving, planets also
spin through an imaginary line known as axis. This spinning motion is termed
as rotation and is taken as equal to a solar day.
1. Mercury
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from Sun: 0.3871 AU (57,910,000 km /
35,980,000 mi); Diameter: 4,878 km (3,031 mi); Period of Revolution: 88
days; Period of Rotation: 58.65 days; Mean orbital velocity: 48 km/s (30 mi /
s); Inclination of axis: 2°; Average temperature: 800° F (427° C) day; -300° F
(-183° C) night; Number of observed satellites / moons: 0; Density: 5.42 g /
cm3

Mercury is one of the five planets known to the ancients. They called these
planets "wandering stars." It may be seen as an evening "star" near where
the sun has set, or as a morning "star" near where the sun will rise. The
ancient Greeks called the evening star Hermes and the morning star Apollo,
believing them to be different objects. The planet is named after Mercury, the
Roman messenger of the gods. Mercury's atmosphere is so thin that it is
barely detectable.
2. Venus
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from Sun: 0.7233 AU (108,200,000 km /
67,230,000 mi); Diameter: 12,102 km (7,520 mi); Period of Revolution: 225
days; Period of Rotation: 243 days (retrograde or East to West); Mean orbital
velocity: 35 km / s (21.8 mi / s); Inclination of axis: 177.3°; Number of
observed satellites / moons: 0; Density: 5.25 g / cm3
The planet is named for Venus, the Roman goddess of Beauty. It is
about the same size as Earth which is why it is considered as Earth’s twin
planet. It rotates in a retrograde (backward) direction and at its closest, it is
only 42 million kilometers (26 million miles) from Earth. Venus has a thick
atmosphere of carbon dioxide and with atmospheric pressure at the surface
90 times that of Earth. Because Venus is nearer to the Sun than Earth and
has a very thick atmosphere, the surface temperature is extremely high, as
much as 475° Celsius (900° Fahrenheit).
3. Earth
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from Sun: 1 AU (149,600,000 km /
92,960,000 mi); Diameter: 12,756 km (7,926 mi) at its equator, 12, 713 km
(7899.49 mi) at is poles, average: 12,742 km (7917.51 mi); Period of
Revolution: 365.26 days; Period of Rotation: 23.93 hours; Mean orbital
velocity: 29.79 km/sec (18.6 mi / s); Inclination of axis: 23.45°; Average
temperature: 59° F (15° C); Number of observed satellites / moons: 1;
Density: 5.50 g / cm3
4. Mars
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from Sun: 1.524 AU (228,000,000 km
/141,700,000 mi); Diameter: 6,792 km (4,220 mi); Period of Revolution: 687
days; Period of Rotation: 24 hr 37 min; Mean orbital velocity: 24.14 km / s (15
mi / s); Inclination of axis: 25.2°; Density: 3.95 g / cm3; Number of observed
satellites / moons: 2
Mars has a surface that is characterized by wind, volcanoes, floodwaters
that used to flow across it, and giant impact craters. It also has polar ice caps
and with r axis of rotation tilt at similar angle and day length almost similar to
that of Earth.

5. Jupiter
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from the Sun: 5.203 AU (778,400,000 km /
483,700,000 mi); Period of Revolution: 11.86 years; Period of Rotation: 9.92
hours; Mean Orbital Velocity: 13.06 km / s (8.1 mi / s); Inclination of Axis:
3.12°; Diameter: 142,980 km/88,846 mi; Density: 1.31 g / cm3; Number of
observed satellites / moons: more than 60
6. Saturn
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from the Sun: 9.539 AU / 1, 427,000,000
km / 886,700,000 mi); Period of Revolution: 29.46 Earth years; Period of
Rotation: 10.66 hours; Mean Orbital Velocity: 9.64 km / s (6 mi / s); Inclination
of Axis: 26.73°; Diameter: 120,536 km (74,901 mi); Density: 0.70 g / cm3;
Number of observed satellites / moons: more than 50
7. Uranus
FAST FACTS: Mean distance from the Sun: 19.19 AU (2.871 billion km /
1.784 billion mi); Period of Revolution: Earth years; Period of Rotation: 17.24
hours; Mean Orbital Velocity: 6.81 km / s (4.2 m / s); Inclination of
Axis: 97.92°; Diameter: 51,118 km (31,765 mi); Density: 1.30 g / cm3;
Number of observed satellites / moons: more than 20
8. Neptune
FACTS: Mean distance from the Sun: 30.06 AU (4.497 billion km / 2.794
billion mi); Period of Revolution: 165 years; Period of Rotation: 16.11 hours;
Mean Orbital Velocity: 5.43 km / s (3.3 mi / s); Inclination of Axis: 29.6°;
Diameter: 49,528 km / 30,775 mi; Density: 1.66 g / cm 3; Number of observed
satellites / moons: 14
Asteroids and Comets. Asteroids are fragments of metals and rocks

which orbit around the Sun in the region of space between Mars and Jupiter.
Comets are frozen gases with metals that also orbit around the Sun and
disintegrate as they do. Both asteroids and comets may be sources of
meteoroids, wandering pieces of rocks in space. If such a meteoroid comes
very near the Earth, it might be pulled by the Earth’s gravity towards the
planet. As it enters the atmosphere, this meteoroid would burn, at which
point, it would now be referred to as a meteor. If it lands on the surface of the
Earth in case it does not completely burn and vaporize, then the remaining
particle is referred to a meteorite.
Enrichment Activities
1. Construct a 20th Century Space Technology Timeline highlighting the key
persons and discoveries that enabled us to have the current information that
we have about the universe.

2. Among the planets in the Solar System, Mars is regarded as the one which
closely resembles the Earth. Research on the processes undergone by the
Red Planet as well as its current characteristics that led on to this widely-
accepted premise.
3. Is life possible in other parts of the Universe? Defend your answer using the
astronomical perspectives discussed in this section.
B. Earth and Earth Systems

Earth: The Only Habitable Planet in the Solar System. Of the eight
planets in the Solar System as well as those found orbiting in other stars
known as exoplanets, Earth is the only one known where life exists and is
sustained. Scientists have identified the following as our planet’s life-
supporting characteristics:
1. Water That Exists Mostly In Liquid State. Called as the universal

solvent, water acts as the medium through which all chemical processes that
constitute life occur. Thus, no living organism could actually thrive in the
absence of water. Water also has certain characteristics that enable the
Earth to regulate its temperature ideal for the survival of many living
organisms. These include its high heat capacity and its ability to expand and
become lighter when in its frozen state.
The high heat capacity allows surface water constituting around 75% of
the Earth’s surface to absorb a large amount of solar radiation without
becoming readily hot. It also enables these water bodies to retain heat that
they have absorbed and thus, the Earth’s temperature does not fluctuate that
much. Also, water, when frozen tends to expand and becomes less dense
than liquid water. Thus, in parts of the Earth that seasonally experience
freezing temperatures, only the surface of water bodies solidify and
underneath this surface, the heat becomes trapped, enabling the rest of the
water to remain liquid for the continued survival of aquatic organisms.
2. The Presence of an Atmosphere and its Composition. The

layer of gases that cover the Earth consists mostly of Nitrogen (N 2), Oxygen
(O2), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Water Vapor (H2O), and Noble
Gases (e.g,, Helium (He), Neon (Ne), and Argon (Ar)). Its N 2, O2, and CO2
content are metabolically important gases (N 2 for protein synthesis, O2 for
cellular respiration, and CO2 for photosynthesis). CO2 also makes possible
Greenhouse Effect, the phenomenon wherein the Earth is able to retain a
certain percentage of solar heat so for it to be kept warm.

3. Energy, Space, and Time. Life on Earth emerged and continues

to flourish because of the power ultimately provided by the Sun. This solar
energy drives photosynthesis that creates food and acts as the fuel source,
either directly or indirectly, of the bulk of the living organisms. Still, some
other organism are able to utilize other compounds found on Earth such as
those in deep hydrothermal vents to sustain themselves.
Space and time also contributed to Earth’s life-sustaining capacity.

The distance of the Earth from the Sun was just near for the right amount of
solar heat to reach it. Had it been as close as Mercury and Venus, its
temperature would have been scorching and had it been as far as Mars or
the other outer planets, it would have been cold, and in both cases, water
would not have largely existed in its liquid state. The long periods that it took
the Earth to form and to become what it is right now is also regarded as a
major cause of its ability to support life. About 4.5 billion years old, it took the
Earth almost a billion years to start supporting life when it first emerged 3.5
billion years ago. In the same manner, more complex forms of life did took
longer to evolve — the first multicellular animals did not appear until about
600 million years ago. And because our Sun is likewise so long-lived, higher
orders of life, including humans, had time to evolve.
4. Other Factors. Scientists have also cited the stability of the Sun
as a star in terms of its energy output and the Earth’s electromagnetic field
that shields us from harmful cosmic rays; its geologic activity; and its capacity
to recycle and re-form its energy source as also significant features that make
it the only habitable planet so far known to man.
Through a long period of time from that point when it formed, the Earth
differentiated into spheres or systems that are nonetheless inter-connected
with one another. These are the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
the biosphere.
The Lithosphere. When the Earth formed through accretion, it actually

created the lithosphere which started as homogenous solid mass and later on
differentiated into three layers namely the Crust, Mantle, and Core. The Crust
is the outermost layer which is approximately 34 km thick, the Mantle is the
middle layer with thickness of 5, 766 km, and the Core is the innermost and
thickest layer equal to approximately 6,942 km.
In terms of chemical composition, the Earth is 35% Iron (Fe), 30%

Oxygen (O), 15% Silicon (Si), 13% Magnesium (Mg), 2.4% Nickel (Ni), 1.9%
Sulfur (S), 1.1 % Calcium (Ca), 1.1% Aluminum (Al), and other trace
elements.

The Crust is 46% Oxygen (O), 28% Silicon (Si), 8% Aluminum (Al), 6%
Iron (Fe), 4% Magnesium (Mg), 2.4% Calcium (Ca), 2.3% Potassium (K),
2.1% Sodium (Na), and other trace elements.
The Mantle is 45.23% Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), 38.39% Magnesium Oxide

(Mg2O2), 7.82% Iron II Oxide (Fe2O2), 4.19% Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), 3.36%
Calcium Oxide (Ca2O2).
The Core is predominantly composed of Iron (Fe) which is around 86%,

4% Nickel (Ni), and 10% of light elements such as Oxygen (O) and Sulfur (S).
The Atmosphere. The atmosphere is the mixture of gases that covers

the Earth. Its composition has undergone changes through long periods of
time as Earth undergoes its own geologic evolution.
The first set of gases that constituted the Earth’s atmosphere consisted of
primordial materials such as Hydrogen (H), Helium (He), Methane (CH 4), and
ammonia (NH3). Astrobiologists believe that these compounds were
residuals from the coalescence of the gaseous planets when the Solar
System was just forming. They were light gases with high escape velocities
and due to the relatively weak gravitational field of the Earth and the effect of
solar winds, these gases did not remain and were driven away into space.
Thus, the Earth existed for a time without an atmosphere.
Due to the geologic activity occurring at the Earth’s interior, heat

accumulated and resulted into an excessively high temperature and a molten
state of the Core. It came to a point that the heat underneath could no longer
be contained and this resulted in extreme volcanism and volcanic out-
gassing. Volcanism resulted into the flowing of molten rock materials on the
Earth’s surface, changing its topography. Out-gassing released volatile
materials from the Earth’s inner layers which included Nitrogen (N 2), H2O
vapor, Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Hydrogen Chloride
(HCl), and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Unlike the primordial gases, the out-gassed
compounds remained and accumulated at a certain distance from the surface
of the Earth and eventually resulted in a global cooling and condensation /
cloud formation. This then resulted in long periods of heavy rainfall,
weathering and breaking of crustal rocks and together with meteoric impact, it
formed the hydrosphere.
The formation of the hydrosphere led into the evolution of life and the first
life-forms that emerged were photosynthetic. Photosynthesis slowly used up
the large amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere that came from volcanic out-
gassing and likewise led into the slow accumulation of Oxygen (O 2). This
later paved the way for greater diversification of living organisms through

evolution and a more efficient photosynthetic activity. Thus, the amount of

CO2 in the atmosphere diminished as the concentration of O 2 increased.
These events led into the present-day Earth atmosphere consisting of the
following composition: 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.93% Argon (Ar), 0.038% CO2, and
trace amounts of water vapor and other gases.
The Hydrosphere. Scientists believe that the large amount of water on

Earth originated from two sources: meteoric and volcanic.
Meteoric water is believed to have come from asteroid and comet

fragments that fell on the surface of the Earth early on its formation. The
frozen water (ice) content of these extra-terrestrial rock fragments melted due
to our planet’s high temperature, resulting into the formation of liquid surface
water. Similarities of the Hydrogen (H) content of asteroids and comets with
that of terrestrial water have strongly proven this. For instance, meteorites
from the asteroid Vesta have been found to consist of the same chemistry
as the carbonaceous chondrites and rocks found on Earth. This means that
carbonaceous chondrites are the most likely common source of water.
Volcanic water, on the other hand, came from the water vapor that
was released during the planet’s out-gassing and its eventual condensation
and precipitation.
From such time that the surface waters formed, the Earth is able to
sustain such through the Hydrologic or Water Cycle. The Hydrologic or
Water Cycle consists of the following processes that tend to overlap and
sustain one another, namely evaporation (changing of solar-heated liquid
surface water into gaseous form and eventual escape into the
atmosphere), condensation / cloud formation (formation of ice crystals /
clouds in the atmosphere), precipitation (melting of ice crystals into liquid
state in the form of rain falling either on the hydrosphere or lithosphere),
surface run-off (horizontal movement of water that falls into bare soil,
carrying with it soil articles, until it goes back to surface water bodies,
enabling the cycle to repeat itself), infiltration (vertical movement of rain
water through soil layers), absorption by plants, transpiration
(evaporation of water through plant stomata), percolation (deposition of
infiltrated water into the impermeable rock layer underneath the soil).
Today, the Earth’s water consists of 97% oceans / marine (those with
high mineral / salt concentration and 3% freshwater (those with little
amounts of dissolved salts).

Of the freshwater bodies, 68.7% comes in the form of glaciers and ice
caps, 30.1% ground water, and 1.2% surface waters. Surface water
percentage distribution, on the other hand, is as follows: 69.0% ground ice /
permafrost, 20.9% lakes, 3.8% soil moisture, 3.0% atmospheric water / water
vapor, 2.6% swamps and marshes, 0.49% rivers, 0.26% living organisms.
The Biosphere. The biosphere is the region of the Earth where life
exists. It actually consists of the interface among the lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere that is able to sustain the life processes of
different organisms. It may also be referred to as biomes – ecosystems that
are largely determined by their latitude / geographic position and altitude or
elevation.
Biomes are either terrestrial or aquatic. Terrestrial biome types are

largely influenced by the amount of solar radiation that they receive and its
consequent effects to weather and climate particularly temperature range and
amount and kind of precipitation. They are classified based on their dominant
vegetation / plant cover – forest biomes are largely covered by trees and
woody plants, grasslands by grasses / monocots and herbs, and deserts by
shrubs and succulents. The type of vegetation of a terrestrial biome
determines its biodiversity level or the kind and number of living organisms
that it is able to sustain. Forest biomes have the highest biodiversity level
while deserts are the least diverse.
Aquatic biomes are classified based on the amount of their salt / mineral
content – marine or oceanic biomes are the large bodies of water that contain
at least 3.5% dissolved salts while freshwater bodies inland and with a low
salt concentration of about 0.05% or less. Oceans were formed by meteoric
water while freshwater bodies were mostly created as a consequence of the
water cycle.
1. Explain how latitude and altitude determine and influence the different types
of terrestrial biomes.
2. Differentiate among the various terrestrial and aquatic biomes in terms of
geographic location, physical characteristics, and significance to human
societies.

UNIT II. EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
A. Minerals and Rocks

When the first portion of the Earth, the lithosphere, formed, it actually rock
material. A rock is any solid, naturally-occurring mixture of different minerals.
Rocks are formed through the rock cycle - a geologic process that repeats
itself through long periods of time. This cycle results in the formation of three
basic types of rocks namely igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
Igneous rocks are formed from magma, the hot and molten form of the
Earth’s mantle layer. Igneous rocks can form above ground as lava spewing
from volcanoes, in which case, they are called as extrusive igneous rock.
They may also form below the surface when mounds of magma get stuck
underneath the Earth’s layer and as they get closer and closer to the surface,
the magma slowly cools forming what is called intrusive igneous rock. E.g.,
granite
Sedimentary rocks came from small particles of extrusive igneous rocks

and / or shells of sea animals that have been subjected to weathering.
Weathering is a physical process that involves the combined action of wind
and rain beating on and rubbing against the surfaces of exposed rocks until
the particles of these uppermost layers wear off, become blown and washed
away to a new location. As there particles, also called as sediments become
piled up in certain areas, they become tightly pressed together to form
sedimentary rock. E.g., gypsum
Metamorphic rocks are those that form under intense heat and
pressure. They may start out as either igneous or sedimentary that change in
characteristics such as luster / light-reflecting capacity, grain / particle
arrangement, and hardness after being buried and subjected to elevated
temperature from underneath the Earth or intense pressure in sea bottoms
or ocean floors. E.g., marble
Through the rock cycle, rocks actually continually change in form. What
started out as sedimentary rock may change to metamorphic and, with time
and weathering, change back to sedimentary. In terms of chemical
composition, rocks may also be described as being made up of a mixture of
minerals.
A mineral is a naturally-occurring inorganic solid with a definite chemical

composition and an orderly crystalline structure. This means that for a
substance to be considered as a mineral, it must have been formed by
natural geologic processes; must remain solid within the normal temperature

ranges of the Earth’s surface; must be composed of a unique chemical make-

up; and with specific atomic / molecular conformation.
While most minerals are compounds of two or more elements, some are
composed of a single substance. For instance, Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), and
Copper (Cu) are called as native elements and occur in nature in relatively
pure form. The vast majority of minerals are found as compounds.
Examples include halite (with chemical formula NaCl and chemical name
Sodium Chloride) and quartz (with chemical formula SiO 2 and chemical name
Silicon Dioxide.
There are about 4,000 known minerals that compose rocks on Earth,
some of which are commonly occurring while others are rare. Of these, the
eight most common mineral groups are the following:
1. Native Elements – composed of a single kind of atoms and includes

Antimony (At), Arsenic (As), Bismuth (Bi), Copper (Cu), Sulfur (S), and
Carbon (C) occurring as either diamond or graphite.
2. Sulfides – Sulfur combined with other minerals and where most

metallic ores such as cinnabar (with Copper, Cu), calcocite (with Mercury,
Hg), galena (with Lead, Pb), and sphalerite (with Zinc, Zn) belong. These
minerals tend to be dense, brittle, and metallic in appearance.
3. Oxides – consists of Oxygen (O) that has combined with a metal or

with a metal and Hydrogen (H). This is a large group that occurs mostly in
geological environments / rock formations and may consist of either common
metal ores or precious gems. E.g., hematite (an Iron (Fe) ore), cassiterite (a
Tin (Sn) ore), corundum (source of rubies and sapphires), and rutile (used to
produced Titanium (Ti) which is used in making missiles and constructing
aircrafts).
4. Carbonates – formed from the combination of Carbon, Oxygen, and a

metal or a metalloid. They are soft and are acid-soluble and includes the
following examples: calcite (Calcium-containing and known for its unique
light-reflecting capacity), malachite (Copper Carbonate which is green in color
and is used in making jewelry and other ornamentals), and rhodochrosite
(Manganese-containing, red rose in color, tends to be rare and can be formed
in stalactites).
5. Phosphates – contain Phosphorus (P), Oxygen, and other metals or

non-metals and are usually formed from the weathering of other minerals.
They include apatite, turquoise, and wavellite.

6. Sulfates – are made up of one or more metals combined with Sulfur

and Oxygen which form from volcanically heated water. They are soft and
pale in color and are sometimes transparent or translucent. Minerals
belonging to this class include anhydrate, barite, and gypsum.
7. Halides – are metals that have been combined with any of the
following halogens namely Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br0, Fluorine (F), Iodine
(I), and Astatine (At). Usually water soluble, they include halite (NaCl or rock
salt) which is used in making table salt, fluorite (Calcium Fluoride, CaF 2)
which is primarily used in the manufacture of steel and aluminum, and sylvite
(similar to halite except that they are usually found on seabeds and contain
large amounts of Potassium (K), making them useful in the synthesis of
fertilizers.
8. Silicates – the most widespread of the minerals, they are made up of

Oxygen and Silicon (Si) which are the two most abundant elements in the
Earth’s crust. They are classified either as Felsic ( Fel for feldspar and sic for
silica; those that form in granites and are lighter in weight and in color than
other silicates because they contain less Iron (Fe) and Magnesium (Mg).
E.g., quartz, micas, and feldspar) or mafic (Ma stands for magnesium and fic
is for iron / ferric; those that usually form in magmas going up to fill the gap
left when tectonic plates are moving away from each other in the sea floor.
E.g., basalt, gabbro, oivine, and pyroxene are also in this group.
Mineral groups are identified and differentiated from one another through
the study of certain physical properties. These properties may be identified
either through tests that can be performed in the field or through laboratory
analyses. Some of the most commonly considered properties in mineral
description are the following:
Color – the distinct hue of minerals, it is the one most commonly used for
mineral identification. However, opaque minerals are the only ones which
assume a definite color while translucent ones tend to vary in their degree of
color due to the presence of trace substances / impurities.
Streak – the color of the mineral in powder form and is considered as the
mineral’s true color. It may also be used to differentiate between metallic and
non-metallic minerals. The streak of metallic minerals tend to be dark
because they tend to absorb light while that of non-metals tends to be lighter
because of their light-reflecting capacity
Hardness – a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching and is

determined using the Mohs Scale which consists of a set of 10 minerals with
known hardness. The softest mineral, talc, has a Mohs scale rating of one

while Diamond, the hardest mineral, has a rating of ten. Softer minerals can
be scratched by harder minerals because the forces that hold the crystals
together are weaker and can be broken by the harder minerals. Following is
a list of the minerals of the Mohs scale and their corresponding rating: 1.
Talc; 2. Gypsum, 3. Calcite; 4. Fluorite; 5. Apatite; 6. Orthoclase Feldspar;
7. Quartz; 8. Topaz; 9. Corundum; 10. Diamond
Cleavage and Fracture – cleavage may be defined in terms of two

criteria - the line at which the mineral breaks when it was sharply hit by an
instrument (clear lines constitute perfect cleavage while lines that cannot be
seen clearly after cutting comprise an imperfect cleavage) and the shape
formed by the cut surfaces and may be any of the following: cubic,
rhombohedral, octahedral, dodecahedral, basal or prismatic.
These criteria are defined specifically by the angles of the cleavage lines
as indicated by the following: cubic (cleaves in three directions at 90 o to one
another; rhombohedral (cleaves in three directions but not at 90 o to one
another); octahedral (cleaves in four directions); dodecahedral (cleaves in six
directions; basal (cleaves in one direction); and prismatic (cleaves in two
directions).
Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface and is described as
any of the following: uneven or grainy fracture; conchoidal (curved, shell-like
lines) fracture, or hackly (rough, jagged) fracture.
Crystalline Structure – also known as crystal lattice, it refers to the

arrangement of the atoms, molecules or ions that make up the crystal and
how they are joined. There are crystal lattices that may be observed with the
naked eye or hand lens but there are also those such as the microcrystalline
and cryptocrystalline arrangement that may be viewed only using high-
magnification instruments. There are also minerals that do not have any
definite particle arrangement and they are called as amorphous.
Transparency or Diaphaneity – refers to the mineral’s ability to allow the

passage of light which may be influenced by its thickness.
Tenacity – is the description of the strength of the particles to be held

together or resist disintegration.
Magnetism – refers to the ability of a mineral to either attract or repel

other magnetic materials.
Luster – describes the capacity of the surface of a mineral to reflect light

which may be affected by the brilliance of the light source. It may also be
described by the following terms: used to observe the mineral surface.

In terms of luster, minerals may be described as belonging to any of the

following groups
Metallic – opaque and reflects light
Sub-metallic – opaque, dull, and dark-colored
Non-metallic – does not reflect light and are further described as follows:
waxy (paraffin-looking), vitreous (looks like a broken glass), pearly (appears
iridescent), silky (looks fibrous), greasy (seems like oil on water), resinous
(resembles a hardened tree sap), and adamantine (brilliant, like a diamond)
Odor – the olfactory characteristic that becomes manifested only when a

mineral is moistened, heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.
Specific Gravity – a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to

the weight of an equal amount of water. The weight of the equal amount of
water is found by finding the difference between the weight of the mineral in
the air and the weight of the mineral in the water.
1. Cite and describe a specific example for each of the different mineral groups
in terms of appearance and significance in society.
2. Mining is the industrial process involved in the extraction of minerals.
Discuss on the positive contributions and the negative impact of this industry
to both society and the natural environment. Based on this discussion,
decide on what policies must our government adopt and implement in relation
to mining.
B. Endogenic Processes
Endogenic processes, also called as internal forces, are those that
originate from the Earth and are due to the heat that is continuously
manufactured and released from the Earth’s molten core. Deep within the
core, heat is generated by the radioactive decay of elements like Uranium
(U), Thorium (Th), and Potassium (K). The heat is transferred upward to
warm the mantle causing it to slowly circulate and tug on the lithospheric
plates above. The movement of these plates fractures and folds rock, and
their collision creates vast mountain chains and volcanic cones. Thus,
endogenic processes are also termed as geologically constructive processes
since they eventually result in the formation of different landforms such as
mountain ranges.
Endogenic processes are manifested through volcanism, earthquake, and

diastrophism.

Volcanism is the most direct effects of endogenic processes as it

involves the formation of molten rocks due to the core’s very high
temperature (around 700 to 1,300 0 Celcius). These molten rocks underneath
the crustal plates of the Earth are called as magma which is why volcanism
may also be referred to as magmatism (formation of magma). Because of
their super-heated nature, magma tends to rise up and find their way into the
surface of the Earth through landforms known as volcanoes.
Thus, a volcano is defined as a vent, hill, mountain, or even a crater that

exhibits geologic activity through the release of magma. Magma, once
flowing on the surface of the Earth is termed as lava which solidifies in time,
forming igneous rocks.
Apart from molten rocks, the process of volcanism also releases gaseous
substances such as Sulfur compounds including Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S),
Hydrogen Sulfate (H2SO4), Methane (CH4), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Water
(H2O) in vapor form as well as pyroclastic materials. The release of these
substances may likewise be accompanied by movement of crustal plates
which may be felt as volcanic earthquakes.
Depending on the eruptive patterns and comparative elevation, there are

three types of volcanoes namely shield, cinder, and composite. Shield type
usually occurs in the form of vents or craters and releases highly fluid lava
because of their very broad and slightly elevated structure. Its eruptive
pattern is the least explosive and destructive. Cinder type is built from
ejected lava fragments that have accumulated over long periods of time
resulting onto an elevation of about 300 meters and usually appear as a
smaller cone on top of a larger volcano. Their eruptive pattern is much more
pronounced and violent than that of a shield type. Composite volcano is
formed from the flow and accumulation of high viscous lava over time leading
onto its elevation above 300 meters. Its eruption is characterized by a
sudden and very violent ejection of gases, lava, and pyroclastic materials.
Earthquake consists of ground displacement or movement due to the

sudden release of energy from crustal plates. This release of energy come in
the form of seismic waves or built-up stress in the lithosphere and may
originate either from a volcanic activity or plate tectonic. Earthquakes are
described in two ways – intensity and magnitude.
Intensity describes an earthquake’s destructive effects on people and

man-made structures while magnitude measures the strength of an
earthquake based on Richter Scale-determined release of seismic energy.

Diastrophism is the movement of the Earth which occurs through – uplift

(upward), subsidence (downward), and thrust (sideward). While volcanism
and earthquake are phenomena that are mostly abrupt and highly
perceptible, diastrophism tends to occur at geologic time – over hundreds to
thousands of years and it is also identified as a driving force behind both
volcanic activities and earthquakes.
Diastrophism is based on the principle of plate tectonics which asserts

that the Earth’s crust is made up of rigid plates that float on the planet’s
surface. Crustal plates are either continental (below large land masses
known as continents) or oceanic (those that are found underneath the ocean
floor and are also called as ocean basins). These plates either move away or
toward each other and such movement either directly or indirectly affects the
major geologic features of the Earth’s surface.
Diastrophism is further explained by the Continental Drift Theory.

Developed by Alfred Wegener, this theory states that the position of the
continents is not fixed and that they are moving very slowly away from each
other. The Earth’s crustal plate began as a super-continent and because of
this drifting motion, it broke apart into the seven continents and thousands of
islands that currently characterize our planet’s land surface. The most
striking physical evidence of continental drift is the appearance of the
continents and islands – they seem to be pieces of a jigsaw puzzle that had
been disarranged but fit together as a single entity.
Thus, the main movement exhibited by the plates is thrust yet as these
plates collide, both uplift and subsidence likewise occur. The radioactive
decay and the release of heat occurring within the Earth’s core had also been
identified as the main cause of Continental Drift.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Survey on the volcanoes in the Philippines and identify at least 2 which fit into
each of the three types of volcanoes.
2. The Philippines belongs to a region known as the Circum-pacific Ring of Fire.
Identify the other countries included in this region as well as the
characteristics that the countries in this group have in common.

C. Exogenic Processes
Exogenic processes, also called as external forces, are those that are
primarily caused by solar radiation and its influence on the Earth’s
atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Weathering is regarded as the main kind of exogenic process. It

happens when the weather elements such as solar radiation, temperature,
wind, and precipitation and the consequent flooding interact with the rocks on
the surface of the Earth. Weathering manifests itself through two ways –
physical or mechanical and chemical. Physical weathering involves the
breakdown of large masses of rocks into smaller particles due to repeated
exposure to varying temperatures and moisture (e.g., precipitation).
Chemical weathering involves the change in the chemical composition of
surface rocks as they react with water and atmospheric oxygen (O 2).
Both physical and chemical weathering happen at the same time and they
may also involve erosion – the breaking and transport of rock particles from
one area to another through the combined action of wind, water in the form of
currents, waves, and glaciers, and gravity.
Exogenic processes generally tend to level off or decrease a surface’s

elevation. For this reason, they are also referred to as geologically
destructive processes.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Further, differentiate between physical and chemical weathering by citing
specific rock samples that form through each of these processes.
D. Deformation of the Crust

The Earth’s lithosphere which formed by accretion differentiated into
Crust, Mantle, and Core through their composition’s density differences and
due to the combined action of gravity and pressure. When the Crust finally
solidified around 500 million years after it formed, it underwent what
geologists term as deformation or slow surface evolution – continuous
changes in its surface features due to the interaction among the following
forces: meteorite bombardment, endogenic processes, and exogenic
processes.
Meteorite bombardment has resulted into an extensively cratered Earth

surface. Craters are large, bowl-shaped cavities that form due to the impact
of a meteoritic fall.

The following endogenic processes, on the other hand, had resulted onto
the formation of mountain ranges and volcanic chains: volcanism, folding,
faulting, displacement of rock beds, and erosion of igneous rocks.
Volcanism, as described in an earlier section, does not only result into

the formation of land masses. Volcanoes may also be found on ocean basins
and when they do erupt, they result on sea spreads and the creation of
different landforms under water.
Folding is the bending of rock layers when subjected to compressional

forces. Folding happens when the following geologic conditions occur:
deformation of rocks due to slow but increasing pressure and heat, rock
plasticity as temperature increases; rocks withstanding pressure such that
they do not break. A number of folds have been described by geologists and
these include monocline (a fold in otherwise parallel layers of rocks),
anticline (a convex-up fold that arches the rock beds away from the center of
the structure), syncline (a fold that warps he rock layers downward), and
recumbrent (a fold that moves from being once vertical to a horizontal
position and is usually found in the core of mountain ranges where
compression forces could be stronger in one direction than the other).
Faulting is the breaking or fracturing of rock layers into separate entities

which happens when the geologic pressure to which they become subjected
to becomes greater than the rocks’ plasticity and strength. Faults are
classified as normal (occurs when tensional forces act in opposite directions
and cause one slab of the rock to be displaced up while the other one is
displaced down), reverse (develops when compressional forces causes one
block of rock to be pushed up and over the other block), graben (results
when tensional stresses lead into the subsidence of a rock layer), horst
(develops two reverse faults that pushes up a block of rock), and strike-slip
or transform (vertical stress forces that are exerted parallel to each other).
If endogenic processes form mountain ranges and volcanic chains, the

other hand, forms such as hills and plains that result into a highly deformed
crust are due to exogenic processes. Hills are formed from mountains that
had undergone geologic periods of stream or glacial erosion while plains
develop through wind, stream, and glacial deposition.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Prepare models to represent and accordingly differentiate between folding
and faulting and their corresponding sub-types.

E. History of the Earth

Termed as the Geological and Biological Timeline of the Earth,
Earth’s history is an account of the events that took place from the time that
our planet formed up to the present day. It makes use of sedimentary rock
layers as reference to establish our planet’s history and makes use of two
methods: relative dating and absolute dating of rocks.
Relative Dating of rock is a comparison of a rock’s age with another. It is

founded on the principle of Uniformitarianism (James Hutton who is dubbed
as the Father of Geology, 1700s) which states that whatever processes are
occurring today (plate tectonics, volcanism, mountain building, earthquakes,
sedimentation) also occurred in the past and probably at the same (or very
comparable) rates.” This, therefore, means that most sedimentary layers are
deposited from gradual, day-to-day processes, and rock formation involves
long periods of time. Following are the principles of uniformitarianism that are
used in relative rock-dating: Superposition (rock layer above is younger than
the ones below it; oldest on bottom, youngest on top); Original Horizontality
(sedimentary layers are deposited in approximately horizontal sheets such
that if layers are folded, episode of deformation must have occurred after
rocks formed); Cross-cutting Relationships (any feature e.g., fault or
intrusion) that cuts across rocks is younger than the youngest rock that is
cut); and Faunal Succession (organisms have evolved and gone extinct
through time and fossil content of rock changes in a systematic way,
reflecting evolutionary changes; fossil content, therefore, can be used to help
determine age of rock and correlate rocks).
Absolute Dating is also called as Radiometric Dating Technique and

uses naturally-occurring radioactive isotopes. Radioactive isotopes decay at
a constant rate measured as half-life (the time it takes for one-half of the
radioactive material to disintegrate) such that when they are trapped in
minerals, they crystallize and decay to stabilize; and determining the ratio of
parent isotope to daughter product reveals the number of half-lives that has
elapsed. The common isotopes used and their corresponding half-life is as
follows: U to Pb (half-life of U-238 is 4.5 billion years (BY)); K to Ar (half-life of
K-40 is 1.3 BY); Rb to Sr ( half-life of Rb-87 is 47 BY), and Carbon 14 (half-
life of C-14 is 5730 years). Thus, by using the appropriate radioactive isotope
(knowing its half-life time), and measuring the quantity of the isotope present
in the rock, one can deduce how long it has taken to decay down to the
present amount in the rock.
Using both methods, the Geological Time Scale was established and
may be described as follows: it is an account of Earth’s history into a series
of time interval. These time intervals are not equal in length like the hours in
a day. Instead, the time intervals are variable in length and are based on

significant or boundary events.For example, the boundary between the

Permian and Triassic is marked by a global extinction in which a large
percentage of Earth's plant and animal species were eliminated. Another
example is the boundary between the Precambrian and the Paleozoic which
is marked by the first appearance of animals with hard parts. As such. eons
are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of years
in duration; eras are the smaller time intervals known within an eon; periods
are the subdivisions in an era, and epochs are the finer subdivisions of time
within a period.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Describe in detail the geologic and biological events that took place in each of
the time zones reflected in the Geologic Time Scale. Then from such, explain
the impact of extinction events in the eventual evolution of the human species.
UNIT III. NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND ADAPTATION
A. Geologic Processes and Hazards

Geologic processes are land-forming and are therefore considered as
constructive. However, from a societal perspective, they pose danger to
human lives and damages to properties, man-made structures, and
communities. Through the efforts of the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR), Geohazard Maps have been established and
thus, we are now able to identify which areas are most susceptible to two of
the most dangerous geologic phenomena– earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
1. Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions involve the release of molten rocks called
lava, ashes, gases, and pyroclastic from areas of extensive geologic
activities known as volcanoes.
In terms of level of activity as determined by the Philippine

Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), volcanoes are
classified as Active (erupted within historical times- within the last 600
years, accounts of these eruptions were documented by man; erupted
within the last 10,000 years based on analysis of datable materials);
Potentially Active (morphologically young-looking but with no
historical records of eruption); and Inactive (no record of eruptions,
physical form is being changed by agents of weathering and erosion
via formation of deep and long gullies.

Potential Volcanic Hazards. Each time a volcano erupts, it

brings with it possibly dangerous outcomes that may put lives at risk
and may result into the destruction of properties. Following are such
outcomes:
Pyroclastic Flow. Pyroclast is a general term that refers to all the

materials that come out during a volcanic eruption. This includes hot
gases, and fine to coarse rock fragments called tephra. When these
materials become liquefied, they move down the slopes of the volcano
as pyroclastic flow with temperature range between 200 0 to 7000 C
and speed of 700 kph. Pyroclastic flow may even turn into pyroclastic
surge when the amount and speed become much higher than the
average, thereby affecting a wider area.
Ballistic Projectiles. Ballistic projectiles are blocks of rocks that

are hurled up into the air by the strong force of eruption and may fall
strongly into the ground anywhere within the vicinity of the volcano.
Volcanic Gases. Volcanic gases include toxic substances such

as CH4, CO2, H2S, and SO2 that may cause air pollution and serious
health risks as well as land and water pollution when these gases
become mixed with atmospheric water and fall on the surface of the
Earth as precipitation.
Ash Fall. Ash fall consists of finely-structured volcanic materials

that have been ejected into the atmosphere during a volcanic
eruption. Because of their very small particle size, they tend to freely
mix with the air and be readily carried by wind, thereby causing air
pollution to even areas that are quite distant from the site of volcanic
eruption. While ash fall may cause a temporary atmospheric cooling
as it blocks the solar radiation while trapped in the atmosphere, it may
still descend, causing respiratory problems and water and land
pollution when it becomes mixed with rain water.
Lava Flow. Lava consists of molten rocks that move along the
slopes or sides of an erupting volcano and characterized by
temperature that could be a thousand degrees high and consistency
that depends on its chemical composition.
Lahar. A type of mudflow or debris flow, lahar is formed when

pyroclastic materials are mixed with either rain water or water that
overflows from the volcanic crater during of after its eruption. They
may include ash, rocks, and boulders flowing with water, with either

hot or cold temperature, and with a consistency, viscosity, and density

similar to that of wet concrete.
While the exact moment when a volcano would erupt could not be
predicted, an impending eruption is given away by some geologic
manifestations and these would allow us to accordingly prepare.
Following are some helpful tips on what to do before, during, and after
a volcanic eruption:
Before a Volcanic Eruption: listen to the radio and TV for

important and up-to-the-minute announcements or instructions; have
your flashlights, matches, and candles ready; prepare a first aid kit;
store food and water; follow orders from authorities to evacuate from
dangerous areas.
During a Volcanic Eruption: stay indoors; cover your nose with

damp cloth when you feel that there are volcanic gases and ash in the
air; store food and water in covered containers; stay under sturdy
furniture e.g., tables, chairs.
After a Volcanic Eruption: wait for order or instructions if you are

in an evacuation area; clean roofs to remove ashes; avoid crossing
bridges when lahar flows underneath; stay away from areas near
rivers.
2. Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when rocks underground suddenly breaks
either along plate edges (be they continental or oceanic) or a fault.
These breaks may either be volcanic (due to volcanic eruption) or
tectonic (due to diastrophism) in origin. The sudden release of energy
creates the seismic waves that make the ground shake. When two
blocks of rock or two plates are rubbing against each other, they stick
a little and they do not just slide smoothly; the rocks rub against each
other. The rocks continue to push against each other, but are not able
to move. After a while, the rocks break because of all the pressure
build-up. When the rocks finally break, that is when an earthquake is
felt. During the earthquake and afterward, the plates or blocks of rock
start moving, and they continue to move until they get stuck again.
The spot underground where the rock breaks is called the focus of
the earthquake while the area right above the focus (on top of the
ground) is called the epicenter of the earthquake.
There are two types of seismic waves released during an

earthquake- the P and the S waves. The P wave or primary wave is

the fastest kind of seismic wave, and, consequently, the first to be felt
at a seismic area. It can move through solid rock and fluids, like water
or the liquid layers of the Earth. It pushes and pulls the rock it moves
through just like sound waves push and pull the air. P waves are also
known as compressional waves, because of the pushing and pulling
they do. Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same direction
that the wave is moving in, which is the direction that the energy is
traveling to, which is sometimes called the direction of wave
propagation, The S wave or secondary wave, is slower than a P
wave and can only move through solid rock, not through any liquid
medium. It is this property of S waves that led seismologists to
conclude that the Earth's outer core is liquid. S waves move rock
particles up and down, or side-to-side-- perpendicular to the direction
that the wave is traveling to.
Earthquake-like seismic waves may also be caused by explosions

underground. These explosions may be set off to break rock while
making tunnels for roads, railroads, subways, or mines. These
explosions, however, don't cause very strong seismic waves and
sometimes, they may even be imperceptible. Seismic waves also
occur when the roof or walls of a mine collapse. These can
sometimes be felt by people near the mine. The largest underground
explosions, from tests of nuclear warheads (bombs), can create
seismic waves very much like large earthquakes which is the reason
to enforce the global nuclear test ban, because no nuclear warhead
can be detonated on Earth without producing such seismic waves.
Earthquakes are described both by magnitude and intensity.

Magnitude measures the energy released in terms of Richter Scale at
the source of the earthquake and is determined from measurements
through seismograms. Intensity measures the strength of shaking
produced by the earthquake at a certain location and is described in
terms of its effects on people, human structures, and the natural
environment.
Following is a comparison of the magnitudes and the
corresponding intensities observed in locations near the epicenter of
earthquakes:
Magnitude Intensity
1.0 – 2.9 I
3.0 – 3.9 II – III
4.0 – 4.9 IV – V
5.0 – 5.9 VI – VII
6.0 – 6.9 VII – IX
7.0 and higher IX and higher

Intensities are interpreted as follows:

I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable
conditions.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of
buildings.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper
floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake.
Standing motor cars rocked slightly. Its Vibrations were similar to the
passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night,
some may be awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls
made cracking sound. Sensation was like that of a heavy truck striking
a building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; Some dishes and windows broke.
Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks stopped.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a
few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and
construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures;
considerable in poorly built or badly designed structures.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable
damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse; great in
poorly built structures. Fall of factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-
designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in
substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off
foundations.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry
and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges
destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects
thrown into the air.
While PHIVOLCS has identified fault lines and locations across

the country where earthquake may possibly occur, it has no capacity
to prevent it nor to determine when such would actually happen. The
best thing, therefore, is for everyone to be aware and to know what to
do in case such a phenomenon strikes. Here are some tips on what
to do before, during, and after an earthquake:

Before an Earthquake: develop an emergency plan, familiarize

yourself with your place of work or residence, take note of hotlines
and emergency numbers to call for help; prepare an emergency
supply kit consisting of food, water, clothing, first aid supplies, mobile
phone, whistle, flashlight, and extra batteries; secure heavy furniture
and objects which may break loose and fall during earthquakes.
During an Earthquake: do not panic, remain calm; if inside a

building: do not jump from the building; if the building is structurally
sturdy, stay inside and brace yourself in a doorway or stay beside or
underneath sturdy furniture such as a chair or a table to protect
yourself from falling debris and objects; otherwise, go to the nearest
exit and leave the building as soon as possible; if outdoors: move to
an area away from nearby buildings, posts, power lines, and other
structures that may fall or collapse; if driving: pull over to the side of
the road, stay as low as possible inside the vehicle.
After an Earthquake: stay calm; check yourself for any injuries;

check for injured and trapped people near the affected area; seek
medical help if you or others are injured; check for fire, toxic chemical
spills, and other hazards in your surroundings; check water and
electric lines for defects or damage; listen to the radio or watch local
TV for additional information and safety instructions; inspect gas,
water, and electric lines for any damage and leak; if in doubt, shut off
main switches; evacuate immediately if you smell or hear has and you
are not able to shut the line off; stay away from damaged buildings.
1. Through a photo-essay, present and explain the destruction brought about by
the following geologic phenomena as well as the rehabilitation programs
implemented in the affected communities:
a. Central Luzon Earthquake in 1991
b. Mt. Pinatubo Eruption in 1991
c. Bohol Earthquake in 2013
2. Identify human activities that may aggravate geologic hazards and come up
with counter-measures for such.
3. Using a DENR Geohazard Map, identify the hazards that your place of
residence and your school is most susceptible to; then come up with
programs that may minimize the damage and destruction when such
phenomena actually occur. If possible, also actually implement these
programs.
4. Inquire and talk about the evacuation plan of your school in case an
earthquake occurs. Discuss your role in the successful execution of this plan.

B. Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

Hydrometeorological phenomena are the natural occurrences associated
with the Earth’s atmosphere that affect the existence of life on Earth. Our
atmospheric composition, the movement of the planet, and the influence of
solar radiation on atmospheric conditions and on the behavior of surface
waters are generally the ones responsible for these hydrometeorological
events that though generally important may also bring danger to human lives
and natural populations.
1. Layers of the Atmosphere

Based on their distance from the surface of the Earth as well as the
phenomena observed on each, the following are the layers of the
atmosphere:
Troposphere. The lowest layer starting from the Earth’s surface and
extending 8 to 14.5 km high, this is the densest layer where weather and
climatic conditions occur and where temperature and pressure decrease
at increasing altitude.
Stratosphere. This layer is found just above the troposphere and

extends up to 50 km high. Its outermost part is the region where ozone
layer forms and its temperature and pressure become higher at
increasing altitude.
Mesosphere. Located above the stratosphere up to a height of 85

km, this is where meteoroids from outer space start burning.
Thermosphere. This layer found above the mesosphere reaches up

to as high as 600 km and with extremely hot temperature. This is also the
region where the Auroras (bright display of lights at the poles due to
elevated cosmic radiation) form and where man-made satellites usually
orbit.
Ionosphere. Consisting of a large amount of electrons and

charged/ionized atoms and molecules, this layer starts at about 48 km
above the surface to the edge of the outer space at about 965 km, this
layer actually overlaps with the mesosphere and the thermosphere. The
overlap is due to its alternate expansion and shrinking depending on solar
conditions (e.g., outbursts of energy from the Sun).
Exosphere. This is the upper and outermost limit of the atmosphere

that begins at the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km. It has the
thinnest volume of air and receives most of the harmful solar radiation.

2. Weather and Climate

Occurring on the lowermost section of the atmosphere known as the
troposphere, weather and climate are two inter-related phenomena that
greatly affect both the natural environments and human societies.
Weather is defined as the state of the atmosphere at a given place over a
short period of time and consists of the following elements – temperature,
air pressure, wind, humidity, cloudiness, and precipitation. Temperature
is the degree of hotness or coldness of the environment usually
measured in 0C and is regarded as one of the principal causes in the
changes of other weather elements such as wind, cloudiness, and
precipitation), air and atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area
exerted by the gaseous molecules that are in constant collision with each
other and is greatly influenced by the number of air molecules and the
elevation of an area, wind refers to the movement of the atmospheric
components which is measured in terms of velocity that refers to both
wind speed and direction, humidity is defined as the amount of water
vapor in the air that is usually expressed as relative humidity or %
humidity and indicates the probability of rain occurring, cloudiness refers
to the incidence of cloud formation (clouds are masses of cooled and
condensed water vapor that form due to a drop in the temperature of the
air below or equal to its dew point level, thereby forming ice crystals; this
happens when hot air / gaseous water from the Earth’s surface moves
upward, expands, and cools due to reduced pressure, a condition known
as adiabatic cooling), and precipitation is the process by which water
droplets in the atmosphere collide, coalesce, and fall on the surface of the
Earth in any of the following forms: sleet, hail, snow, and rain.
Climate, on the other hand, refers to the weather conditions in a

particular geographic zone for a long period of time. The surface of the
Earth is divided into climatic zones that are determined by latitudes (lines
also called as parallels that extend from west to east and measure
distances north and south from the equator which is designated as 0 0
latitude) and altitude (vertical distance of an area from the Earth’s
surface / sea level). Each zone is distinct from one another based on
incidence of light, seasonal changes, temperature range, and amount and
kind of precipitation. Based on these premises, the Earth consists of
three general climatic zones, the equatorial (00 (equator) to 23.40 North
latitude and 00 to 23.40South latitude), the temperate (23.50 to 66.40North
latitude also known as Tropic of Cancer and 23.5 0 to 66.40South latitude
also known as Tropic of Capricorn) and the polar (66.50 to 900 North
latitude also known as the Arctic Zone and 66.5 0 to 900South latitude also
known as the Antarctic Zone).

3. Weather Systems
Weather systems are the phenomena that occur as the different
weather elements in each of the climatic zones interact with one another
and as influenced by solar radiation. Following are such: inter-tropical
convergence zone (ITCZ), trade winds, low-pressure area (LPA), fronts,
and monsoons.
Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is also called as equatorial

convergence zone and is a belt of converging trade winds and rising air
that encircles the Earth near its equator. The rising air produces high
cloudiness, frequent thunderstorms, and heavy rainfall; it is also the
region where the doldrums, oceanic regions of calm surface air, occur.
The ITCZ shifts north and south seasonally with the Sun.
Trade winds are a warm air around the equator that rises and flows
towards the North Pole Poles. The one blown towards the North Pole
eventually cools, descends, and becomes deflected from the northeast to
the southwest and back towards the equator while the one blown towards
the south also cools, descends, and becomes deflected from the
southeast to the northwest and likewise back to the equator. These two
meet and form the ITCZ.
Low Pressure Areas (LPA) are ocean surfaces where atmospheric

pressure is lower than its surrounding areas. It forms due to the
movement of air from one place to another due to its tendency to even
out a temperature contrast such as the one that exists between cold and
warm air masses. Thus, LPAs are always accompanied by a warm and
cold front wherein the warm air rises, cools, and then condenses, possibly
bringing rains.
Fronts, also called as weather fronts, refer to advancing edge of an

air mass that soon replaces the air mass that is prevailing over a certain
region. These air masses are designated P for “polar” (cold), T for
tropical (warm), M for maritime (wet) and C for continental (dry).
Monsoons consist of a seasonal shift in the prevailing wind direction

that usually brings with it weather changes. It is of two types – northeast
and southwest. Northeast monsoons (amihan) is a seasonal flow of
winds from high to low-pressure regions during the winter season,
bringing with it cold and dry air while southwest monsoons (habagat)
forms due to persistent southerly wind flow of warm air over the Pacific
and Indian oceans bringing with it heavy torrential rains.

4. Weather Disturbances
A weather disturbance is a general term that describes any pulse of
energy moving through the atmosphere. They are identified as
mechanisms responsible for storm formation or intensification of low-
pressure systems. It includes storms/cyclones/hurricanes/typhoons,
thunderstorms, tornadoes, the El Niño and La Niña phenomena, and
floods and flash floods.
Storm / Cyclone / Hurricane / Typhoon are terms that refer to the

same weather disturbance and differ only in the region where they are
formed. A storm is a weather disturbance characterized by sustained
internal wind speed of at least 120kph; a storm is called as a cyclone or
cyclonic storm when it originates from the Southwestern Indian Ocean
or parts of the Southwest Pacific Ocean; it is referred to as a tropical
cyclone when they are formed specifically over tropical waters, within 5 0
to 300of the equator; it is called as hurricane when it develops in the
North Atlantic, South Pacific (Carribean) and the Northeast Pacific areas;
and it is termed as typhoon when it originates in the Western North
Pacific and Southwestern Indian Ocean.
Thunderstorm is a storm of heavy rain accompanied by lightning,

thunder, wind, and sometimes, hail. It occurs when moist air near the
ground becomes heated, especially during summer, and rises, forming
cumulonimbus clouds that produce precipitation. Electrical charges
accumulate at the bases of the clouds until lightning is discharged. Air in
the path of the lightning expands as a result of being heated, causing
thunder. It can also be caused by temperature changes that are triggered
by volcanic eruptions and forest fires and it occurs more frequently at the
equatorial regions than in the polar zones.
Tornado is a violently rotating column of air extending from a

cumulonimbus cloud to the Earth, ranging in width from a few meters to
more than a kilometer and whirling at speeds between 64 kph to 509 kph
or even higher with comparable updrafts at the center of the vortex. The
vortex may also contain several smaller vortices rotating within it. It
typically takes the form of a twisting, funnel-shaped cloud extending
downward often reaching the ground, and dissolving into thin rope-like
clouds as it dissipates. It may travel from a few dozen meters to
hundreds of kilometers and usually forms the tail end of a violent
thunderstorm.
El Niño and La Niña. El Niño phenomenon, officially called the El

Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the observed periodic increase of
ocean water by around 0.50 0C (over the East-Central Tropical Pacific

Ocean) from its normal value in the equatorial Pacific’s sea surface
temperature. Due to the changes in sea surface temperature, the climate
over the tropical Pacific is affected with varying intensities every time this
phenomenon occurs. In the Philippines, El Niño results in the decrease
of precipitation and massive drought caused by warm waters flowing
eastward due to the decrease in the intensity of the trade winds that
normally push warm currents westward.
La Niña phenomenon, produces the opposite result of El Niño on both

sides of the tropical Pacific. It is a result of a lower than normal sea
surface temperature in the Eastern Pacific resulting in lower precipitation
in the East Pacific and wetter monsoons in the Western Pacific like the
Philippines. Although it does not always happen, La Niña follows the El
Niño episode.
Floods and Flashfloods. Flood is the inundation of a normally dry

land or area by water coming from various sources such as over-flowing
bodies of water, excessive rainfall, storm surges, broken water pipelines,
dam failure, and the like. Flashflood, on the other hand, is a sudden but
short-term local flood in low-lying areas. It usually occurs along streams
and lakes and follows a heavy downpour associated with severe
thunderstorms and tropical storms. They may also be caused by a dam
collapse or an erosion of a river bank. It is extremely dangerous due to
its rapid flow and huge volume.
Typhoons are the most frequent type of weather disturbance that

occurs in the Philippines. They may be destructive but death and
destruction may be minimized and even prevented if warnings from
authorities would be accordingly followed. The Philippines Atmospheric,
Geophysical, Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) is the
government organization tasked to issue such notice and following is a
list of such warnings:
Public Storm Warning Signal No. 1

Meteorological Conditions: a tropical cyclone will threaten/affect an
area; winds of 30-60 kph is expected; intermittent rains may be expected
in at least 36 hours (when the tropical cyclone develops very close to an
area, a shorter lead time of the occurrence of the winds will be specified
in the warning bulletin);
Impact of the Winds: twigs and branches of small trees may be

broken; some banana plants may be tilted or uprooted; some houses of
very light materials may be partially unroofed; only very light or no

damage may be sustained by areas affected; rice crops in flowering stage

may suffer significant damage;
Precautionary Measures: when the tropical cyclone intensifies and

moves closer, this warning signal number may be upgraded; the waves
on coastal waters may gradually develop and swell; the people are
advised to listen to the latest severe weather bulletin issued by PAGASA
every six hours; business may be carried out as usual except when floods
occur; disaster preparedness units are activated to alert status.

Meteorological Conditions: a tropical cyclone will affect an area;
winds of greater than 60 kph and up to 100 kph may be expected in at
least 24 hours;
Impact of the Winds: some coconut trees may tilt; some of them may
break; few big trees may be uprooted; many banana plants may be
downed; rice and corn crops may be affected; a large number of houses
made of light materials may be unroofed; old galvanized iron roofing may
be peeled off; in general, the winds may bring light to moderate damage
to the exposed communities;
Precautionary Measures: the sea and coastal waters are dangerous

to small seacraft; special attention should be given to the latest position,
direction, and movement speed, and intensity of the storm as it moves
toward an area; the public, especially people traveling by sea and air, are
cautioned; outdoor activities of children should be postponed; secure
properties before the signal is upgraded; disaster preparedness
agencies/organizations are in action to alert their communities.

Meteorological Conditions: a tropical cyclone will affect an area;
winds of greater than 100 kph up to 185 kph may be expected in at least
18 hours;
Impact of the Winds: many coconut trees may be broken or

destroyed; almost all banana plants may be downed and a large number
of trees may be uprooted; rice and corn crops may suffer heavy losses;
majority of light material houses may be unroofed or destroyed; there may
be considerable damage to structures of light to medium construction;
there may be widespread disruption of electrical power and
communication services; in general, moderate to heavy damage may be
experienced, particularly in the agricultural and industrial sectors;

Precautionary Measures: the weather condition is dangerous to the

communities affected; the sea and coastal waters will be very dangerous
to all seacraft; travel is very risky especially by air and sea; people are
advised to seek shelter in strong buildings, evacuate low-lying areas, and
stay away from the coasts and riverbanks; watch out for the passage of
the eye of the typhoon indicated by a sudden occurrence of fair weather
immediately after very bad weather, with very strong winds coming
generally from the north; when the eye of the typhoon hit the community,
do not venture away from the safe shelter because after one to two hours,
the worst weather will resume, with the very strong winds coming from the
south; classes in all levels should be suspended and children should stay
in the safety of strong buildings; disaster preparedness and response
agencies/organizations are in action with appropriate response to
emergency.

Meteorological Conditions: a very intense typhoon will affect the
area; very strong winds of more than 185 kph may be expected in at least
12 hours;
Impact of the Winds: coconut plantations may suffer extensive

damage; many large trees may be uprooted; rice and corn plantation may
suffer severe losses; most residential and institutional buildings of mixed
construction may be severely damaged; electrical power distribution and
communication services may be severely disrupted; damage to affected
communities can be very heavy;
Precautionary Measures: the situation is potentially very destructive

to the community; all travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled;
evacuation to safer shelters should have been completed; the area is very
likely to be hit directly by the eye of the typhoon; as the eye of the
typhoon approaches, the weather will worsen continuously, with winds
increasing to its strongest coming generally from the north; a sudden
improvement of the weather with light winds will be experienced, which
means the area is under the eye of the typhoon; depending on the eye’s
diameter and movement speed, this improved weather may last for an
hour or two; as the eye moves out of the area, weather conditions will
worsen, with strong winds generally coming from the south; the disaster
coordinating councils concerned and other disaster response
organizations are now fully responding to emergencies.

Public Storm Warning Signal No. 5 / Super Typhoon

Meteorological Conditions: Super Typhoon will affect the area; very
strong winds of more than 220 kph may be expected in at least 12 hours;
Impact of the Winds: almost total damage to structures of light

materials, especially in highly exposed coastal areas; complete roof
failure on many buildings; severe and extensive window and door
damage; most residential and institutional buildings of mixed construction
may be severely damaged; electrical power distribution and
communication services severely disrupted; all signboards blown down;
total damage to banana plantation; most tall trees are broken, uprooted,
or defoliated; coconut trees are stooped, broken, or uprooted; few plants
and trees survived;
Precautionary Measures: the situation is

potentially extremely destructive or catastrophic to the community; all
travels and outdoor activities should be cancelled; evacuation to safer
shelters should have been completed since it may have been too late for
this situation; the area is very likely to be hit directly by the eye of the
typhoon; as the eye of the typhoon approaches, the weather will worsen
continuously, with winds increasing to its strongest coming generally from
the north; sudden improvement of the weather with light winds will be
experienced, which means the area is under the eye of the typhoon;
depending on the eye’s diameter and movement speed, this improved
weather may last for an hour or two; as the eye moves out of the area,
weather conditions will worsen, with strong winds generally coming from
the south; the disaster coordinating councils concerned and other disaster
response organizations are now fully responding to emergencies and in
full readiness to immediately respond to possible calamity.
1. Using the November 2013 typhoon Yolanda as basis, describe how a storm
forms and how destructive its effects are. What measures may be done so
that death and damage to properties and structures may be minimized in
case a typhoon of such magnitude once again occurs.
2. Flooding is one of the effects of many hydrometeorological phenomena.
Research on the flood warning signals that the government has come up with
and determine whether such may be implemented in your place of residence
or in a nationwide scale.
3. Research on the relationship between global warming and climate change
and its impact on hydrometeorological phenomena, particularly weather
disturbances. Identify measures that your class and you as an individual may
do to help solve the problem.

C. Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects

Marine and coastal areas, those near oceans or along the shoreline, are
particularly susceptible to very damaging hydrometeorological and geological
disturbances such as storm surges and tsunamis.
A storm surge is a coastal hazard consisting of an unusual rise in

seawater level during a storm, typhoon, cyclone, or any severe weather
disturbance. The strong wind that comes with these phenomena push the
water level higher and inward to the land, resulting into flooding and
excessive damages.
As a coastal risk, tsunami is similar to storm surge in terms of its

manifestation but differs in origin- it occurs when the epicenter of a strong
earthquake happens to be the ocean floor such that when the seismic waves
are released, the sea water level also rises up and floods the coastal areas.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Research on what must be done by a coastal community in case a storm
surge alert or a tsunami warning has been raised. Come up with measures for a
more effective implementation of such risk-reduction program.
Life Science
UNIT I. INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE
A. Development of Biology As A Science

Biology is the branch of natural science that studies the living
components of the environment. Its development as a field of study could be
divided into four historical periods – Primitive, Classical, Renaissance, and
Modern.
The Primitive Period occurred during the Prehistoric Times when there
was an uncritical accumulation of information just for the purpose of serving
practical necessities such as obtaining food, materials for clothing and
shelter, and substances as cure for ailments. During this period, knowledge
gained was not recorded and the scientific method of inquiry was not yet
developed and used. As human population became bigger through time,
human interactions become more pronounced, societies formed, and the
classical period commenced.
The Classical Period (late BC to 1200 AD) began with the rise of the
Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations and was marked by a conscious effort
and curiosity about natural phenomena, particularly the living components of
the environment. Hippocrates was a particularly notable contributor in the

development of Biology during this time through his statement that human
diseases are caused by factors in the environment and that our body has the
capacity to cure itself. For this, Hippocrates was dubbed as the Father of
Medicine. Aristotle refined the methods of observing the natural
environment while his student, Theophrastus pioneered on the study of
plants. Meanwhile, Galen initiated anatomical and physiological studies on
different animals. As the needs of societies increased and became more
complex, certain communities thought that subjugating others would be the
answer to meet such needs. This resulted into strife / wars, and thus, the
quest for knowledge fell into a period of lapse, an episode in human history
called as the Dark Ages.
As feudal states and colonies became established, a semblance of social

order was restored and this paved the way for the Renaissance Period (14th
to 16th Century). Literally meaning Rebirth, this period was marked by a
renewed interest in the study of living organisms particularly the structure of
the human body as pioneered by artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo. The invention and use of the printing press by Johannes
Guttenberg proved very impactful particularly in the speedy dissemination of
information. This technology enabled publishing such as the book about
human anatomy entitled The Structure of the Human Body written by
Andreas Vesalius. Relatedly, William Harvey also described blood
circulation in man, thereby firmly establishing the science of Physiology. As
scientific inquiry bloomed, apprenticeship and the fabrication of machines and
instruments likewise flourished, and one such instrument paved the way for
the beginning of the Modern Period.
The invention and use of the microscope by Anton van Leeuwenhoek

signaled the beginning of the Modern Period (17th Century) as this led to the
discovery of the cell as the basic unit of life. The Cell Theory was also
established by Robert Hooke due to parallel discoveries of botanist Matthias
Schleiden and zoologist Theodore Schwann that all plants and all animals,
respectively, are composed of cells. It was also during this period when the
Biogenesis Theory on the origin of life was proven by Francesco Redi and
Lazzaro Spallanzani and when the binomial system of nomenclature (the
giving of a genus and species name for each organism) was established by
Carollus Linnaeus who was dubbed as the Father of Taxonomy. By the 19 th
Century, the process of evolution was first explained by Jean Baptiste de
Lamarck through his Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics and
was later on revised and corrected by Charles Darwin through his Natural
Selection Theory. Louis Pasteur, considered as the Father of Modern
Microbiology, was able to prove the existence of microorganisms; Claude
Bernard and Johannes Muller established the field of comparative
physiology; Karl von Baer founded comparative embryology; Gregor
Mendel pioneered on the study of heredity and variation and became known

as the Father of Genetics; and Hugo de Vries formulated the Mutation

Theory of Evolution. The 20 th Century saw many of the ideas and discoveries
in the past centuries becoming consolidated, refined, and further developed –
E. H. Starling explained the roles of hormones and modernized
endocrinology; Ernst Haeckel stated that organisms are a product of their
genetic composition and environment, thereby modernizing the principles of
ecology; and James Watson and Francis Crick was able to establish the
three dimensional structure of the genetic material – DNA which modernized
the science of molecular biology.
1. Research on the beginnings and development of microscopy and relate each
breakthrough with the further development of Biology as a science.
2. Enumerate at least 25 different branches of Biology and describe the focus of
each.
B. Definition of Life and the Characteristics of Living Organisms

Life is a process and may be defined as coupled cycling of biomolecules
in aqueous solution, driven by radiant energy, and exhibiting complexity.
This definition could be further understood by considering the following
premises: at its most basic level, life consists of atoms and molecules,
elements and compounds that chemically combine and recombine repetitively
in a water-based medium; this repetitive process is driven by an external
energy source – the Sun which is considered as the ultimate energy source
on Earth; and from the time that the first life form emerged approximately 3.5
billion years ago, life has devised means to elevate its level of organization
for it continuously exist and evolve.
Unity in Diversity. There are around 8.7 million different species of

living organisms so far identified to be inhabiting the Earth. Yet, despite this
high level of diversity, there are certain characteristics that all kinds of living
organisms share in common. Following are such:
1. Organization – the presence of different structures that perform inter-

related functions. E.g., in terms of organization, living organisms are
either uni-cellular or muti-cellular.
Unicellular organisms such as bacteria, protists, and fungi are

composed of one cell with an internal organization while multi-
cellular life forms such as plants and animals are made up of
millions of cells that are further organized into tissues, organs, and
organ systems.

2. Metabolism – the totality of the chemical processes that occur in a

living organism, it is synonymous to life itself. It consists of two
cyclical phases – anabolism and catabolism.
Anabolism is an energy-requiring building-up or synthesis

process. It enables small molecules / building blocks / structural units
to chemically combine and form large molecules / macromolecules.
E.g., photosynthesis.
Catabolism is an energy-releasing breaking-down or degradation

process. It results into the decomposition of large molecules/
macromolecules into their building blocks/structural units.
E.g.,digestion.
3. Development – also referred to as life cycle, it is an orderly process

that increases an organism’s level of complexity and functionality and
consists of the following stages: beginning, growth, maturity, decline,
and death.
4. Adaptation – refers to any characteristic of an organism that enables

it to live and continuously survive in the current environmental
conditions.
5. Irritability – an organism’s response to changes in its environment.

Changes are called as stimuli and may either be abiotic or biotic. The
response that an organism manifests is always towards its continued
survival and perpetuation.
6. Reproduction – the process wherein an organism forms another

organism that belongs to its own kind / species.
Reproduction is either asexual or sexual. Asexual reproduction,

the mode of reproduction observed among unicellular organisms,
involves only one parent and produces offspring that are clones /
genetic identities of the parent. E.g., fission, budding, spore
formation, fragmentation
Sexual reproduction, manifested by plants and animals, consists

of the union of specialized sex cells called as gametes (male gamete
is called as sperm while the female gamete is called as egg) from a
male and a female parent. The offspring formed is a variant of the
parents.

C. Theories on the Origin of Life and Living Organisms

Apart from the nature of life and characteristics of living organisms, one of
the major concerns of Biology is the origin of life. Following are the theories
concerning this topic:
Spontaneous Generation/Abiogenesis Theory. According to this

theory, living organisms, on a daily basis, arise from non-living factors in the
environment. Aristotle was one of the first thinkers to explain the transition
from non-living to living things. According to him, it was readily observable
that aphids arise from the dew on plants, flies form from rotting matter, and
mice are spawned from dirty hay. This belief remains unchallenged for over
a thousand years until the invention and use of the microscope and the
eventual discovery of the existence of cells and microorganisms.
Biogenesis Theory. The premise of this theory is the exact opposite of

the Spontaneous Generation Theory – living organisms come only from pre-
existing life forms and never from non-living entities. Using the microscope,
Francesco Redi was able to demonstrate that flies did not actually come from
putrid materials but from maggots – their larval stage that was formed from
microscopic eggs that used the organic content of the putrid matter for their
consequent growth and development. Corollary to this result, Lazzaro
Spallanzani came up with a method of killing spoilage microorganisms in
nutrient broth by placing it in a sealed container and subjecting it to boiling
temperature. Finally, Louis Pasteur was able to devise an experiment which
proved that nutrient broth does not produce microorganisms by itself and that
it only acts as a medium through which they grow and increase in number,
thereby causing spoilage. He stated that most microorganisms are air-borne
and that food sources such as nutrient broth in uncovered container can be
contaminated by these air-borne life-forms. Once in the broth, the
microorganisms would use the nutrients to effect population increase and the
consequent food spoilage. Knowing that microorganisms are killed by heat
treatment, he subjected to heat a sample nutrient broth in a tightly sealed
container and did microbial analysis of it after – results revealed that the broth
did not contain any microorganisms. He then unsealed the same broth and
after a time, performed another round of microbial analysis on it. The results
yielded positive for the presence of microorganisms proving that
microorganisms are formed only from pre-existing microorganisms and never
from non-living factors. Cells, as the basic unit of life, are formed only from
pre-existing cells, and thus, life begets life. Subsequent developments in
microscopy, microbiology, and embryology further proved this theory’s
validity.

Chemosynthesis Theory. Despite the validity of Biosynthesis, still, it

was not able to fully explain the beginning /ultimate origin of life – how, when,
and where did life actually deign? The explanation, dubbed as
Chemosynthesis was not formulated and proven to be correct until the early
20th Century through the combined works of Alexander Oparin and John
Haldane (1920s) who hypothesized that the conditions on the primitive Earth
led into the synthesis of the molecules and processes that constitute life and
Stanley Miller and Harold Urey (1950s) who conducted experiments and
provided results to prove the validity of the Oparin-Haldane Hypothesis.
A description of the chemical evolution of cellular life, Chemosynthesis

occurs through the following phases:
The first phase, which approximately happened 3.5 billion years ago,
consisted of random molecules in the atmosphere of the primitive Earth (CH 4,
CO2, NH3, H2O) dissolved in the hydrosphere forming simple organic
molecules due to the energy provided by ultraviolet light, solar radiation,
electrical discharges, and volcanism. These organic molecules were the
hydrocarbons (composed only of C and H) which today we know as the
framework of amino acids and sugars, molecules important for life.
Apparently, through the continuous availability of the aforementioned energy
sources, the hydrocarbons combined further to form the more complex
organic molecules.
In the second phase, the amino acids and sugars further reacted,
producing macromolecules such as proteins and carbohydrates, respectively.
These macromolecules then became organized into structures with definite
shape, unity, and properties capable of sustaining themselves. Termed as
coacervates, these structures are theorized to be ancestors of cells. They
had boundaries, reproduced by fission, grew by accumulating additional
molecules, and underwent simple metabolism in the form of internal chemical
reactions.
The third phase involved the synthesis of nucleic acids – macromolecules

that began to control cell reproduction and direct the chemical reactions
undergone by the coacervates. This stage thereby increased the complexity
of the organization of the primitive structures and signaled the birth of the
very first group of cells.
The fourth phase saw evolutionary development at work. The first group
of cells that thrived were chemosynthetic – those that were able to use the
inorganic molecules in an anoxygenic environment to synthesize food and
release O2 as the by-product.

The fifth and last phase was about these chemosynthetic cells (which
today, we call as autotrophic bacteria) increasing in population and
accumulating O2 concentration in the atmosphere until the environment
became oxygenic. The oxygen-containing environment shut down
chemosynthesis but life continued to flourish since one of the characteristics
manifested by the cells was reproduction. Continuous evolution triggered by
natural selection apparently enabled the first group of life to diversify into the
current varied groups that now populate the Earth.
Today, Chemosynthesis Theory is accepted as the most correct

explanation about the origin of life.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Draw a diagrammatic representation of the Miller-Urey Experiment and
explain how its results proved the validity of the Chemosynthetic Theory.
UNIT II. BIOENERGETICS
A. Life at the Cellular Level

According to the Cell Theory, the cell is the basic unit of structure and
function of all living organisms and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Thus, that basic premise about life being an energy-requiring cyclical process
is best manifested at the cellular level.
Cellular Classification, Anatomy, and Physiology. In terms of level of

complexity, cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells,
exemplified only by the unicellular bacteria, are considered as primitive and
do not possess a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Among the
structures that they possess are the following: cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleoid, ribosomes, plasmids, mesosomes, cell wall, and capsule/
glycocalyx /slime layer.
Eukaryotic cells consist the unicellular protists and fungi as well the
multi-cellular plants and animals. They contain nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles. Following are the organelles that are typically found in
eukaryotic cells: cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, centrioles,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrion, ribosomes, Golgi complex, plastids
(chromoplasts and leucoplasts), vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
microtubules, cell wall, flagella, and cilia.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells undergo the Cell Cycle – a series of
physical and metabolic activities which constitute its birth, growth and
development, and reproduction. It consists of two periods – the Interphase

and the Division Phase. The Interphase is the birth and growth and growth
and development period wherein a newly formed cell increases in cell size
and volume by absorbing water and the dissolved inorganic molecules,
synthesizes its genetic material, and forms its structures and / or organelles.
The Division Phase leads the period or reproduction and consists of two
important processes – karyokinesis (division of the nucleus) and
cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).
Karyokinesis happens either through mitosis or meiosis. Mitosis is a

nuclear division that duplicates the chromosome number of the parent cell
such that these duplicates become separated from each other through
cytokinesis. Thus, if a cell undergoes mitosis and karyokinesis, it produces
two new cells which have the same nuclear content / chromosome number as
the parent cell. Mitosis is observed among all kinds of living organisms – for
unicellular, asexually-reproducing organisms such as the bacteria, protists,
and fungi, it is the means for population increase while for multi-cellular
sexually reproducing organisms such as plants and animals, it enables the
multi-cellular state by increasing the number of cells and is also responsible
for tissue repair and replacement of damaged / worn out and dead cells.
Meiosis is a nuclear division observed only among plants and animals

and forms specialized cells called as gametes or sex cells. At the onset of
reproductive maturity, each functional cell of the sex organs of plants and
animals undergo meiosis, forming four gametes that contain only half of the
original nuclear content / chromosome number of the parent.
Meanwhile, for plant and plant-like organisms (those possessing cell

walls), karyokinesis happens through phragmoplast or cell plate formation
wherein the structures called vesicles begin cell form within the central
portion of the cell and extend towards the opposite ends. These vesicles
fuse to enable cytoplasmic division, thereby forming the cell plate which
would later on develop into a cell wall. For animal and animal-like organisms,
karyokinesis occurs through furrowing or cleavage formation wherein
cytoplasmic division happens through constrictions that begin at opposite
sections of the central part of the cell. These constrictions meet at the center
to form two separate cells.
Once a cell has been formed through the division phase, it shall undergo
its own Interphase that would constitute growth and development via
metabolism. Cellular metabolism may be best exemplified by photosynthesis
and respiration.
Photosynthesis is an anabolic process that converts solar / radiant

energy into a useful chemical form – glucose (C6H12O6), more commonly
called as food. Photosynthetic cells like those of cyanobacteria, algae, and

plants are able to capture solar energy that breaks water into free electrons
from its Hydrogen (H) and molecular O 2. The free electrons create an
energy-rich environment that enables the formation of sugars through the
combination of carbon dioxide (CO 2) with H atoms.
In equation form, photosynthesis is 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Respiration, on the other hand, is a catabolic process that degrades

C6H12O6 into H2O and CO2 to generate the energy-rich molecule known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which the cell utilizes to drive its anabolic
pathways. In essence, cellular respiration is the reverse pathway of
photosynthesis that unlocks the energy that it forms for cell use.
Thus, photosynthesis and respiration best represent the coupled nature of

metabolism that enables the survival, growth, and development, and
reproduction at all forms of living organisms at its most basic level – that is,
cellular.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Draw a labeled illustration of the following:

a. Prokaryotic Cell
b. Eukaryotic Cell
b.1. Plant Cell
b.2. Animal Cell
2. Tabulate the structures and the functions of each structure of the cells in (1).
3. Research on the following processes:
a. Photosynthesis
b. Cellular Respiration
in terms of the cellular structures where they occur, the substances that form,
and the significance of each of these substances to sustain the life of the cell.
B. Life at the Ecological Level

The biosphere, earlier on defined as the portion of the Earth that is able to
sustain life, is in fact composed of over-lapping and inter-related ecosystems.
An ecosystem is a grouping of microorganisms, plants, and animals that
interact with one another and with the physical/abiotic factors of the
environment. An ecosystem is able to sustain itself because of a continuous
energy source that it is able to reuse. This cycling and recycling of energy
occur through the food chain/web and the biogeochemical cycles.

Food chain is the feeding relationship between and among living

organisms such that one group becomes the food source of another (food
web is an over-lapping food chain wherein an organism eats more than kind
of another organism and it may also be eaten by different groups).
Depending on their role in this feeding relationship, organisms belong to any
of the following categories: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
Producers are also called as autotrophs because they are able to

synthesize their own food using external energy sources. They may either be
photosynthetic /photoautotrophs which create food using the energy from
the Sun (e.g., cyanobacteria, algae, and plants) or chemosynthetic/
chemoautotrophs which manufacture food utilizing energy form inorganic
molecules (e. g., sulfur bacteria and methanogens).
Consumers are animals that take in pre-formed food because they lack
the ability to create food / organic molecules from inorganic sources. Animals
belong to this category and are further classified as herbivores (those
feeding on plants), carnivores (those that feed on other animals), and
omnivores (those that feed on both plants and animals).
Decomposers are mostly microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) that feed

on dead producers and consumers thereby disintegrating these organisms’
chemical composition, bringing such back into the soil and water and
enabling the food chain to sustain itself. The term “decomposers” usually
refers to microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Animals that act as
decomposers are called as scavengers or saprotrophs.
Both consumers and decomposers are termed as heterotrophs because

they feed on other organisms and are not able to manufacture their own food
/ energy sources.
Biogeochemical Cycles involve the changing in form of certain

substances as they move through both the abiotic and biotic components of
the environment. Among the substances that undergo this process are
Water, Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur.
The Water or Hydrologic Cycle consists of the following processes

that tend to overlap and sustain one another, namely evaporation
(changing of solar-heated liquid surface water into gaseous form and
eventual escape into the atmosphere), condensation/cloud formation
(formation of ice crystals /clouds in the atmosphere), precipitation (melting
of ice crystals into liquid state in the form of rain falling either on the
hydrosphere or lithosphere), surface run-off (horizontal movement of
water that falls into bare soil, carrying with it soil articles, until it goes back
to surface water bodies, enabling the cycle to repeat itself), infiltration

(vertical movement of rain water through soil layers), absorption by plants,

transpiration (evaporation of water through plant stomata), percolation
(deposition of infiltrated water into the impermeable rock layer underneath
the soil).
The Nitrogen cycle consists of nitrification, ammonification, and

denitrification. Nitrification (the conversion of the inorganic atmospheric
Nitrogen (N2) into its organic forms: nitrate (NO 3-1), nitrite (NO 2-1)) and
ammonification (the conversion of NO3-1 and NO 2-1 into ammonium
(NH4+1) are also called as Nitrogen fixation since they convert the
chemically inert N 2 into water-soluble organic forms that are useful for the
growth and development of living organisms. Fixation may be physical
when it occurs through the energy provided by natural electrical discharges
/ lighting and biological which happens through the metabolic capacity of
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found either in the root nodules of leguminous
plants or as free-living microorganisms in the soil. The fixed forms of
Nitrogen that do not become absorbed by plants may undergo the reverse
process known as denitrification which converts the organic molecules
back into atmospheric N 2.
The Carbon Cycle involves the following processes; photosynthesis,

respiration, decomposition, dissolution, weathering, surface run -off,
precipitation, and volcanism. Photosynthesis is also called as Carbon
Fixation as it converts the inorganic CO 2 into its organic form, C6H12O6,
which gets passed on and used as energy source from one kind of
organisms into another through the food chain. Respiration degrades
C6H12O6 back into CO 2, likewise decomposition. CO2 released through
decomposition may either become incorporated back into the atmosphere
or dissolved in water through dissolution. Dissolution forms carbonates
(CO 3-2) which may either form rock layers or be washed away through
weathering and surface run-off to become deposited in river beds and
ocean basins via precipitation. Volcanism shall enable the carbonates to
be mixed back into the soil and rock layers in the lithosphere.
The Phosphorus Cycle consists of Phosphorus in phosphate (PO 4-3)

form undergoing the processes of absorption, decomposition,
dissolution, weathering, surface run-off, precipitation, and volcanism.
Phosphate, when dissolved in soil water, is absorbed by the plants,
becomes used for ATP synthesis, and enters the food chain. Upon
decomposition, the phosphate in organisms again undergoes dissolution,
weathering, surface run-off, precipitation, and volcanism and during any of
these processes, it may once again be able to enter into the food chain.

The Sulfur Cycle involves the element Sulfur (S) in the following forms:
sulfate (SO 4-2), Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S), metal Sulfide (S-2), and organic
Sulfur and undergoes nearly the same biological and geologic processes
undergone by Phosphorus. Sulfate and metal Sulfide are among the
natural inorganic components of the soil which when dissolved in soil water
may undergo absorption by plants, at which point they become converted
into organic S. The organic S would be used for plant growth and
development and would be passed on to other organisms through the food
chain. Decomposition would degrade the organic Sulfur back into its
sulfate and metal sulfide forms which may either be reabsorbed by plants
or may remain in soil to be weathered, eroded, and precipitated into river
beds and ocean floors where they either accumulate or enter the aquatic
food chain. Volcanism releases Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfate that may
combine with atmospheric water vapor and become deposited back into
the soil during precipitation.
1. Identify sample organisms for each of the ecological groups cited in this
section.
2. Construct a food web composed of specific kinds of organisms.
3. Cite the biological significance of the different forms of elements that undergo
the Biogeochemical Cycles.
UNIT III. THE PERPETUATION OF LIFE
A. The Reproductive Process

From the time that organisms evolve, they have been able to maintain
their existence and increase their population through time due to the process
known as reproduction. Reproduction is the process wherein an organism
known as the parent forms another organism called as the offspring that
belongs to the same group of species. Reproduction happens either
asexually or sexually.
B. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is observed among the primitive forms of life
particularly the bacteria, protists, and fungi. In this mode, an organism by
itself, after achieving reproductive maturity, is able to form its offspring which
would have the same genetic composition as its parents. It happens through
any of the following: fission (commonly observed among bacteria, it involves
splitting of an organism to form two new organisms), budding (happens
among yeasts wherein a mature cell produces a duplicate of itself known as
the bud), spore formation (occurs among molds and involves the mature
organism forming and releasing large numbers of offspring known as spores),

and fragmentation (a process wherein certain protists, e.g., Amoeba, due to

external factors, may be broken into fragments, with each fragment
developing into a mature organism).
C. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction is observed among plants and animals and
involves organs known as gonads that form as result of sexual maturity
undergoing the process known as gametogenesis. Gametogenesis is the
formation of specialized sex cells known as gametes (generally called as
sperm for the male and egg for the female) that contain only half of the
chromosome number and content as the parent. When a male and a female
parent mate, fertilization may occur and it does, it would combine the sperm
and the egg, forming the offspring called as zygote, which has a recombinant
set of traits compared to its parents. This zygote, depending on genetic
combination, may either be a male or a female, and will undergo its own
growth and development such that upon attaining reproductive maturity, it
may then become involved in another reproductive cycle.
1. Plant Reproduction
Plants are multicellular photosynthetic organisms that thrive in both
terrestrial and aquatic environments. In terms of the absence or presence
of tissues for internal transport of nutrients known as vascular tissues,
they are classified as either bryophytes (e.g., mosses, hornworts, and
liverworts) or tracheophytes. Bryophytes are considered as the most
primitive plant forms which do not possess vascular tissues and may
survive only in environments with a constant supply of moisture.
Tracheophytes are the vascular plants that are more adapted in
terrestrial environments. They come in two groups – the sporophytes
(those which have spores as their reproductive structures e.g., ferns) and
the spermatophytes (those which are gamete-producing). The
spermatophytes are further subdivided into two classes – the
gymnosperms (e.g., pines, those which form zygotes inside structures
known as cones) and the angiosperms (e.g., flowering plants, those that
nurture their zygotes in their organs known as flowers).
The flowering plants are the most successful in thriving in a terrestrial

environment where water may be very limited.
As a reproductive organ, a flower consists of two groups of parts – the

essential and the accessory. The essential parts are those that are
directly involved in the process of reproduction and may either be the
stamen or the pistil while the accessory parts act to protect the essential
parts and include the sepals (collectively called as the calyx) and the
petals (collectively called as the corolla).

The stamen is the male reproductive organ that consists of the stalk-
like filament and an upper terminal part called as anther while the pistil is
the vase-like female reproductive organ composed of an enlarged base
called as ovary, a long and slender neck-like style, and a sticky mouth-
like part known as the stigma.
Flowers may either be perfect (those that have both stamen and
pistil) or imperfect (those that contain either the stamen or the pistil).
Plants that possess perfect flowers are referred to as monoecious while
those that contain either the stamen or the pistil is called as dioecious.
The reproduction of flowering plants consists of the following

processes: gametogenesis, pollination and double fertilization.
Gametogenesis, the formation of sex cells or gametes, happens in

the male and female gonads, the anther and the ovary, respectively.
Male gametogenesis is called as pollen grain formation and consists of
a macrogametophyte inside an anther undergoing meiosis forming four
microgametes. Each of these microgametes would then go through
karyokinesis to form a microspore or pollen grain. Thus, each pollen
grain consists of two nuclei – the generative nucleus and the tube
nucleus. Once the pollen grain is formed, the wall of the anther may
disintegrate and release the pollen grains. Female gametogenesis is
called as ovule formation and consists of a megagametophyte inside an
ovary undergoing meiosis to form four megagametes. Three of the four
would degenerate and the one surviving megagamete would then go
through three successive mitosis to form eight ovules – one egg nucleus,
two polar nuclei, two synergids, and three antipodals.
Pollination is the transfer of the pollen grains released by the anther

to the stigma. If this process happens within the same flower in the same
plant, the process is called as self-pollination. If it occurs from one plant
into another, it is called as cross-pollination.
Once pollination has happened, double fertilization may then occur.

When a pollen grain lands on to the sigma of a flower of the same
species, the tube nucleus of the pollen grain shall germinate and form the
pollen tube that would extend from the stigma to the style up to the
opening of the ovary. The generative nucleus of the pollen grain will now
move down the pollen tube and as it does that, it would mitotically divide
to form two sperm nuclei. Upon reaching the ovary, one sperm nucleus
would combine with the egg nucleus to form the seed or zygote. The
other sperm nucleus would combine with the two polar nuclei to form the

endosperm. These processes would result to the maturation of the ovary

to become the fruit. Once a fruit falls on to a fertile soil or becomes
eaten by animals, the seed inside gets dispersed and this may then result
into germination and eventual perpetuation of the plant.
2. Animal Reproduction
There is a higher degree of diversity among animals than in plants.
Nonetheless, there are two major groups of animals known – the
invertebrates and the vertebrates. Invertebrates are those that do not
have backbone and a bony skeletal system while vertebrates,
considered as the more evolved form, are those with a backbone / spinal
column and a bony skeletal system. These major groups are further
subdivided mostly in terms of their habitat (either aquatic- those living in
water or terrestrial – those thriving in land) and mode of nutrition (free-
living or parasitic). Free-living animals obtain their food through any of
the following mechanisms – filter-feeding, substrate-swallowing, and
ingestion and they are further classified as herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores, and / or scavengers. Filter-feeding consists of aquatic
animals absorbing water current and using the dissolved microorganisms
as their food source, substrate-swallowing involves animals taking in
soil and using its microbial content as food, and ingestion is the taking-in
of large amounts of plants and animals. Parasitism involves animals
depending on another for their food supply and occurs either through
endoparasitism (living inside an animal’s gut and other internal organs)
or ectoparasitism (thriving in the skin of another animal).
To effect sexual reproduction, animals utilize a specific organ known

as gonad. At the onset of reproductive maturity, the male gonads called
as testes and the female gonads termed as ovaries undergo meiosis to
produce the sperm and the egg, the male and female gametes / sex cells
respectively.During mating / coupling, fertilization may happen, combining
the sperm and the egg to form the zygote. This reproductive process is
manifested through any of the following forms: bisexual reproduction,
hermaphroditism, parthenogenesis, and neoteny.
Bisexual / biparental reproduction is the most common form and

involves a male and a female parent that mate / couple to form the
zygote. This is exemplified by most invertebrates and vertebrates that
are dioecious. Hermaphroditism is uni-parental – it involves monoecious
animals that either self-fertilize or exchange sex cells with each other and
is usually observed among worms and shelled organisms.
Parthenogenesis is the development of an embryo from an unfertilized
egg especially which occurs among insects and crustaceans. Lastly,
neoteny is the ability of juvenile or reproductively under-developed

organisms to produce fertile offspring and is observed among certain

species of reptiles.
Fertilization among animals happens either as internal or external.

Internal fertilization involves the development of the fertilized egg or
zygote inside the body cavity of the female parent while external
fertilization happens when the sperm and the egg combine and form the
zygote outside the parent’s body cavity such that it develops in an aquatic
environment. For both internally and externally fertilized animals, growth
and development happen next in conducive conditions until they reach
reproductive maturity and enable the continuous perpetuation of their
species.
ENRICHMENT QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate between pines and trees in terms of their reproductive structures
especially on how each is perpetuated in the environment. Which group has
a more efficient means of reproduction? Explain.
2. What is the impact of each of the following types of animal reproduction to the
species’ survival capacity/
a. bisexual reproduction
b. hermaphroditism
c. parthenogenesis
d. neoteny
D. The Genetic Aspect of Reproduction

The process of reproduction does not only enable the perpetuation of life.
Also and as importantly, it allows the transmission of traits from cell to cell,
parent to offspring, and from generation to generation, be it asexual or sexual
reproduction through a process known as DNA replication. In asexual
reproduction, faithful transmission of the parent’s traits to the offspring is
accomplished since the parental gene, the molecule known as DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), is wholly passed on to the offspring. In sexual
reproduction, the genetic material referred to as the chromosome (a
structure composed of DNA which still functions as the carrier of the traits
and a protein called histone which confers structural stability to the gene) is
reduced to half its number and content during gamete formation. Thus, when
fertilization happens, the traits contained in the male gamete become
combined with those in the female gamete, resulting into a zygote with
recombinant characteristics of its parents.
The inherited traits become expressed by the organism as it grows and

develops through transcription and translation. Transcription forms RNA
(ribonucleic acids) from the DNA) from the DNA while translation

synthesizes proteins from the RNA. These proteins, either as structure or

enzyme, thus become the expression of the traits contained in the DNA.
Genetic Engineering. The knowledge about trait transmission and

variation in trait expression becomes the basis of one of the most important
technological breakthroughs of the 20th Century – genetic engineering.
Genetic engineering is a set of technologies that is used to change the
genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across
species boundaries to produce improved or novel organisms. The techniques
involve sophisticated manipulations of genetic material and other biologically
important chemicals. Genes are the chemical blueprints that determine an
organism's traits. Thus, moving genes from one organism to another
transfers those traits. Through genetic engineering, organisms can be given
targeted combinations of new genes- and therefore new combinations of
traits- that do not occur in nature and cannot be developed by natural means.
Such an approach is different from classical plant and animal breeding,

which operates through selection across many generations for traits of
interest. Classical breeding operates on traits, only indirectly selecting genes,
whereas biotechnology such as genetic engineering targets specific genes,
attempting to influence traits. Thus, it is able to rapidly accelerate the rate of
progress and efficiency of breeding.
While nature can produce organisms with new gene combinations

through sexual reproduction (e.g., a brown cow bred to a yellow cow may
produce a calf of a completely new color), reproductive mechanisms limit the
number of new combinations - cows must breed with other cows (or very near
relatives); as such, a breeder who wants a purple cow would be able to breed
toward one only if the necessary purple genes were available somewhere in
a cow or a near relative to cows. On the contrary, a genetic engineer has no
such restriction. If purple genes are available anywhere in nature, in a sea
urchin, for instance, this gene could be used to produce purple cows. This
unprecedented ability to shuffle genes means that genetic engineers can
concoct gene combinations that would never be found in nature and the
organisms formed are called as novel organisms or genetically-modified
organisms (GMOs). Currently, the biotechnology to produce GMOs, also
called as transgenic organisms are mainly performed on crops to produce
pest-resistant varieties. Apart from such, there are also GM plants that are
being developed to produce specific vitamins, combat viruses, and
synthesize medically-important products. Many countries have already been
growing GM crops for years now and some of them are the following:
Argentina, Australia, Canada, Germany, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Portugal,
South Africa, Spain, United States, and Ukraine. Despite the obvious
benefits that genetic engineering brings with it, certain risks should also be

seriously considered. Genetic domination of GMOs over the natural varieties

due to agricultural preference may upset natural ecological relationships that
may result into new breed of pests and / or reduced biodiversity. The long-
term effects to human and animal health of GMO food product-consumption
is another issue that needs to be clarified.
1. Differentiate through a diagrammatic illustration the difference between the
genetic material of a prokaryote and a eukaryote.
2. Research on the status of the use of GMOs in the Philippines. Identify the
pros and cons and state whether you are for or against it.
UNIT IV. PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
A. The Multi-cellular Organization Among Plants

As multi-cellular organisms, plants consist of cells, tissues, organs, and
organ systems. Cells are the basic unit of organization among all living
organisms. Tissues are groups of cells that are similarly structured and
perform the same functions. Organs are composed of different tissues that
interact with one another so that certain functions and processes may be
delivered. Organ systems, the highest level of organization among multi-
cellular organisms, are made up of organs with specific yet inter-related
functions.
Tissues. Among the tracheophytes, the group where majority of the

terrestrial plants belong, the two general types of tissues are the meristems
and the permanent tissues.
The meristems, also called as the meristematic tissues, are composed

of undifferentiated cells that continuously undergo mitosis. They are mainly
responsible for the multi-cellular state of plants. There are two types of
meristems – the apical and the lateral. The apical meristems found in the
tips of the stems and roots are found in all plants and are responsible for
primary growth which is the increase in the length of stems and roots / height
of the plants. The lateral meristems are found only among the pines and the
trees and are manifested only during these plants’ secondary growth – the
formation of the bark and the wood.
The permanent tissues are composed of the meristems that grow,

mature, and differentiated into the following sub-types – surface,
fundamental, and vascular.

Surface tissues are the outermost tissue of plants that generally function
for protection. They occur either as epidermis or periderm. Epidermis is the
surface tissue of the leaves of all plants and of the stems and the roots of
soft-bodied / herbaceous plants (those without lateral meristems). When
found in the leaves, the epidermis is one layer-thick and secretes a waxy
water-proof substance known as cuticle that prevents water loss. It also has
paired cells known as guard cells which regulate the closing and opening of
holes known as stomata where gas exchange and transpiration (evaporation
of water) occur. Stem epidermis maybe two to three layer-thick of cuticle-
secreting cells. Root epidermis is also multi-layered but does not secrete
cuticle; thus, it allows the absorption of water from the soil. Instead, its
outermost layer consists of cytoplasmic extensions known as root hairs that
enable strong anchorage of the root into the soil and a more efficient
absorption of water. The periderm is the surface tissue of the stems and
roots of pines and trees and consists of cells that die at maturity, leaving
multiple layers of thick cellulosic walls for an efficient protective function.
Underneath the surface tissues are the fundamental tissues which are
responsible for the photosynthesis, food and water storage, support, and
protection. There are three types of fundamental tissues – parenchyma,
collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Parenchyma tissues are composed of cells
with thin walls and large-sized plastids and vacuoles. When found in the
leaves, they consist of large numbers of chloroplasts, are also called as
chlorenchyma, and function for photosynthesis. In the stems and roots, they
store food as starch in their plastids and water in their vacuoles.
Collenchyma tissues consist of cells that have thick primary and secondary
walls and give flexible support to plant stems and roots. Sclerenchyma
tissues are composed of cells that die at functional maturity and give rigid
support and protection to the plant body. It may occur as fibers in stems and
roots or as stone cells in seeds.
The innermost tissues of plants are the vascular tissues which form a
continuous tube-like structure within the entire plant body and function for the
internal transport of substances. There are two types of vascular tissues –
the xylem and the phloem that are always found as a vascular bundle. The
xylem is responsible for the transport of water and dissolved minerals while
the phloem transports dissolved food known as sap. For pines and trees, a
secondary xylem is formed to become the wood while the secondary phloem
is formed to become the bark.
Organs. Plant organs include the roots, stems, leaves, and flowers.
Roots are generally found underneath the ground and anchor the plant
into the soil, absorb and conduct water and minerals, transport water and

minerals to the stems and leaves, receive food from stems and leaves,
produce hormones, and in some cases, manifest asexual reproduction and /
or store food and water. There are two types of root systems – the taproot
which is the one found among pines, trees, shrubs and the fibrous root
which is the found observed among herbs and grasses.
Stems are the usually found above the ground. They orient the leaves
toward the light, support the weight of the leaves, withstand wind force and
velocity, conduct water and minerals and sap between the roots and the
leaves and may also be involved in asexual reproduction and food and water
storage. A typical stem consists of the following parts: nodes / petioles-
points in the stem where leaves are attached; internodes- spaces between
nodes; axil- angle between the stem and petiole of the leaf; axillary buds-
located on the upper surface of the axil and may potentially form a branch;
intercalary meristem- region of dividing cells at each internode and enables
the stem to grow rapidly along its length; and leaf primordia- sides of shoot
apical meristem leading into phyllotaxy (leaf arrangement). Phyllotaxy may
be any of the following: alternate, opposite, whorled, spiral, and decussate.
Leaves are the organs responsible for photosynthesis (food-making

process) and transpiration (the evaporation of water vapor through the
stomata). In certain plants, they may also be involved in protection and
asexual reproduction. Leaves are usually described in terms of venation
which describes the arrangement of their vascular bundle. Parallel venation
consists of vascular bundles that are neatly lined-up and do not intersect one
another. This venation is the one that could be seen on the leaves of the
monocots / grasses. Netted venation is composed of highly branched /
reticulated vascular bundles and this is the one found in the leaves of dicots
(herbs, shrubs, trees, and pines).
Flowers as discussed in a previous section, are the reproductive organs

of plants.
Organ Systems. Plants consist of two organ systems – the shoot and
the root. The shoot system consists of organs that are found above the
ground while the root system is composed of structures that are located
underneath the soil.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Prepare a botanical herbarium depicting the organs discussed in this section.

B. Growth and Development of Plants

Growth and development of plants consist of the seed or zygote
undergoing mitosis enabling it to achieve a multi-cellular state and cell
differentiation and specialization resulting into the formation of tissues,
organs, and organ systems. These two important events are made possible
through the following processes: germination, absorption of water and
minerals, transport of water and minerals, photosynthesis, food transport,
respiration, and irritability.
Germination is the formation of the first leaves of a seed known as

cotyledons. It is mostly controlled by external factors such as soil nutrients,
Water, Oxygen, and sunlight. Grasses exhibit only one germination point and
are called as monocots while herbs, shrubs, and trees exhibit two
germination points and are referred to as dicots.
Absorption of water and minerals is the process through which soil

water and the dissolved minerals are taken in by the plant roots. It occurs
through the processes of osmosis and diffusion, respectively. Osmosis is
the movement of water from a region of higher to lower concentration while
diffusion is the movement of molecules dissolved in water from a region of
higher to lower concentration. These water and minerals would move
through the root tissues where they may be used for cellular and tissue
growth and development. Water and minerals not used by the root would go
through the innermost tissue – the xylem for the next process- transport.
The transport of water and minerals from the roots to the different plant
parts such as the stems, leaves and flowers is explained by Transpiration
Pull-Water Cohesion Theory. According to this theory, transpiration, the
evaporation of water molecules in the xylem of the leaves through the
stomata, creates an upward force that pulls the water in the root xylem up
into the stems and leaves. When a water molecule is pulled up by this force,
it brings with it another water molecule through cohesion, the attractive force
between molecules of the same kind. Thus, transport of water is always
directed upward and the molecule is transported as a continuous column
ensuring a continuous supply to both stems and leaves as long as absorption
shall likewise continue.
As described in a previous section, photosynthesis is an anabolic

process that converts solar / radiant energy into a useful chemical form –
glucose (C6H12O6), more commonly called as food. Photosynthetic cells like
those of cyanobacteria, algae, and plants are able to capture solar energy
that breaks water into free electrons from its Hydrogen (H) and molecular O2.
The free electrons create an energy-rich environment that enables the
formation of sugars through the combination of carbon dioxide (CO 2) with H
atoms.

Once food is formed in the leaves, particularly in the chlorenchyma, it

must be dissolved and transported to the other cells, tissues, and organs of
the plant. Food transport is explained by the Pressure Flow Theory.
According to this theory, photosynthesis, as it forms food in the form of
glucose, decreases the concentration of water in the chlorenchyma compared
to its amount in adjacent cells in the leaves. Thus, via osmosis, more water
in the leaves would enter the chlorenchyma, dissolving the food and exerting
pressure into the cell’s wall. This pressure enlarges the cells / makes them
turgid and is called as turgor pressure. This higher pressure is the one that
would now enable the dissolved food to come out of the chlorenchyma and
diffuse to the other cells, tissues, and organs of the plant.
Respiration, as explained in a previous section, is a catabolic process

that degrades C6H12O6 into H2O and CO2 to generate the energy-rich
molecule known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which the cell utilizes to
drive its anabolic pathways. In essence, cellular respiration is the reverse
pathway of photosynthesis that unlocks the energy that it forms for cell use.
Irritability is the response to stimuli or factors in the environment and

enables growth and development and the continued survival of living
organisms. Plants exhibit two kinds of responses - reversible and
irreversible. Reversible responses are non-growth temporary responses
and may be in any of the following forms – mechanical, circadian rhythm, and
seasonal responses. Mechanical response is the movement of plant parts
due to direct contact with stimuli, circadian rhythm is the reaction of plants
that regularly happen at a 24-hr cycle, and seasonal response is that which
manifests itself only with the change in season, specifically amount of solar
radiation, temperature range, and availability of water. Irreversible
responses may either constitute growth or death and are also called as
tropisms. Tropisms that lead to growth and development are called as
positive tropisms while those that may stunt growth or lead to death are
referred to as negative tropisms. In terms of the stimuli causing them,
tropisms may be any of the following forms – phototropism (caused by
light), hydrotropism (caused by water), geotropism / gravitropism (caused
by the Earth’s gravitational pull), and chemotropism (caused by any
substance or molecule). Lastly, this type of response is caused by
hormones, specialized proteins that cause certain processes. Growth
hormones are produced in meristems and are of these three types – auxins
(enlarge cells), gibberellins (lengthens cells), and cytokinins (cause
cytokinesis / increase in cell number). Ethylene is a gaseous hormones
produced by ovary as a result of fertilization. Abscissic acid causes
abscission or leaf fall which minimizes transpiration for trees.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Visit your school garden and identify specific plant types. Describe each in
terms of the reversible and irreversible plant responses that they manifest.

UNIT V. ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
A. The Multi-cellular Organization Among Animals

Just like plants, animals are multi-cellular and therefore exhibit the
following levels of organization – cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
However, the higher levels of organization from tissue to organ systems
though observed in all vertebrates (fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and
mammals) may not necessarily be present in all invertebrates except mainly
for the arthropods (e.g., insects) and worms.
Tissues. There are four basic types of animal tissues – the epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nerve.
Epithelial tissues, also called as the epithelium, are composed of cells

that act as covering of both external surfaces and internal cavities and
organs. The outer layer of cells is unattached while the inner / lower one is
connected to another tissue known as the basement membrane. In terms of
the number of cell layers, there are three types of epithelium namely the
simple (composed of only one layer), stratified (composed of two or more
layers), and pseudostratified (irregularly packed with all cells attached to the
basement membrane). On the other hand, this tissue type may also be
classified as follows based on cell shape: squamous (cells are flat like tiles
on a floor), cuboidal (cells are cube-like), and columnar (cells are pillar-like).
Apart from protection, epithelial tissues also function for secretion (e.g., sweat
glands) and absorption (small intestine). Depending on their location, this
tissue type may also contain specialized structures such as the mucus-
secreting goblet cells in the intestinal epithelium and the cilia in the tracheal
epithelium.
Connective tissues are composed of cells that are embedded in an

inter-cellular matrix. They have varied functions that include binding and
supporting body parts, protection, filling spaces, storage of fat, and transport
of substances. Based on the nature and composition of the inter-cellular
matrix, there are five types of connective tissues – loose, dense / fibrous,
cartilage, bone, and blood.
Loose connective tissues are composed of matrix that consists of

water, inorganic substances, and fibers. There are three types – areolar,
adipose, and reticular. Areolar connective tissue consists of cells called
fibroblasts that are embedded in a jelly-like matrix with collagen and other
elastic fibers. It serves as framework for body parts such as the skin, nerves,
blood vessels, and many internal organs. Adipose tissue is composed of
enlarged / fat-filled fibroblasts and functions to store energy and provide
insulation especially in the skin, kidney, and heart. Lastly, reticular

connective tissue is composed of highly branched fibers and also acts as

framework for lymph nodes, spleen, and liver.
Dense / fibrous connective tissues consist of cells that are embedded

in a more tightly meshed network of collagen fibers. They are of two types –
the regular dense connective tissue which includes ligaments (connect
bones to bones) and tendons (connect muscles to bones) and the irregular
dense connective tissue which is found in the deep layers of the skin,
kidney, adrenal glands, bones, and in muscles.
Cartilage is composed of cells called as chondrocytes that are embedded

in a protein-containing matrix, making the tissue strong, flexible, and
compression-resistant. It functions to connect the end of many bones and
also as a structure composing the following body parts: nose, external ear,
walls of the trachea, intervertebral disks, and the fetal skeleton.
Bone consists of cells called as osteocytes that are embedded in a matrix

composed of a mixture of protein and calcium salts (e.g., calcium phosphate
and calcium carbonate. It acts as the primary structure of the skeletal system
that protects vital internal organs and provides leverage for movement. It is
also an organ for the storage of minerals and is responsible for the synthesis
of red blood cells (red bone marrow) and fat cells (yellow bone marrow).
Blood is a connective tissue with a liquid matrix known as plasma.

Composed of 90% water, plasma contains three different types of cell – the
erythrocytes or red blood cells which function for oxygen transport, the
leucocytes or white blood cells which are responsible for immune
responses, and the thrombocytes or platelets which enable blood clotting.
Muscle tissues are composed and elongated and contractile cells known
as muscle fibers and function for movement, heat generation, and food
movement in the alimentary canal. In terms of how movement is controlled,
there are two types – the voluntary (those with movement that is controlled
by the brain) and involuntary (those with movement that are not controlled
by the brain). In terms of appearance, muscle tissues are either smooth (no
striations / alternating patterns of protein) or striated (with striations). In
terms of location, they are classified as skeletal (those attached to the
bones), visceral (those that compose the internal organs, blood vessels, and
the gut), and cardiac (those found in the heart).
Nerve tissues are composed of stellate cells called as neurons and

enable the reception, transmission, and processing of stimuli / impulses as
well as the response to such. Each neuron is composed of a cell body
where processing of information occurs and two types of cytoplasmic

extensions – the dendrites (highly branched and short cytoplasmic

extensions that bring impulses toward the cell body) and the axons (long and
unbranched cytoplasmic extensions that carry impulses away from the cell
body). In terms of their functions, there are also three types of neurons – the
sensory / afferent neurons (those that are found in sense organs and carry
impulses towards the brain), motor / efferent neurons (those that are found
in muscles and receive command coming from the brain) and the inter-
neurons (connect the sensory and the motor neurons).
Organs and Organ Systems. For different groups of animals, the

manifestation of organs and organ systems may differ but generally, there are
ten identified organ systems namely integumentary, skeletal, muscular,
circulatory, respiratory, digestive, excretory / urinary, nervous, endocrine, and
reproductive.
Integumentary System. Consisting mostly of the epithelium and its

secretions, this organ system generally functions as a protective covering of
the animal. For most invertebrates, the integument is mostly an extra-cellular
secretion while for many vertebrates such as humans, it is composed mainly
of the skin (composed of three layers – epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis /
subcutaneous layer) and its outgrowths such as the hair and the nails.
Among its functions are protection, temperature regulation, waste elimination,
and vitamin synthesis.
Skeletal System. This organ system functions mainly for support,

protection, maintenance of position and posture, storage of minerals, and
coordination of body movement. There are three types of skeletal system
observed among various groups of animals: hydrostatic skeleton (found in
worms and soft-bodied aquatic invertebrates such as sea jellies, it consists of
body fluid contained in small vessels that give support to the body),
exoskeleton (found in aquatic invertebrates such as the corals, mollusks,
shrimps, and among arthropods such as insects, this occurs as an utermost
structure and may either be inorganic (obtained through the absorption of
minerals such as Calcium and Silicates from the ocean) or organic (consists
of the protein chitin formed as an extra-cellular secretion of the skin and is
periodically shed off through a process known as molting)), and
endoskeleton (the skeletal system found inside the body cavity like the one
in humans and is composed mostly of bones and connective tissues such as
cartilage and ligaments).
Muscular System This organ system consists of muscle fibers

responsible for movement, heat generation, contraction of internal organs,
and giving posture to the body. For invertebrates such as worms, muscles
tend to be circular which limits the direction of movement. For vertebrates,

muscles are thread-like and afford the animals a higher degree of efficiency
and versatility in movement.
Circulatory System. This organ system is responsible for internal

transport – the distribution of nutrients, water, gases, hormones, and wastes
to the specific sites where they are needed. For invertebrates like insects,
the circulatory system is open which means that the fluid being transported
known as blood, after passing through vessels, gets drained in a central
cavity where it gets filtered. For vertebrates, the circulatory system is closed
– blood never leaves the vessels and the exchange of substances happens
between the cells and the vessels themselves. The human circulatory
system specifically consists of the highly muscular pumping organ called the
heart, the system of tube known as blood vessels through which blood flows
(of three types: arteries, veins, capillaries), and the circulating fluid called as
blood.
Respiratory System. This organ system enables the exchange of gases

between the organism and its environment, that is, the taking in O 2 and
release of CO2 to enable the process of cellular respiration for ATP synthesis.
Organs involved in respiration vary from one animal group to another. It may
be the skin (for many invertebrates particularly the aquatic forms and the
worms, the trachea (for insects), the gills (fish), and the lungs (human
beings). Specifically, the human lung system consists of the following parts –
oral cavity, nasal cavity, pharynx / throat, larynx / voice box, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, and the diaphragm.
Digestive System. Composed of a long continuous tube known as the

alimentary canal / gastrointestinal tract and associated structures known
as accessory organs, this organ system is responsible for the process of
digestion – the conversion of macromolecules into their structural units which
may be metabolically used by the cells: carbohydrates converted into
monosaccharides such as glucose, lipids into glycerol and fatty acid, proteins
into amino acids, and nucleic acids into nucleotides. For the human digestive
system, the alimentary canal consists of the following sections: mouth,
pharynx / throat, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, and anus while the accessory organs include the tongue, teeth and
salivary glands in the mouth, and the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas all
attached to the small intestine.
Excretory / Urinary System. This organ system enables the process of

excretion – elimination of metabolic wastes. Various organs enable animals
to dispose the different types of metabolic wastes. The large intestines
eliminate undigested organic materials known as feces, the lungs enable the
release of CO2, the skin releases excess water and dissolved salts, and the

kidneys which are considered as the major excretory organ filter and clean
blood of nitrogeneous wastes and excess salts, producing the metabolic
waste called as urine. Apart from the kidney, the urinary system also
consists of the following organs: ureter, urinary bladder, and the urethra.
Nervous System. Responsible for the receiving, transmission,

processing, and responding to stimuli, the nervous system for many
invertebrates consists of a simple network of tissues known as nerve net. For
vertebrates (e.g., human beings), the nervous system consists of two
divisions – the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central
nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord while the
peripheral nervous system is composed of the cranial and spinal nerves
that are manifested as somatic and autonomic nerves.
Endocrine System. Composed of ductless glands that release their

secretion called as hormones directly into the blood stream until such
reaches target sites / organs, this organ system enables important processes
such as maturity leading into manifestation of characteristics related to
metabolism and reproduction / perpetuation of species eg. metamorphosis,
embryogenesis, and expression of secondary sexual characteristics and
development). Specifically, the human endocrine system consists of the
following endocrine glands: pituitary, pineal gland, thyroid, parathyroid,
thymus, pancreas, adrenal, and the gonads.
Reproductive System. Enabling the perpetuation of living organisms

and the transmission of traits of species through generations, this organ
system consists of structures known as gonads (testes for the male and
ovaries for the female) which becomes activated to produce the male and
the female gametes (sperm and egg, respectively). During mating of the
male and the female organism, fertilization may happen, during which the
sperm and the egg, each one containing just half of the chromosome content
of the parent, will combine, forming a zygote that now has the same
chromosome number of the parent but such is in a recombinant form,
ensuring that the offspring will just be similar but never identical to any or
both of the parents.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Come up with a diagrammatic representation of the organ systems that
compose the human body including a brief description of the functions and
processes undergone by each.

B. Growth and Development of Animals
The zygote that forms after fertilization, which may either be internal or
external, undergoes either of the following types of development –
metamorphosis or embryogenesis. Metamorphosis which is observed in
many invertebrates such as insects consists of stages that are
morphologically different from one another – the zygote and the succeeding
stages of development look markedly different from the mature animal. In
embryogenesis, each stage of development resembles one another, and the
immature form of the animal, referred to as the embryo, is a miniature
resemblance of the adult (e.g., mammals such as humans).
For both metamorphosis and embryogenesis, the stages of development

include the following: cleavage, gastrulation, organogenesis, and growth.
Cleavage consists of the zygote dividing repeatedly to form a large

cluster of small, maneuverable cells called blastomeres which then results
into blastulation- migration of blastomeres in one side of a structure called
blastula. This then leads to the formation of a central fluid-filled cavity called
the blastocoel.
Gastrulation involves extensive and highly integrated cell movements

resulting in rearrangement of the blastomeres and the formation of a structure
known as gastrula (an embryo consisting of three germ layers namely
ectoderm, endoderm, and the mesoderm). The ectoderm differentiates into
the following: outer epithelium such as hair, nails, glands, lining of the mouth,
enamel of teeth, lens of eyes, inner ear, nasal epithelium, and skin epidermis;
neural tube such as the brain, spinal cord, and motor nerves; and neural
crest such as the nerves, medulla, skull, inner teeth structure. The
mesoderm develops into the following: notochord, circulatory system,
somites (skeleton, cartilage, and connective tissues), and the urogenital
system. Lastly, the endoderm forms the following: epithelium of respiratory
tract, pharynx, liver, pancreas, and the epithelium of urogenital system.
Organogenesis is the differentiation of the germ layers into organs which

is governed by pattern formation, determination of body position, and
induction of limbs and organs appropriate for each position.
Growth is the increase in size of the organs and achievement of full

functional maturity and reproductive capability.
In terms of how the animals appear at birth, they may be classified as any
of the following; oviparous, ovoviviparous, and viviparous.

Oviparous (egg-birth) are animals that are laid and released from their
parent’s reproductive tract while encased in an eggshell, and they may
develop on their own even when left out in the environment (e.g., fish,
reptiles).
Ovoviviparous (egg-live-birth) are those that are laid and released from
their parent’s reproductive tract while encased in an egg and must still be
further nourished through incubation until the hatch in order for them to
survive (e.g., birds).
Viviparous (live-birth) are animals that are developed and nourished

inside the uterus of their parent (e.g., mammals including humans).
Based on the number of offspring formed at a time, animals are either

uniparous (form only one zygote per fertilization) or multiparous (form many
zygotes per fertilization). Humans are naturally uniparous but may exhibit
twin birth which may either be identical (monozygotic- formed from one
zygote that divided mitotically) or fraternal (dizygotic- formed from the union
of two sperm cells with two egg cells).
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Define what parental instinct is and identify in which animal groups it exists
based on their classification in terms of the development of offspring after birth.

UNIT VI. THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION
A. Definition and Evidences of Evolution

Evolution is the process in which organisms change in form through long
periods of time. It is regarded as the force behind speciation – the formation
of different groups of organisms from pre-existing kinds that resulted to a high
degree of biodiversity (e.g., currently, there are around 8.7 million different
species on Earth - 6.5 million on land and 2.2 million in oceans).
As methods of scientific investigation and technology develop through

time, evidences to prove the occurrence of evolution became established.
Some of these evidences are the following:
Fossils – remains of once-living organisms (e.g., cell debris, body part,

imprints in rock layers, whole organisms frozen in thick glacial sheets) that
provide clues about the anatomy, morphology, and ecology of ancient
organisms, the extent of changes that certain prehistoric life-forms had
undergone through time, and the relationships between and among different
groups. At an anatomical level, two of the most important fossils are the
vestigial organs and the homologous structures. A vestigial organ is one
that is found in unrelated groups of organisms wherein it is functional in one
group and non-functional in another (e.g., tail bone in monkeys produces tail,
the equivalent coccygeal bone / tail bone in apes does not produce tail). A
homologous structure, on the other hand, is an organ found in unrelated
groups of organisms which are similar in both structure and function (e.g.,
bones of the uppers arms of humans, limbs of other mammals, fins of whales,
and wings of bats).
Genetic and Biochemical Similarities – one of the most compelling

evidences that living organisms originated from a common ancestor is the
fact that all life forms known use the same molecule as its genetic material –
DNA. In the same manner, basic metabolic processes such as
photosynthesis and cellular respiration occur across various life-forms,
indicating relatedness in the means to sustain life.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Present a developmental timeline of paleontology and explain its impact to
the understanding of the evolutionary process.

B. Theories of Evolution
Theory of Evolution by Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics.
Authored by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1809), this theory explains that
evolution is transformational – organisms change through time because of
their capacity to transform so that they may continuously adapt to the
changes that occur in their environment. These transformations are due to
either the need to change or the prolonged disuse of an organ, causing it to
atrophy and resulting into a new form of organism. Moreover, these
transformations could be genetically passed on to their offspring from one
generation to the next until the descendants became truly different from their
ancestors.
Further investigations in the succeeding years and the establishment of

the principles of genetics led into the debunking of Lamarck’s Theory, and the
main proponent of disproving it was Charles Darwin.
Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. Authored by Charles Darwin

(1859), this theory came as a result of his 5-year voyage (1831 – 1836)
aboard HMS Beagle covering areas in Europe, South America, Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand; considering fossil records and radioactive dating
as means of data interpretation; and corresponding with other scientists such
as Alfred Russell Wallace, and Charles Lyell.
Darwin stated that evolution is variational – the inherent differences

between and among living organisms and their consequently dissimilar
reactions to environmental stimuli are the main forces that drive the
evolutionary process. During his five-week visit at Galapagos Island in South
America, he was able to develop this view. He also concluded that living
organisms were neither divinely created nor immutable and that they are
actually products of a common origin that underwent modifications as a result
of their inherent variation and its effects to how to respond to environmental
stimuli.
In specific terms, Darwin explained that evolution happens through the

following mechanisms: perpetual change, common ancestry, speciation
through geologic time, gradualism, and natural selection.
Perpetual Change asserts that the Earth is neither constant nor

perpetually cycling but is steadily undergoing irreversible changes. Thus,
fluctuations in bioversity and environmental changes both happen
continuously and without repeat.

Common Ancestry explains that all organisms originated from a

common ancestor through a branching of genealogical lineages. This
explains morphological homologies among organisms as characteristics
inherited with modification from a corresponding feature in their common
evolutionary ancestor.
Speciation through Geologic Time states that the formation of new

species from existing forms, also known as adaptive radiation, happens
very slowly and through the following mechanisms: allopatric speciation
(evolution of reproductive barriers between geographically separated
populations, generating new species) and sympatric speciation (speciation
even in the absence of geographic isolation).
Gradualism, in relation to speciation, describes that large morphological
differences between species are produced by accumulation through
evolutionary time of many individual small changes.
Natural Selection, according to Darwin, is the driving force behind

evolution. Accordingly, all species overproduce their own kind (over-
production / over-reproduction), causing a struggle for the limited
resources that are needed for continued existence (struggle for existence).
Because no two organisms are exactly alike (variation), and since variable
traits are mostly heritable (genetic predisposition), those with hereditary
endowments that enhance their use of resources for survival and
reproduction contribute in a large disproportion to the next generation
(survival of the fittest and elimination of the unfit). Over many
generations, the sorting of variation by natural factors and processes in the
environment (natural selection) produces new adaptation and new species.
Thus, it is the dynamic interplay between the fitness of inherent genetic
differences among organisms and the environmental stimuli that causes
evolution and no organism is powerful to control or maneuver it to a direction
that would prove advantageous for the group.
1. Define the process of extinction and identify its causes by citing sample
organisms that actually underwent this process. Why is it regarded as a
means of evolution? In what ways are human beings contributing to the
occurrence of this process?
2. Come up with a photo-essay depicting the different stages of the evolution of

human beings.

C. Biodiversity and the Necessity of Classification

The long-term effect of evolution is variation sustained through
generations. This effect becomes further driven to speciation and eventually
results into high biodiversity levels – the presence of different groups of
organisms. With around 8.7 million different species on Earth, the need to
group these organisms accordingly following a certain set of criteria becomes
necessary so that studies may be done more easily.
The most common method of classification being used in the study of

living organisms is the Five-Kingdom Classification Scheme (Robert
Whittaker, 1950s). According to this Scheme, the Kingdom is the highest and
most inclusive level of classification that is based on the member organisms’
cellular, anatomical, physiological and ecological characteristics. Within
each Kingdom are lower and more specific levels of classification namely
Phylum / Division, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species based on more
discriminating, distinct, and unique characteristics. The last two lowest and
most exclusive levels, the Genus and Species, are culled from Carolus
Linnaeus’ Binomial System of Nomenclature (18 th Century) which states that
the scientific name of an organism is an indication of its uniqueness and
reproductive isolation as a group (e.g., in the scientific name Homo sapiens,
“Homo” is the Genus and “sapiens” is the Species which when taken
together, refers only to one group of living organisms – the human beings).
Following is a brief description of the Five-Kingdom Classification

Scheme:
Kingdom Monera – composed of bacteria – prokaryotic, unicellular,

microscopic, of varied shapes (spherical / cocci, rod-shaped / bacilli, twisted /
spirillum, may be aquatic or terrestrial, may be autotrophic, decomposers,
nutrient-cycler, and / or pathogenic (disease-causing); consists of the
following phyla: Schizophyta, Cyanophyta
Kingdom Protista – composed of algae (eukaryotic, unicellular,

microscopic, aquatic, autotrophic, may be pathogenic) and protozoans
(eukaryotic, unicellular, microscopic, aquatic, heterotrophic; may be
pathogenic); consists of the following phyla: Sarcodina, Ciliophora, Sporozoa,
Zoomastigina, Euglenophyta, Pyrrophyta, Chrysophyra
Kingdom Fungi – composed of yeasts, molds, and mushrooms

(eukaryotic, microscopic and unicellular (yeast and molds), macroscopic but
without higher levels of organization (mushrooms), absorptive, important
decomposers and nutrient cyclers and some may be pathogenic; consists of
the following phyla: Basidiomycota, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Oomycota,
Deuteromycota, Myxomycota

Kingdom Plantae – composed of mosses, ferns, pines, and the flowering

plants such as grasses, herbs, shrubs, and trees; eukaryotic, multicellular,
autotrophic – photosynthetic; the main producers of both aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems; consists of the following phyla: Charophyta,
Bryophyta, Pterophyta, Coniferophyta, Anthophyta
Kingdom Animalia – composed of invertebrates and vertebrates, some

are aquatic and some are terrestrial, eukaryotic, multicellular; heterotrophic
(either free-living through filter-feeding, substrate-swallowing, and ingestion
or parasitic; may act as consumers (herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores) or
scavengers; consists of the following phyla: Porifera, Coelenterata / Cnidaria,
Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Rotifera, Bryozoa, Mollusca, Annelida,
Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Chordata
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Using the Kingdom Classification Scheme and the lower and more exclusive
levels under each (phylum to species), accordingly classify us, humans, and
explain the bases of our being classified under each level.
UNIT VII. INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENCE
A. The Ecological Groupings of Living Organisms

The age-old known adage “No man is an island” is actually true and may
in fact be re-stated as “No organism is an island” because in reality, a living
organism cannot exist by itself and is always dependent on other living
organisms to form interacting groups as well as in the physical factors of its
environment for its continued survival.
These groups that increase in terms of the number of organisms and

factors involved as well as in the level of complexity are the following:
species, population, community, ecosystems.
The most basic and most exclusive level of ecological groupings is called
as the species. A species is a group of genetically similar and reproductively
isolated organisms that are capable of inter-breeding to produce fertile off-
spring. If organisms belonging to the same species are found in a specific
portion of the environment, then these organisms constitute a population.
Populations that occupy the same environment constitute a community.
Lastly, a community and the relationship between and among its component
populations as well their interaction with the physical factors in the
environment is called as an ecosystem.

Thus, the ecosystem may be considered as the functional unit of life on

Earth and its capacity to support and sustain life is dependent on its carrying
capacity. The carrying capacity is the maximum number of organisms of a
given population that can be indefinitely supported by a given ecosystem and
is determined by both physical attributes (availability of water and sunlight,
soil nutrients, weather conditions) and biological factors (reproductively
capability of the organisms, presence of disease-causing microorganisms
and predators). Apart from these natural determinants, human activities that
tend to disturb ecological balance including deforestation / land conversion
and pollution also lowers an ecosystem’s carrying capacity.
For all populations except humans, the carrying capacity is important
since it determines whether or not such populations will survive. Such
populations are known as the r – group. Only the human species, referred to
ask – group. may be able to survive and even continuously exhibit population
increase even when such number has already exceeded the environment’s
carrying capacity. This ability is indicative of our capacity to modify the
environment so that it may suit to our needs but eventually, such the
alterations that we do may result to destructive effects for both us and our
natural world.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITY
Cite and describe some of the specific effects of human population in the
carrying capacity of ecosystems and in the survival capability of other natural
populations.
B. Inter-relationships Among Living Organisms and Ecosystems
Apart from food chain / food web, living organisms in an ecosystem relate
to one another through two ways – intra-species and inter-species interaction.
Intra-species interactions occur among organisms belonging to the

same species and happen through altruism and competition. Altruism is the
act of an organism putting itself at risk to ensure the continued survival of its
offspring or the entire population. Competition, on the other hand, is the
process wherein organisms tend to vie and fight over the same resources
that tend to be limited.
Inter-species interactions, also called as symbiosis, are those

observed among organisms that belong to different species and come in any
of the following forms: competition, commensalism, mutualism, parasitism,
and predation. Inter-species competition occurs in the same manner as the
intra-species form. Commensalism occurs when one organism called as the
commensal benefits through its relation with another, called as the host,

which is neither harmed nor benefitted; mutualism happens when both the
organisms in the relationship are positively affected by such an interaction;
parasitism involves an organism referred to as a parasite obtains the
supposed food source of another organism called as the host; and predation
exists when an organism called as the predator kills and eats another
organism known as the host.
In the same manner, ecosystems, though classified distinctly from one

another, are actually inter-connected with through transitional points called as
ecotones. Ecotones are both the physical features and processes (e.g., solar
radiation, weather and climate, precipitation) and living organisms that these
ecosystems share in common.
1. Predation is regarded as an only a partially-realized ecological relationship
since not all preys become eaten to extinction level by predators. Given this,
research on the foraging strategy employed by predator as well as on the
defense mechanisms used by preys.
2. Identify specific ecosystem types linked by ecotones. When one such
ecosystem becomes damaged specifically by human activities, explain what
would its impact be in other ecosystems.

REFERENCES
Books:
De Leon, Marietta M., Cordero, Archivald Mel E. 2016. Disaster Readiness Risk
reduction. Manila: Trinitas.
Ditan, Carolina D. 2014. Introduction to Biological Science. Mandaluyong: National.
Ditan, Carolina D. 2015. Earth Sciences. Mandaluyong: National.
Olivar II, Jose Tolentino. 2016. Exploring Life Through Science Series Earth Science.
Manila: Phoenix.
Religioso, Teresita F., Lilia G. Vengco. 2016. You and the Natural World Earth and Life
Science. Manila: Phoenix.
Sia, Shila Rose D., Leah Amor S. Cortez. 2016. Science in Today’s World Earth and
Llife Science. Manila: Sibs.
On-line Sources:
Chemosynthesis. http://biology.kenyon.edu
Earthquakes. http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis
Earthquakes Intensity and Magnitude Scales. http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
Earthquakes Magnitude and Scales. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn
Earth is Perfect for Life. http://www.livescience.com
Fazekas, Andrew. 2014. Mystery of Earth's Water Origin Solved.

http://news.nationalgeographic.com
Folding and Faulting http://www.physicalgeography.net
Forms of water on Earth. http://water.usgs.gov/edu
Genetic Engineering. http://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_agriculture

Geologic Time Line. http://www.scientificpsychic.com
Greene, Brian. 2013. Origin of Water on Earth. http://www.smithsonianmag.com
ITCZ and Trade Winds. http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education
Minerals. http://scienceviews.com/geology
Origin of the Universe. http://science.nationalgeographic.com
Plate Tectonics. http://www.scienceclarified.com
Public Storm Warning Signals. http://www.gov.ph/crisis-response
Rock Cycle. http://www.rocksandminerals4u.com
Rock Types. http://www.rockcollector.co.uk
Sources of energy. http://www.earthonlinemedia.com/ebooksl
Spontaneous Generation. www.scienceprofonline.com/microbiology
Theories on the Origin of the Universe. http://www.nap.edu
Volcanism. http://www.britannica.com/science
Weather Fronts and Monsoons. http://www.livescience.com
What to do before, during, and after an earthquake? 2015.

http://www.healthpromo.doh.gov.ph
Zell, Holly. 2015. Layers of Atmosphere. http://www.nasa.gov/mission

Name: __________________________ Section: ________
ACTIVITY #1
Origin and Structure of the Earth
Directions: Complete the table below by supplying the needed information.

Theory Proponent Description
Concept Proponent Description
Discussion:
Which Theory best described about the origin of the universe?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Which concept best described the physical position of the solar system and the
earth in the universe?


Name: _______________________ Section: _________
ACTIVITY #1.1
Earth and the Earth System
Sphere Description Importance
Discussion
Do you think that the earth four sphere are interconnected with each other?
Elaborate your answer in 3 to 5 sentences.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________


Name: _______________________ Section: __________
Activity #2
Earth Materials and Processes
Directions: Cut a picture(s) of three basic types of rocks and paste it on the
activity sheets. Write a simple explanation about this types of rock.
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic
B. Illustrate the rock cycle and include its processes.
C. Compare and Contrast Exogenic and Endogenic Processes.
Discussion
Compare and contrast continental drift and plate and tectonics. Elaborate your
answer in 3 to 5 sentences.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Name: _______________________ Section: __________
Activity #3
Natural Hazards, Mitigation and Adaptation
Directions: Based on the situation below. Write what specific action you will do/e
exhibit before, during and after the natural calamities.
1. A typhoon is coming in our country and specifically will hit a certain province in the
next 72 hours. Given that you are near the flooding zone area what would be your
immediate action?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Talisay, Batangas is located a few kilometers away from the Taal Volcano. What
would be your immediate action if the Volcano exhibits ballistic projectiles?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
3. West Valley fault as stated by PHILVOCS will produce a magnitude 7.2 earthquake. If
you are located near the fault, what will you do?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
4. Last 2011 Japan was hit by a Tsunami. If you were the Prime Minister of Japan what
possible help can you give to your fellow countrymen?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Why were there so many casualties and destruction during the wake of Typhoon
Yolanda?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Name: ______________________ Section: ________
Activity #4
Introduction to Life Science
Directions: Complete the graph below by supplying the needed information.
Contributors and their Contributions
Primitive
Classical
Renaissance
Modern
Discussion
Which theory best describe the origin of life and living organism?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________


Name: _______________________ Section: __________
Activity #5
Bioenergetics
Directions: Put a check if the following specimen exhibit the following

characteristics.
Characteristics
Cell Division
Type of Cell Cellular Metabolism
Specimen Process
Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Mitosis Meiosis Photosynthesis Respiration
Onion
Gametes
Bacteria
Human
Skin
Leaf
Illustrate a food chain
Illustrate Food Web


Name: __________________________ Section: _______
Activity #6
Perpetuation of Life
Directions: Compare and contrast sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
Discussion
Give at least 5 examples for each mode of reproduction.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Name: __________________________ Section: _________
Activity #6.1
Perpetuation of Life
Directions: Find the word below.

B E N D E S T P Q W E R S D F B M P T S
R T E I N P E I A S D T T C G G O A R E
Y O O O D E R S Z C X O A C H F N R C T
O G T E O R R T K K A P M C G D O A H A
P Y E C S M E I G L B K E L H C E S E R
H Z N I P A S L P Y C L N U B V C I O B
Y A Y O E T T F G Y K L P E W K I T P E
T C A U R O R S B I S E X U A L O I H T
E B B S M P I A G J O P T E M I U S Y R
S V C N O H A S G H K P Y Q R M S M T E
F D D M P Y L A P C N M N O A P F G E V
P A E L Q T N O I T S E G N I E D V S N
K W F K R E S D F G Y Q I P K R D B S I
H H G J S S X A F G H J I H J F D D F C
K K H I T U A Q U A T I C B M E D S H F
G Y M N O S P E R M S B N M K C D F K F
A N G I O S P E R M S S S D F T D D D D
F R U I T V W X Y N O I T A N I L L O P
I N V E R T E B R A T E S S D F G H J K
G A M E T O G E N E S I S F G F D D F J
Bryophytes Sporophytes Gymnosperm Stamen Gametogenesis
Tracheophytes Spermatophytes Angiosperm Pistil Dioecious
Zygote Fruit Invertebrates Vertebrates Aquatic
Ingestion Bisexual Neoteny Parasitism
Pollination Terrestrial Endosperm Monoecious


Name: __________________________ Section: _________
Activity #7
Plant Anatomy and Physiology
Directions: Draw a plant then label its part and indicate its function.
Parts and Its Function
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Name: __________________________ Section: __________
Activity #7.1
Animal Anatomy and Physiology
System Parts Importance
Discussion
What do you think will happen if one of the system do not function? Elaborate
your answer into 3 to 5 sentences.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Name: __________________________ Section: _________
Activity #8
The process of Evolution
Directions: Draw at least 2 examples (indicate its name) for each Kingdom.
Kingdom Examples
Monera
Protista
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia
Discussion
Compare and Contrast Theory of Evolution of Lamarck and Darwin. Elaborate
your answer into 3 to 5 sentences.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


Name: __________________________ Section: __________
Activity #9
Interaction and Interdependence
Directions: Give at least 5 examples for every types of inter-relationship.
Examples
Altruism
Competition
Commensalism
Mutualism
Parasitism
Predation
Discussion
Which of the following type(s) of Inter-relationship which always exhibit in a
community or classroom? Elaborate your answer into 3 to 5 sentences.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________


FINAL CORE 4 - Earth and Life Science

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196

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES

UNIT I: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH PAGE

A: The Universe and the Solar System 219

B: Earth and Earth Systems 228

UNIT II: EARTH MATERIALS AND PROCESSES

A: Minerals and Rocks 233

B: Endogenic Processes 237

C: Exogenic Processes 240

D: Deformation of the Crust 240

E: History of the Earth 242

UNIT III NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION, AND ADAPTATION

B: Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards 249

C: Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects 257

UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE

B: Definition of Life and the Characteristics of Living Organisms 259

C: Theories on the Origin of Life and Living Organisms 261

B: Life at the Ecological Level 265

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

UNIT III THE PERPETUATION OF LIFE 268

UNIT IV PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 274

UNIT V ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 279

UNIT VI THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION 286

UNIT VII INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENCE 290

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Earth and Life Sciences

A. The Universe and the Solar System

Steady State Theory. Proposed in 1948 by Hermann Bondi, Thomas

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Inflationary Theory. According to this theory, an extraordinary burst of

Big Bang Theory. What began as a scientific paper written in 1931 by

Beginning at the latter parts of the 20 th century, further and more

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

10-6 seconds. As the universe continued to expand, it became cool

200 seconds. At a temperature of one billion degrees Celsius, protons

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

became transparent to light - making this the earliest epoch observable

200 M years. Small, dense regions of cosmic gas started to collapse

9 B years. The force of gravity trying to slow the cosmic expansion

Geocentric Concept. The Geocentric (Earth-centered) Concept formed

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

measurement, however, these models became increasingly complicated, with

Heliocentric Concept. The Scientific Revolution, which took place in the

Island Universe Concept. As the Big Bang Theory became widely

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

As per observatories and space laboratories, most of the galaxies so far

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Asteroids and Comets. Asteroids are fragments of metals and rocks

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

B. Earth and Earth Systems

1. Water That Exists Mostly In Liquid State. Called as the universal

2. The Presence of an Atmosphere and its Composition. The

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

3. Energy, Space, and Time. Life on Earth emerged and continues

Space and time also contributed to Earth’s life-sustaining capacity.

The Lithosphere. When the Earth formed through accretion, it actually

In terms of chemical composition, the Earth is 35% Iron (Fe), 30%

LCC SILVERCREST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

The Mantle is 45.23% Silicon Dioxide (SiO2), 38.39% Magnesium Oxide

The Core is predominantly composed of Iron (Fe) which is around 86%,