MODULE EIGHT ABA

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANALYSIS

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APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS TRAINING

As a result of completion of this module, the participant will be able to: Define applied behavior analysis. List the core characteristics of ABA. List the 5 steps or components of Discrete Trial Teaching.

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS TRAINING

As a result of completion of this module, the participant will be able to:
Define Discriminative Stimulus. Identify each kind of and define the variations of prompts. Identify examples of shaping and chaining Recall the meaning of and identify examples of task analysis.

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientific field of study devoted to understanding and improving human behavior.

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

ABA ABA focuses on socially significant behavior; Behavior (anything a person does) is changed based upon environmental contingencies; Behaviors are observable, quantifiable occurrences; ABA strategies are systematic; and ABA requires data-driven analysis.

APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS

Applied behavior analysis is used in business, industry, education, medicine, and psychology. The principles of ABA are utilized to impact weight loss, improved reading scores, tobacco smoking, occupational safety, increased production, etc. Educating students with autism is another area where ABA is used and has been proven effective. A variety of strategies under the ABA umbrella are used to teach skills to students with autism. These include: discrete trial instruction, prompting, shaping, chaining, reinforcement, generalization, and maintenance of skills.

ABA STRATEGIES
STRATEGIES
Discrete trial instruction Prompting Shaping Chaining Reinforcement Generalization Maintenance of skills.

DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING

Five Components of Discrete Trial Teaching
Discriminative Stimulus Prompting Response Consequence

Inter-Trial Interval Measurement

Discriminative Stimulus (SD)

The SD is the cue, verbal or visual, that is used by the instructor to elicit a behavior. SDs follow the rule of the three Cs: clear, concise, and consistent.

RULE OF THE THREE CS

Clear: All SDs must be presented in an unambiguous manner (clear). Concise: Due to the language comprehension deficits noted in many students with autism, SDs must be concise, that is, limited to the key words of the instruction. This is often referred to as telegraphic speech. For example, when teaching the concept of discrimination between big and little, the instructor would present the student with two objects: one small, one big. The appropriate SD would be touch big or touch little as opposed to I want you to touch the object which is bigger. Concise SDs allow a student with autism to process the important information of the direction.

Consistent: Once an SD is selected during the teaching phase, the SD remains the same. SDs are not varied until the student is ready to generalize the skill.

PROMPTING
The second component of discrete trial teaching is the prompt. Prompts are used after the SD, and they are designed to ensure that the student produces the desired response. Prompts assist the student with autism to build a connection between the SD and the desired response, which then results in the student consistently receiving reinforcement. There are four types of prompting used in discrete trial teaching.

PHYSICAL PROMPTING
Physical prompting occurs when the instructor actually manipulates the students body to respond correctly. For example, the student is given the SD Touch nose. The student does not have the skill in his/her repertoire, so the instructor physically takes the childs finger and places it on his/her nose. Physical prompting is the most instructor-involved type of prompt.

GESTURAL PROMPTING
Gestural prompting occurs when the instructor cues the desired response with a body movement such as pointing. An example of a gestural prompt would include the teaching scenario of the instructor presenting two objects on a table to the student. The student is then given the SD touch object, and the instructor points to the correct object.

POSITIONAL PROMPTING
Positional prompting is built into the positioning of the materials, so that the student chooses the correct item almost by default. For example, the student is presented with two objects on the table. The instructor gives the SD touch object and slides the correct object on the table so that it is closest to the student.

VERBAL PROMPTING
Verbal prompting uses words or parts of words to elicit the correct response. Verbal prompts are only used when the desired response is a verbal one. For example, the student is presented with an object and given the SD what is it? The instructor labels the object, and the student repeats the response.

PROMPT FADING
Prompt fading: Prompting is teaching, and it is critical that the goal is for the student to respond independently, without any prompting. Therefore, prompt fading is a method of gradually decreasing the types of prompts required to elicit the correct response. It is the students responding that dictates how and when prompts can be faded. For example, the student is being taught to imitate the gross motor movement clap hands. The SD do this is given, followed by the clap hands movement. The student is responding with physical prompting and, as the instructor is teaching a new sessions, the student begins to move his/her hands in a clapping motion, then stops. The instructor then gestures with his/her hands (without touching the student) to clap hands.

RESPONSE
The third component of discrete trial teaching is the students response, which can be correct or incorrect. Errorless learning ensures that the students response is always correct. Errorless responses are achieved through effective prompting and prompt fading. Ensuring that the student always responds correctly prevents confusion.

CONSEQUENCE
The fourth component of discrete trial teaching is the consequence. The consequence to a correct response is immediate reinforcement, paired consistently with behavior-specific praise. It is important that the consequence of a correct response is clear, so that the student begins to become aware of what response is desired. If a prompt is misread and the students response is incorrect, the instructor simply neutrally ignores the incorrect response and the teaching interaction, and initiates a new discrete trial.

INTER-TRIAL INTERVAL/MEASUREMENT
The fifth component of discrete trial teaching is the inter-trial interval/measurement. An inter-trial interval is a clear pause before the next trial is initiated. It is during this pause that data collection is recorded during formal teaching sessions. The instructor records the students response and what type of prompt was required. Even if data is not collected during this time, the inter-trial interval provides the student with a brief period of time to increase the clarity of what behavior is being taught.

DISCRETE TRIAL TEACHING

Discrete trial can be taught in formal teaching sessions and incidentally throughout the day. Typically, in formal teaching sessions, discrete trial teaching is presented in repetitive trials, giving the student many opportunities to respond and receive reinforcement. The predictability of the repetitive discrete trial maximizes a students learning.

INCIDENTAL TEACHING
Incidental teaching, which is unplanned spontaneous teaching, can occur at any time throughout the day. Incidental teaching opportunities extend teaching beyond formal instruction periods. An example of an incidental teaching scenario would include an instructor and a student walking down the hall. The instructor points to the red balloon on the bulletin board, gives the SD What color is this? The student responds red; the instructor praises the student for the correct response, pauses, and then continues to walk down the hall.

SHAPING
Shaping is a teaching strategy where closer and closer approximations of the target behavior are reinforced. Shaping increases the students opportunities for success and reinforcement.

SHAPING
The target behavior is verbally labeling an apple. The instructor presents the SD what is this? The student produces an ah sound (the first syllable of the word) and the instructor immediately models the word apple and reinforces the student for the approximation. For subsequent responses to be reinforced, the student must then minimally produce the ah (first syllable) or ap (which is a closer approximation of the word).

CHAINING
Chaining strategies are utilized when teaching complex skills. Chaining begins by breaking a complex skill into simple components or steps. The steps are then taught to independence, and then linked together into a sequence of chain. There are two types of chaining: forward chaining and backward chaining.

FORWARD CHAINING
Forward chaining starts by teaching a skill at the beginning of a sequence, and then progressing forward to the next step. Forward chaining can be an effective strategy when the first steps of the task, such as tooth brushing, are easily acquired. The first two steps of tooth brushing are getting the toothbrush and getting the toothpaste. Forward chaining is also effective when the student has some of the initial steps in his/her repertoire. An example of forward chaining is illustrated in the following scenario.

FORWARD CHAINING
The target behavior is setting the table. The student is given the SD set table and is prompted through the first step, which is placing the placemats on the table. Once the student is prompted through the first step, he/she is reinforced and the instructor completes the rest of the table setting. Once the student is independent with the first step (placemats on the table), the next step is added to the chain. The student would be given the SD set table. The student would place the placemats on the table, and then the plates. This would continue until all steps were mastered.

BACKWARD CHAINING
In backward chaining the steps of the task are identified and then taught in reverse order, so that the last step is taught first. The advantage of backward chaining is that it allows the student to complete the task, strengthening the relationship between task completion and reinforcement. Backward chaining also provides the student with concrete, visual cues that can assist in skill acquisition. An example of backward chaining is noted in the following scenario.

REINFORCEMENT
Effective use of reinforcement is important for ensuring the success of students with autism. Positive reinforcement is utilized to motivate the student to continue to perform and respond with the desired response. Reinforcement is any act that increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. Primary and secondary reinforcers are utilized when teaching students with autism.

PRIMARY REINFORCERS
Primary reinforcers are unconditioned, natural, life-sustaining factors such as food, drinks and warmth. Examples of primary reinforcers used for teaching students with autism can include grapes, pretzels, candy, juice, water, etc.

SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Secondary reinforcers are conditioned, learned reinforcers. Social reinforcers include praise, a smile, a handshake, a hug, high 5s. Token reinforcers are points, coins, chips, etc., that are redeemable for other, tangible reinforcers. Activity reinforcers include playing a game, listening to music, taking a break.

EFFECTIVE REINFORCEMENT
Effective reinforcement is unique to each student with autism. Reinforcement is dynamic in that it can change based upon simple environmental factors.

EFFECTIVE REINFORCEMENT
Example: Pretzels are clearly identified as an effective reinforcer for a student; that is, data has shown that when the student is given a piece of a pretzel for a correct response, his/her correct responses increase. The student has just had a big lunch that included a bag of pretzels. During the teaching session directly following lunch, pretzels may not be a true reinforcer. It is also important that in the early stages of teaching a student with autism the tangible reward be given to the student immediately followed by social reinforcer (praise). The consistent pairing of the tangible reward with the social praise increases the likelihood that social praise will have the reinforcement qualities of the tangible reinforcer.

GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

Skill acquisition taught through discrete trial teaching in formal teaching sessions is only the beginning of the learning process for students with autism. In order for a skill to be truly mastered, the student must be able to perform the skill with varying materials, in various settings, and with different instructors. Generalization is this process of transforming a skill from a formal teaching session to real-life usage. Consistently applying a learned skill in varying contexts ensures that the student truly owns the skill

GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

Generalization is systematically taught once the student has mastered the skill in teaching sessions. Typically, generalization begins by varying the materials being presented to the student. For example, once the student masters color identification with one specific set of color cards in a formal teaching session, the instructor uses a variety of colored items.

GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

The next level of generalization includes having the student perform the skill across various people. Typically, this is achieved by scheduling various instructors during the teaching session to present the skill. The next level of generalization is setting; that is, the student is exposed to the skill throughout the day in various locations. Once a student has generalized the skill, it is important that the skill is maintained, that is, it lasts over time.

GENERALIZATION AND MAINTENANCE

The student is taught to expressively identify numbers 1 through 10. This skill has been generalized. The maintenance procedure would be reduced tangible reinforcers to intermittent praise. Number identification would then be included in the next skill sequence, which would be counting out objects.

TASK ANALYSIS
Most students with autism learn best when tasks are presented to them in simple, clear steps. Task analysis allows the instructor to clearly identify targeted steps of a skill acquisition program. Task analysis is the process of breaking down a task into a series of small, clear steps. When task-analyzing a skill, it is important that each step only requires one response.

TASK ANALYSIS
An example of a task-analyzed skill is illustrated in the following sequence of teaching hand washing. Turn on water. Wet hands. Retrieve soap. Lather hands. Replace soap. Place hands under water. Turn off water. Retrieve towel. Dry hands. Dispose of towel.

BASELINE DATA
Baseline establishes a pre-treatment level of responding. A baseline is achieved by presenting the SD of a targeted program, without any prompting. An example of a baseline is illustrated in the following scenario.

BASELINE DATA
The targeted behavior is touching the letter A in a field of three. The student is presented with three letter cards and given the SD touch A. The students response is recorded. This is represented 5-10 times. The number of correct responses is then averaged.

DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is a hallmark of Applied Behavioral Analysis. Data collection needs to be objective, and clearly quantifies progress or lack of progress. Data is used to monitor progress, and to ensure that troubleshooting occurs when a student is not making progress. Data collection also identifies trends and learning styles of a student.

BEHAVIOR REDUCTION TECHNIQUES

Many students with autism present behaviors that limit their opportunity to learn and function, as well as access to the community. When attempting to reduce maladaptive behaviors, it is important that well-established procedures and guidelines are utilized to make decisions on how to most effectively manage a behavior.

DETERMINATION OF NEED
The first step in developing behavior reduction procedures is to determine the need to treat a specific behavior. Not all unacceptable behaviors need to be treated. To determine whether maladaptive behavior needs to be treated, three questions are asked. Is the behavior harmful to the student or to others? Does the behavior interfere with the students work or learning? Does the behavior restrict the students access to his/her community?

DETERMINATION OF NEED
If the answer to each of these three questions is no, then a formal behavior reduction program is not developed. If the answer to any of the questions is yes, further analysis of the behavior begins. Developing a clear objective definition of the targeted behavior is essential for further analysis. The operational definition of the behavior must be objective and complete, allowing instructors to assess the behavior in a consistent manner.

DETERMINATION OF NEED
The next step to further determining the need to treat is to collect baseline data on the targeted behavior. Typically, baseline data is measured through a frequency countthe actual number of times the behavior occurs and duration datahow long the behavior occurs. Baseline data is often recorded along with an ABC (Antecedent Behavior Consequence) analysis. ABC analysis identifies events that immediately precede and immediately follow the targeted behavior.

DETERMINATION OF NEED
An example of an ABC analysis is illustrated in the following scenario. The targeted behavior is tantrum behavior. Staff are recording the frequency and duration of the tantrum, and then recording events that immediately precede and immediately follow the behavior. The behaviors occur at different times of the day, lasting an average of five minutes. The antecedent to the first occurrence of the behavior was the student being asked to finish his math worksheet; the event that followed the tantrum was the student being asked to leave the classroom. For the second occurrence, the antecedent was the student being instructed to write his answer on the board, and was followed by the student being told to sit back down in his seat. The antecedent to the third occurrence was the student being told to take out his spelling room, and was followed by the student being given the assignment for homework.

DETERMINATION OF NEED
Once the baseline data and ABC analysis has been recorded for a sufficient period of time, it is analyzed to determine if the frequency and/or severity of the behavior justifies further intervention.

DETERMINATION OF NEED
If data indicates that intervention is necessary, the process continues and any possible physical or medical causation is investigated. Medical consideration is often given to a maladaptive behavior if it is a new behavior that is atypical of the student. In addition, a review of the medical implications for self-injury and aggression may be necessary. Investigating whether the behavior is the result of side effects of medication is important. If a medical causation is identified, appropriate medical treatment should be attained. If no medical conditions are identified, environmental conditions are analyzed.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
When assessing a maladaptive behavior, it is important to examine the students total environment. Is the environment too noisy? Too crowded? Too distracting? Too hot? Too cold? If adjusting any of these areas results in a decrease in the behavior, then further analysis is not required.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
A secondary environmental consideration is assessing whether the student demonstrated the ability to appropriately control his environment. That is, does the student have choice-making skills? Can he/she communicate wants and needs, or tell someone that they do not want to do something? If it is determined that environmental conditions are not a factor in maintaining the maladaptive behavior, an analysis of curricular conditions is initiated.

CURRICULAR CONDITIONS
This component of assessment looks at what the student is actually doing, that is, the students curriculum or goals and objectives. The first question asked is whether a particular assignment or task precipitates the behavior. If the answer is yes, then it is important to identify why. Further questions are then asked: Is the skill set required to complete an assignment absent from the students repertoire? Is the assignment or task too difficult for the student? Is the assignment or task too boring for the student? If the answer to any of these questions is yes, the assignment/task should be adjusted accordingly.

TREATMENT OF BEHAVIOR
Once analysis of a challenging behavior has been completed, and the function has been determined, several initial strategies should be implemented.

TREATMENT OF BEHAVIOR
All behavior serves a function for the individual with Autism. It is therefore essential that the function of the challenging behavior be determined so that alternate, appropriate strategies to replace the behavior can be determined. For example, if it is assessed that an individual is engaging in a challenging behavior to gain attention, it is essential that he/she be taught appropriate means to gain an adults attention.

TREATMENT OF BEHAVIOR
If the purpose of the behavior is to escape from a situation or task, it is important that the individual be taught how to appropriately escape a situation, such as by asking for a break or asking for help. If the function of the behavior is communication-related frustration, it is obviously essential that the individual be taught how to appropriately and effectively communicate wants, needs and dislikes.

ALTERNATE APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

In addition to teaching alternate appropriate behavior, positive reinforcement should also be utilized to increase the appropriate response. When utilizing positive reinforcement to decrease a challenging behavior, the behavior is ignored and any and all appropriate attempts to communicate the function of the behavior appropriately are reinforced with tangible and social reinforcers. An example of the use of alternate teaching and reinforcement is illustrated in the following scenario.

ALTERNATE APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR

It has been determined that an individuals pounding on his desk with his fist serves the function of communication frustration. The individual is taught to say phrases such as This is too hard, I need a break or I need help. Each time the instructor observes the individual saying one of these phrases or refraining from pounding the desk, the individual is given a tangible reward and is enthusiastically praised. If the individual pounds the desk, the instructor ignores that behavior, prompts the individual to use an appropriate strategy, and then reinforces the use of the alternate strategy.

TOKEN ECONOMY
Immediate reinforcement of desired responses is critical for individuals with Autism who are performing at a learning readiness stage. It should be the goal of all instructors to establish an environment that is rich in reinforcement and also teach the individual with Autism to delay their need for immediate reinforcement. To that end, token economies are quite successful.

TOKEN ECONOMY
There are three aspects of a token economy.

A clearly defined behavior that is targeted to be reinforced. A tangible symbol of the reward to come, which is used as the item to exchange.
The backup reinforcer.

CLEARLY DEFINED BEHAVIOR TO BE REINFORCED

It is important that all adults working with the individual with Autism create a clear, reliable definition of the targeted behavior to be reinforced. This will ensure consistency in implementation of the token economy, and will also allow the individual with Autism to be clear about what behaviors are expected and reinforced.

TANGIBLE SYMBOL
The tangible symbol is the actual token that would be delivered to the individual upon occurrence of the targeted behavior to be reinforced. Some examples of tokens are: tally marks, stamps, coupons, poker chips, holes punched in a card. It is important that the tokens that are selected are durable, easy to carry, and safe (not able to be swallowed by a young child). Whenever possible, the individual with Autism should have his tokens with him at all times as a reminder of the reward to come. When selecting a token, it is important not to make the token itself too highly desired, as that may be distracting to the individual. For example, if an individual with Autism is highly reinforced by trains, then train stamps may actually be distracting, as the individual may spend his time looking at the stamp and talking about it. Therefore it is important to make the token somewhat neutral.

BACKUP REINFORCER
It is important that the backup reinforcer clearly impacts behavior change; that is, it does increase the likelihood that a behavior will occur again. When possible in the residential environment, the use of naturally occurring events or activities can help the token economy to be integrated into the environment, such as a specific classroom job, being the teachers assistant or messenger. The backup reinforcer may also be a special privilege in the residential environment, such as a homework pass or being the class reader. What is most important is that the reinforcement does change behavior in a positive manner. If a naturally occurring event or activity can not be targeted as the reinforcement, then it is essential that a tangible reward that has been proven effective be made available to the individual with Autism.

BRIDGING THE GAP

Since token economies bridge the gap between the targeted behavior and the delivery of the backup reinforcer, it is important that, when the token economy is first implemented, the length of time between the desired behavior and the trade-in to the backup reinforcer is short. The amount of tokens required to trade-in for the backup reinforcer should also be low initially, to increase the efficacy of the program. Once the individual with Autism has bought into the token economy, the length of time between the desired behavior and the trade-in can be increased, and the number of tokens required to earn the backup reward can be increased. A menu of backup reinforcers can also be created, and the value of each token can be decreased.

RESTRICTIVE PROCEDURES
Many challenging behaviors exhibited by individuals with Autism can be reduced or eliminated by positive strategies alone. There are, however, some challenging behaviors that may require the use of restrictive procedures. Agency, state, and government regulations must be adhered to by all direct care service providers. Implementing restrictive procedures without formal protocols is unethical. It is essential that all behavior plans that include restrictive procedures must also include positive strategies such as a reinforcement system or alternate teaching program. All behavior plans must be monitored for efficacy via objective data collection.

EXTINCTION
Extinction a procedure in which reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior is discontinued. Example: An individual with Autism engages in a yelling behavior which has been determined to function for attention. The staff are engaging with the individual as usual, but they are ignoring the yelling behavior.

RESPONSE COST
Response Cost a procedure in which the loss of a specific amount of reinforcement occurs subsequent to the occurrence of a targeted behavior. Example: An individual with Autism earns tokens for periods of appropriate working. This person looses already earned tokens for refusal to work.

TIME OUT
Time-Out the withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement for a specific time period; contingent upon the occurrence of a targeted behavior. Example: An individual with Autism engages in an attention getting behavior such as yelling or hitting the individual will be directed to a specified area and all opportunities for reinforcement are withdrawn.

SIMPLE CORRECTION
Simple Correction subsequent to the occurrence of a targeted behavior, the environment is returned to its previous state Example: An individual with Autism intentionally spills his/her milk. The staff have the person clean up the spill.

OVER CORRECTION
Simple Correction subsequent to the occurrence of a targeted behavior, the environment is returned to its previous state Example: An individual with Autism intentionally spills his/her milk. The staff have the person clean up the spill.

OVER CORRECTION
Positive practice overcorrection - subsequent to the occurrence of a targeted behavior, an appropriate behavior is practiced. Example: The individual with Autism intentionally writes on his/her table. The staff requires this person to write his/her name on paper 50 times.