There are three modes of heat transfer.

1.Conduction
2.Convection
3.Radiation
Conduction of Heat
Heat conduction is a process in which heat is transferred from
the hotter part to the colder part in a body without involving
any actual movement of the molecules of the body. Heat
transfer takes place from one molecule to another molecule as
a result of the vibratory motion of the molecules.

Conduction example: When frying vegetables in a pan. Heat

transfer takes place from flame to the pan and then to the
vegetables.
Convection of Heat
In this process, heat is transferred in the liquid and gases from
a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature. Convection heat transfer occurs partly due to the
actual movement of molecules or due to the mass transfer.

For example. Heating of milk in a pan.

Radiation of Heat
It is the process in which heat is transferred from one body to
another body without involving the molecules of the medium.
Radiation heat transfer does not depend on the medium.

For example: In a microwave, the substances are heated directly

without any heating medium.
The Four Types of Temperature Scales
 Liquid In Glass Thermometer

The liquid in glass thermometer, is the most commonly used device to measure
temperature and it is inexpensive to make and easy to use.

The liquid in glass thermometer has a glass bulb attached to a sealed glass
tube (also called the stem or capillary tube).

A very thin opening, called a bore, exists from the bulb and extends down the
centre of the tube.

The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or red-coloured alcohol and is free
to expand and rise up into the tube when the temperature increases, and to
contract and move down the tube when the temperature decreases.
The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal
expansion of the liquid.

A typical liquid-in-glass thermometer is shown in the figure below.

The background of the glass tube is covered with white enamel and the
front of the glass tube forms a magnifying glass that enlarges the liquid
column and facilitates with reading the temperature.
It mainly comprises:
•A bulb which acts as a container for the functioning liquid where it can
easily expand or contract in capacity.

•A stem, “a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and
enlarged at the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a working
liquid”.

•A temperature scale which is basically preset or imprinted on the stem for

displaying temperature readings.

•Point of reference i.e. a calibration point which is most commonly the ice
point.

•A working liquid which is generally either mercury or alcohol.

•An inert gas, mainly argon or nitrogen which is filled inside the
thermometer above mercury to trim down its volatilization.
Advantages
Following are the major advantages associated with the use of liquid-in-
glass thermometers:

•They are comparatively cheaper than other temperature measurement

devices.

•They are handy and convenient to use.

•Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not necessitate power supply or

batteries for charging.

•They can be frequently applied in areas where there is problem of

electricity.

•They provide very good repeatability and their calibration remains

unaffected.
LIMITATIONS:

•They are considered inaccurate for applications involving extremely

high or low temperatures.

•They can not be applied in regions where highly accurate results are
desirable.

•As compared to electrical thermometers, they are very weak and

delicate. Therefore, they must be handled with extra care because they
are likely to break

•Besides, they can not provide digital and automated results. Hence,
their use is limited to areas where only manual reading is adequate, for
example, a household thermometer.
 Bimetallic Thermometer

A bimetallic strip is made up of metal A and B, having different

thermal expansion co-efficient. It is bonded together.

These thermometers use the following two principles:

1. All metals change in dimension, that is expand or contract when there is a
change in temperature.

2. The rate at which this expansion or contraction takes place depend on the
temperature co-efficient of expansion of the metal and this temperature
coefficient of expansion is different for different metals. Hence the difference in
thermal expansion rates is used to produce deflections which is proportional to
temperature changes.
The bimetallic strip is in the form of a cantilever beam. An
increase in temperature will result in the deflection of the free
end of the strip as shown in diagram. This deflection is linear
and can be related to temperature changes.
The following are the important properties a material should have
to be selected for bimetallic thermometers.

1.Coefficient of expansion.
2.Modulus of elasticity.
3.Elastic limit after cold rolling.
4.Electrical conductivity.
5.Ductility.
6.Metallurgical ability.

Different common forms of bimetallic sensors are listed.

1.Helix type.
2.Spiral type.
3.Cantilever type.
4. Flat type.
 Metals used in bimetallic strips are:

1. High expansion

•Brass
•Nickel-iron alloyd with chromium & manganese.

2. Low Expansion

•Invar (alloy of nickel & iron).

Application of bimetallic strips and thermometers

1.The bimetallic strip is used in control devices.
2.The spiral strip is used in air conditioning thermostats.
3.The helix strip is used for process application such as refineries, oil
burners, tyre vulcanisers etc.,