BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

K. R. Road, V. V. Pura, Bangalore – 560004

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

IV SEMESTER-Batch-2024
CONTROL SYSTEMS (18EC43)
By
Prof. B. Sudha
Course Code 18EC43 CIE Marks 40
Number of Lecture
Hours/Week 3 SEE Marks 60
Total Number of 40 (08 Hours per
Lecture Hours Exam Hours 03
Module)
 Course Learning Objectives
This course will enable students to:
• Understand the basic features, configurations and
application of control systems.
• Understand various terminologies and definitions for
the control systems.
• Learn how to find a mathematical model of electrical,
mechanical and electro- mechanical systems.
• Know how to find time response from the transfer
function.
• Find the transfer function via Mason s’ rule.
• Analyse the stability of a system from the transfer
function.
 Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
1. Understand and Build the mathematical model of the physical
systems.
2. Develop the Transfer function for a given control system using
various reduction techniques.
3. Outline the time domain Specifications of first and second
order systems for unit step input signal.
4. Determine the stability of the system in both time and
frequency domain and Interpret the system response.
5. Apply the concept of state space model for Electrical systems
and analyze the solution state equations.
6. Make use of Modern Simulation tools to Estimate the stability
of physical system and Demonstrate communication skills /
ability to work as a team.
 Module-2

Block diagrams and signal flow graphs: Transfer

functions, Block diagram algebra and Signal
Flow graphs.
Text Book:
• J. Nagarath an d M.Gopal, “ Control System s
Engineering”, New Age International(P) Limited,
Publishers, Fifthedition- 2005,ISBN: 81 - 224 - 2008-7.
• Reference Books:
• “Modern Control Engineering,” K.Ogata, Pearson
Education Asia/ PHI,4 Edition, 2002. ISBN 978 - 81 - 203 -
4010 - 7.
• “Automatic Control Systems”, Benjamin C. Kuo,
JohnWiley India Pvt. Ltd.,8 Edition, 2008.
• “Feedback and Control System,” Joseph J Distefano III et
al., Schaum’sOutlines, TMH, 2 n d Edition 2007.
 QUESTIONS-SFG
Q1:Define Signal Flow Graph and list the properties of signal flow
graph.
Q2: Write Mason’s Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graph. Indicate
what each term represents.
Q3:Define the following terms related to signal flow graphs with
a neat schematic –
• i) Forward Path ii) Feedback Loop iii) Self Loop iv) Source
Node
 Signal Flow Graph-SFG

• For complicated systems, the block diagram

reduction process is tedious and time consuming.
• There is one more way of representing systems
when a set of equations describing the system is
available.
• A graphical representation of the variables of a set
of linear algebraic equations representing the
system is called signal flow graph (SFG)
representation.”
 Important definitions
Nodes–
• Variables are represented in a SFG by small circles
called “nodes.
• It represents a system variable which is equal to the
sum of all incoming signals at that node.
• The value of variable represented by any node is the
algebraic sum of all the signals entering at the node.
X3
X1 a12 X2 a32

• In the above figure ‘x2’ is a node. x2 = a12 x1 + a32 x3

Nodes as a transmitting point –
• Outgoing signals from the node do not affect the
value of the node variable.
• A node variable is transmitted through all branches
outgoing from the node.
• The value of the node variable is not affected by the
outgoing branches. Figure below shows a node as a
transmitting point.

X4 = 1*X2= X2
X5 = 2X2
X6 = 3X2
Branches –
• The lines joining the nodes are called branches.
• A signal travels along a branch from one node to
another in the direction indicated by the arrow
and in the process gets multiplied by the gain or
transmittance of the branch.
• Figure below shows a branch, where a12 is the
transmittance of the branch directed from node
x1 to x2.

X1 a12 X2
• Consider the signal flow graph shown above.
Input node or Source Node – The node having only
outgoing branches is known as source or input node.
Ex – x0 is a source node.
Output node or sink Node –
• The node having only incoming branches is
called output node or sink.
• This condition is not always met.
• In the above example x5 node has incoming
and outgoing branches.
• Under such conditions an additional branch
with unit gain may be introduced in order to
meet this condition.
• Now node x6 becomes output node.
Path –
• It is the traversal of connected branches in the
direction of the branch arrows such that no
node is traversed more than once.
Forward path –
• It is a path from the input node to the output
node, with no node encountered more than
once.
Ex – x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 is a forward path.
 Forward path gain-
• It is the product of branch gains encountered as
traversing a forward path.
• Ex – Path gain for a forward path in above example - P1
= 1 x a12 a23 a34 a45 x 1
 Loop –
• A loop is a path in a S.F.G. that begins and ends at the
same node without entering any node more than once,
and following the direction of signal flow.
• It is a path which originates and terminates at the same
node.
• Ex – x2 x3 x4 x2 is a loop.
Loop gain –
• It is the produce of all branch gains encountered
in traversing the loop.
• Ex –: L1 = a23 a34 a42
Self loop –
• It is a path originating from a node and
terminating at the same node without
encountering any other node.
• A self loop cannot appear while defining a
forward path and gain, as node containing it gets
traced twice, which is not allowed.
• Ex – x3 – x3 is a self loop having transmittance a33.
Non touching loops –
• Loops are said to be non touching if they do
not posses any common node [loops having
no path/branch in common and in addition
without any common node].
• Ex – In the figure below, L1, L2 and L3 are non
touching loops.
Methods to obtain signal flow graph

1. From the system equation.

1. From the given block diagram.

 1. From the system equations
I. Represent each variable by a separate node.
II. Use the property that value of the variable
represented by node is an algebraic sum of all
the signals entering at that node to simulate
the equations.
III. Coefficients of the variables in the equations
are to be represented as the branch gains,
taking the nodes in S.F.G.
IV. Show the input and output variables
separately.
 Example

1. Construct the S.F.G. from the given set of

equations –
x2 = a12x1 + a32x3 + a42x4 +a52x5
x3 = a23x2
x4 = a34x3 + a44x4
x5 = a35x3 + a45x4
Given -
x1 is input variable and x5 is output variable
Solution –
• First the nodes are located which represent
the variables.
• The first equation states that x2 is equal to the
sum of four signals and it can be represented
in the S.F.G. as shown in the next slide.
• Similarly, all the equations are constructed
giving the complete S.F.G.
• 1st equation ; x2 = a12x1 + a32x3 + a42x4 +a52x5

• 2nd equation ; x3 = a23x2

• 3rd equation ; x4 = a34x3 + a44x4

• 4th equation on ;
• Combining all the equations, the S.F.G. is –
 Mason’s Gain Formula
• The relationship between input variable and
an output variable of a S.F.G. is given by the
net gain between input and output nodes and
is known as the overall gain of the system.
• Mason’s gain formula for the determination of
the overall system gain is given by –
σ𝑘 𝑃𝑘 ∆𝑘
• Overall transfer function = T =
∆
• Where, Pk – Path gain of the kth forward path .

• ∆ - Determinant of the S.F.G.

• ∆ = 1 - σ 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 + σ(𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)

- σ(𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
+ σ 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − ………….
• ∆𝑘 = the value of ∆ for the part of the graph not touching Kth forward
path

• ∆𝑘 = ∆ − σ 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 ∆ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑘𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ.

• In other words, ∆𝑘 is obtained from ∆ by removing the loops that touch

the kth forward path.
 Numericals
1. Find the overall gain of the S.F.G. using
Mason’s gain formula
Solution –
Mark Input and output node
• Number of forward paths, k = 2
• There are two forward paths with path gains –
P1 = a12 a23 a34 a45
P2 = a12 a23 a35
• There are five individual loops, with loop gains-
L1 = a23 a32
L2 = a23 a34 a42
L3 = a44 (self loop)
L4 = a23 a34 a44 a52
L5 = a23 a35 a52
• There are two possible combinations of two non
touching loops with loop gain products –
a) L1L3 = a23 a32 a44
b) L3L5 = a23 a35 a52 a44
• There are no combinations of three non touching
loops, 4 non touching loops and so on.
• Therefore,
• ∆ = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5) + (L1 L3 + L3 L5)
= 1 – (a23 a32 + a23 a34 a42 + a44 + a23 a34 a45 a52
+ a23 a35 a52) + (a23 a32 a44 + a23 a35 a52 a44)
• Consider the first forward path P1, all the loops are
touching this forward path P1.
• Therefore, ∆1 = 1 – 0 = 1
• Consider the second forward path P2, It is not in
touch with one loop (L3)
• Therefore, ∆2 = 1 – a44
𝑥6 1
• Overall T.F. = T = = 𝑃1 ∆1 + 𝑃2 ∆2
𝑥1 ∆
• T= (a12 a23 a34 a45) + a12 a23 a35(1- a44)
1 – a23 a32 – a23 a34 a42 – a44 – a23 a34 a45 a52 + a23
a32 a44 + a23 a35 a52 a44
 Homework
Q: Draw the Signal flow graph and find Transfer
function for a system which is described by a set
of following algebraic equations.

• Y2 = a12Y1 + a32Y3
• Y3 = a23Y2 +a43Y4
• Y4 = a24Y2 + a34Y3 + a44Y4
• Y5 = a25Y2 + a45Y4
2. For the S.F.G. obtain T.F. C(s)/R(s) using
Mason’s Gain formula.
Solution –
• Number of forward paths, K = 4
P1 = 1.G1.G2.1 = G1 G2
P2 = 1.G3.G4.1 = G3 G4
P3 = 1.G1.G6.G4.1= G1 G6 G4
P4 = 1.G3.G5.G2.1 = G2 G3 G5
• Number of loops = 5
L1 = -G2 H1
L2 = -G3 H2
L3 = G5 G6
L4 = -G4 H1 G6
L5 = -G1 G6 H2
• Non touching loops –
i. Combination of two non touching loops are –
L1 & L2 = G2 G3 H1 H2
ii. No combination of three non touching loops.
• Determinant ∆ of S.F.G. is –
∆ = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5) + (L1 L2)
= 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H1 + G5 G6 + G4 H1 G6+ G1 G6 H2
+ G2 G3 H1 H2
• To find ∆𝑘 , consider paths P1, P2, P3 & P4.
• In all the paths, all loops are touching.
• Hence ; ∆1 = ∆2 = ∆3 = ∆4 = 1
• Using Mason’s gain formula –
𝐶(𝑠) σ 𝑃𝑘 ∆𝑘 𝑃1 ∆1 + 𝑃2 ∆2 +𝑃3 ∆3 + 𝑃4 ∆4
= =
𝑅(𝑠) ∆ ∆
= G1 G2 + G3 G4 + G1 G6 G4 + G2 G3 G5

1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G5 G6 + G4 H1 G6 + G1 G6 H2
+ G2 G3 H1 H2
3. Find C/R for the S.F.G. shown using Mason’s gain
formula.
Solution –
• There are two forward paths, given by –
P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4
P2 = G5 G6 G7 G8

• There are 4 individual loops with loop gains given by –

L1 = -G2 H1
L2 = -G3 H2
L3 = -G6 H3
L4 = -G7 H4
• There are 4 combinations of non touching loops taken two at
a time –
Loops 1 & 3 – L1 L3 = G2 G6 H1 H3
Loops 1 & 4 – L1 L4 = G2 H1 G7 H4
Loops 2 & 3 – L2 L3 = G3 H2 G6 H3
Loops 2 & 4 – L2 L4 = G3 H2 G7 H4
• There are no combinations of other non touching loops.
• Determinant ∆ of the S.F.G. is –
∆ = 1 – [L1 + L2 + L3 + L4] + [L1 L3 + L1 L4 + L2 L3 + L2 L4]
= 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G6 H3 + G7 H4 + G2 G6 H1 H3 +
G2 H3 G3 H4 + G3 H2 G6 H3 + G3 H2 G7 H4
• Form ∆𝑘 by eliminating the loop gains that
touch the kth forward path from ∆.
• Thus from P1 = G1 H2 G3 G4; L3 & L4 are not
touching P1.
• ∆1 = 1 – [L3 + L4] = 1 + G6 H3 + G7 H4
• From path P2 (L1 & L2 are not touching path P2)
• ∆2 = 1 – [L1 + L2] = 1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2
• Mason’s Gain Formula –
𝐶 1
= 𝑃1 ∆1 + 𝑃2 ∆2
𝑅 ∆

𝐶 G1 G2 G3 G4(1 + G6 H3 + G7 H4) + G5 G6 G7 G8(1 + G2 H3 + G3 H2)

=
𝑅 (1 + G2 H1 + G3 H2 + G6 H3 + G7 H4 + G2 G6 H1 H3 + G2 H1 G7 H4 +
G2 H2 G6 H3 + G3 H2 G7 H4)
 2. From the Given block diagram
1. Name all the summing points and take off points
in the B.D.
2. Represent each summing point & take off point
by a separate node in S.F.G.
3. Connect them by branches instead of blocks,
indicating block T.F. as the gains of the
corresponding branches.
4. Show the input & output nodes separately if
required to complete to S.F.G.
5. If the summing point and take off points are near
each other, they are to be represented by
separated nodes in S.F.G.
 Numericals

1. Find C/R using Mason’s gain formula.

Solution –
• Give numbers to the take off points and summing points in
the original block diagram.
• Mark these numbers as nodes.
• The input and output variables are also considered as nodes .
• We get the following S.F.G. -
• Application of Mason’s gain formula –
I. There are 4 forward paths with path gains –
P1 = G1 G3
P2 = G1 G2
P3 = 1(-G4)(-H2) x G1 x G3 x 1 = G4 H2 G1 G3
P4 = -G4 – H2 G1 G2 = G4 H2 G1 G2
II. There are two loops with gains
L1 = G1G3H1H2
L2 = G1G2H1H2
III. There are no non touching loops.
IV. Determinant ∆ of S.F.G. is –
∆ = 1 – (L1 +L2)
= 1 – G1G3H1H2 – G1G2H1H2
V. To find ∆k –
We form ∆k by eliminating the loop gains that touch the kth
forward path from ∆.
In all 4 paths, all loops are touching the paths.
Therefore,
∆1 = ∆2 = ∆3 = ∆ 4 = 1
VI. Applying Mason’s Gain formula –
𝐶 𝑃1 ∆1 +𝑃2 ∆2 +𝑃3 ∆3 +𝑃4 ∆4
=
𝑅 ∆

𝐶 G1 G3 + G1 G2 + G4 H2 G1 G3 + G4 H2 G1 G2
= 1 – G1 G3 H1 H2 – G1 G2 H1 H2
𝑅
Application of Mason’s Gain formula to electrical
networks
• Steps –
1. Find the Laplace transform of the given network
and redraw in S – domain.
2. Write down equations for different branch
currents and node voltages.
3. Simulate each equation by drawing
corresponding S.F.G.
4. Combine all signal flow graphs to get total S.F.G.
of the network.
5. Use Mason’s Gain formula to derive the T.F. of
the given network.
 Example
1. For the network shown draw the S.F.G. &
obtain T.F. using Mason’s gain formula.
Solution –
• To obtain S.F.G. draw the network in Laplace
domain and assign different loop currents and
node voltages, as shown -
• From the network write equations for the
variables –
[Vi(s)−𝑉1]
1. I1(s) = 3
100 𝑋 10

1
2. V1(s) = 𝐼1 𝑠 − 𝐼2 𝑠
𝑆𝑋10𝑋 10−6
 𝑉1 −𝑉0
3. I2(s) =
1 𝑋 106

1
4. Vo(s) = I2(s) x
𝑆 𝑋 1 𝑋 10−6
• Combining all the graphs -
• Number of forward paths, K = 1
1 1 1 1
P1 = 5 𝑋 −5 𝑋 6𝑋
10 𝑠𝑥10 10 𝑠𝑥10−6
1
= 2
𝑆
• Number of loop gains are 3 –
1 −1 −1
L1 = x =
𝑆𝑋10𝑋 10−6 100 𝑋 103 𝑆
1 −1 −0.1
L2 = x =
1𝑋 106 𝑆𝑋10𝑋 10−6 𝑆
1 −1 −1
L3 = x =
𝑆𝑋1𝑋 106 1𝑋 106 𝑠
• The loops L1 & L3 are non touching.
1
L1 L3 =
𝑆2
• Determinant ∆ of S.F.G. is –
∆ = 1 – (L1 +L2 +L3) + L1L3
−1 −0.1 −1 1
=1- +
𝑠 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆2
2.1 1
=1- + 2
𝑆 𝑆
• To find ∆𝑘 consider path P1 –
• All loops are touching P1.
• Therefore, ∆1 = 1
• Applying Mason’s Gain formula –
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑃1 ∆1
=
𝑅(𝑠) ∆
1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑆2 1
= 2.1 1 =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+ 𝑆 + 2 𝑆 2 +2.1𝑆+1
𝑆