Safety Engineering of Process Plants (CH 404)

Module III

Dr. Prince George

Dept. Of Chemical Engineering
Saintgits College of Engineering
 OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS (OELs)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

The objective of the OSH-MS is to reduce the potential hazards of occupational accidents.

❖ Chemical Risk Assessment

❖ Measurement and Evaluation Methods for Harmful Substance Exposure Concentrations

MEASUREMENT and EVALUATION METHODS for HARMFUL SUBSTANCE EXPOSURE CONCENTRATIONS

Method for Estimating Exposure Concentration

Measurement of exposure concentration
A) Working environment measurement (Area monitoring)
B) Exposure concentration of each worker (Personal monitoring)
C) Biological monitoring
MEASUREMENT and EVALUATION METHODS for HARMFUL SUBSTANCE
EXPOSURE CONCENTRATIONS
Personal monitoring
Area monitoring

Biological monitoring
 Health and engineering control

The health

*Subjective Sensitivity monitoring

symptom test
*The change test
of the living body Effect monitoring
metabolism
* Solvent in blood
* Solvent in urine Biological monitoring
*Metabolite in
urine

*Individual exposure Exposure monitoring

*Special work's exposure

*Concentration of the general

workshop in air Area monitoring
* Concentration of the emission source
at the workshop in air
Engineering control
(Measurement of emission source )
 EXPOSURE

❖ Exposure is the contact with chemical substances, high/low temperatures, noise, vibrations or other hazard by persons in
the workplace.

The exposure to chemical substances occurs by inhalation, skin contact or swallowing, though inhalation is often the route
in workplaces.

❖ For a given hazard,the greater the exposure,the greater the risk of an adverse effect on health.This is the because of the
exposure-response relationship.

CHEMICAL EXPOSURE LIMIT

Exposure limit is the maximum concentration that a large number of workers can tolerate without adverse affects on health,
even if repeated for consecutive days.

• (Tolerance Levels / Threshold Limit Values [TLV] by American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists [ACGIH])
 DEFINITIONS -Describing the hazard

We need to know how much of a hazardous substance a worker can breathe without harm

This is given by the

Occupational Exposure Limit Termed Threshold Limit Value TLV by ACGIH

(ACGIH is an American organisation for industrial hygiene)
OEL
OEL is the concentration in the air to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without
adverse health effects to themselves or their children.
 DEFINITIONS -Describing the hazard

ACGIH defines three categories of threshold limit values

Threshold Limit Value – Time-Weighted Average (TLV-TWA): The concentration of a hazardous substance in the air
averaged over an 8-hour workday and a 40-hour workweek to which it is believed that workers may be repeatedly
exposed, day after day, for a working lifetime without adverse effects.

Threshold Limit Value – Short-term exposure (TLV-STEL): A 15-minute time weighted average exposure that should
not be exceeded at any time during a workday, even if the overall 8-hour TLV-TWA is below the TLV-TWA.
• Workers should not be exposed more than four times per day to concentrations between TLV-TWA and TLV-
STEL.
• There should be at least a 60 minute interval between exposures.
• The short-term exposure threshold has been adopted to account for the acute effects of substances that
have primarily chronic affects.
 DEFINITIONS -Describing the hazard

Threshold Limit Value – Ceiling (TLV-C): This is the concentration that should not be exceeded during any part of the
working exposure.
• Peak exposures should be always controlled.
• For substances that do not have TLV-TWA or TLV-C established, the maximum admissible peak concentrations must
not exceed:
• Three-times the value of the TLV-TWA for no more than 15 minutes, no more than four times per workday.
Exposures must be at least 1 hour apart during the workday.
• Five times the TLV-TWA under any circumstances.

The units of measures for the threshold limit values are ppm and mg/m3. The TLVs for aerosols are expressed usually
in mg/m3. The TLVs for gases and vapours are expressed in ppm or mg/m3.
 CHEMICAL EXPOSURE LIMITS
❖ Recommend or mandotary occupational exposure limits (OELs) have been developed in many countries for airborne
exposure to gases,vapours and particulates.

❖ The most widely used limits,called threshold limit values (TLVs),are those issued in the USA by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygenists (ACGIH)

Occupational Exposure Limits

 Occupational Exposure Limits

REL (Recommended Exposure Limit): TWA for up to a 10-hour workshift during a 40-hour workweek, unless
otherwise noted.
DLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health): Exposures that pose an immediate threat to life or health.
• The IDLH represents a concentration that for 30-minutes exposure would not impair escape (e.g., severe eye
irritation) or result in irreversible health effects for an unprotected worker (i.e., in the event of a respirator failure,
or during emergencies).

ACGIH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

NIOSH: National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Occupational Exposure Limit Values: Protecting Workers Health Definitions
 Occupational Exposure Limit Values: Definitions

•Ceiling exposure limit (TLV-C) or maximum exposure concentration that should not be exceeded under any
circumstance,while meeting the daily TLV-TWA.
•Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL):The difference between TLVs and PELs is the agencies from which they come.
•Biological exposure indices (BEIs)

Occupational Exposure Limit Values: Protecting Workers Health (EU)

There are three main types of limit values:

❖ Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values (IOELVs)

❖ Binding Occupational Exposure Limit Values (BOELVs)

❖ Biological Limit Values (BLVs)

SCOEL:Scientific Committee on Occupational Exposure Limits

DG EMPL: DG for Employment

 Determination of Occupational Exposure Limit Values (EU procedure)

✓DG EMPL consults with the Advisory Committee of Safety and Health at Work (ACSH) in developing OELs.
✓When an OEL is proposed by DGEMPL, the legislative procedure starts.

Significance of EU- Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values (IOELVs)

✓Community IOELVs are health-based, non-binding values, derived from the most recent scientific data available and
taking into account the availability of measurement techniques.
✓ They set threshold levels of exposure below which, in general, no detrimental effects are expected for any
given substance after short term or daily exposure over a working life time.
✓ They are European objectives to assist the employers in determining and assessing risks.

✓Socio-economic and technical feasibility factors are not taken into account when establishing IOELVs.
(Art 3 Council Directive 98/24/EC )
 Significance of EU- Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values (IOELVs)

✓For any chemical agent for which an indicative OEL value is established at EU level, Member States must establish a
national exposure limit value, taking into account the Community indicative limit value, determining its nature in
accordance with national legislation and practice.
(Art 3 (3) Council Directive 98/24/EC)

Biological Limit Values (BLVs) & Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs)

• Biological limit value or biological tolerance value for occupational exposures is defined as the maximum
permissible deviation from the norm of biological parameters induced by these substances in exposed humans.
• The BLV is established on the basis of currently available scientific data which indicate that
• these concentrations generally do not affect the health of the employee adversely,
• even they are attained regularly under workplace conditions.
 Biological Limit Values (BLVs) & Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs)

• BLV can be defined as concentration or rates of formation or excretion (quantity per unit time).
• BLVs are conceived as ceiling values for healthy individuals.
• They are generally established for blood and urine and take into account the effects of the substance and an
appropriate safety margin,
• being based on occupational medical and toxilogical criteria for the prevention of adverse effects on
health.

Derivation of Biological Limit Values (BLVs) & Biological Exposure Indıces (BEIs)

❖ The derivation of a BLV can be based on

❖ various constellations of scientific data which reveal a quantitive relationship between exposure
concentration
❖ body burden
❖ and therefore permit the linking of OEL and BLVs.
 Criteria for the selection of priority substances

When selecting candidate priority substances for setting OELs, the following criteria are considered:

❖ Epidemiological evidence including reported cases of ill-health in the workplace

❖ Availability of toxicological data
❖ Severity of effects
❖ Number of persons exposed
❖ Availability of data on exposure
❖ Availability of measurement methods
 Exposure limits data of each country

USA:

Recommended exposure limits are developed and periodically revised by the National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health (NIOSH). These recommendations are then published and transmitted to the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA )for use in promulgating legal standards.

• Permissible exposure limits are published in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Occupational Safety and Health
Standards on Toxic and Hazardous Substances, 29 CFR 1910.1000, Tables Z-1, Z-2, and Z-3.
• Permissible exposure limits and NIOSH recommended exposure limits are also available in the NIOSH Pocket Guide
to Chemical Hazards.

❖ Threshold limit values (TLVs) and biological exposure indices (BEIs) are also issued by the American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). Information on the determination and use of these values and their
availability may be found on the ACGIH website.

❖ Leads and its compounds
❖ Mercury and its compounds
❖ Arsenic and its compounds
❖ Cadmium and its compounds
❖ Manganese and its compounds
❖ Chromium and its compounds
❖ Beryllium and its compounds
Biological limits data
❖Phosphor & white phosphor and its compounds (organophosphates)
❖Nitrogen oxide
❖Carbon disulfide
❖Benzene and its derivatives
❖Halogenated hydrocarbons
❖Aniline and its derivatives
❖Hydrogen sulfide
❖Free silica
 PARAMETERS THAT HAVE BEEN IMPLEMENTED
Parameter Specimen Method Reference Limit Values

Blood (with heparin) AAS

Lead 40 µg/ 100 ml 41-59 µg/ 100 > 59 µg/ 100 ml
(normal value) ml (acceptable (pathologic value)
value)
Urine Chromotographic & mg/100 ml mg/100 ml)
Delta Amino Spectrophotometri 0,60 (negative) 1,50-3,00 > 6,00 mg/100 ml
Levunilic Acid c&Colourimetric 0,60-1,50 (high) critical level
(medium level 3,00-6,00
high) (more higher)

Urine Chromotographic &

Uro- spectrophotometric
Coproporphirin / Coproporfirin Uro-
chromotographic& 35-150 µg/24 proporfirin
fluorometric hour 15-50 µg/24
hour

Urine Chromotographic &

Porphirin – T spectrophotometric 50-200 µg/ 24
/ hour (for men) 35-180 µg/ 24
chromotographic& hour (for
fluorometric women)

(qualitative)
 PARAMETERS THAT HAVE BEEN IMPLEMENTED
Parameter Specimen Method Reference Limit Values

Blood (with EDTA and

Protoporphirin (IX heparin) 0,60 µg/ 100 ml 5,3 µg / gHb
)(Erythrocyte) (normal value)

Urine Qualitative (-)

Porphoobilinogen

Urine (8 hour,24 hour) Colourometric-

TCA quantative <20 mg/lt 41-100 mg/lt > 200 mg/lt (high
(tetrachloroethylen (SGOT,SGPT,GGT,EKG) Colourometric- (normal value) (affected degree of
e) quantative & 20-40 mg/ lt value) intoxication,hazar
spectrophotometric (acceptable 100-200 mg/lt dous)
value) (intoxication)
Hippuric acid Urine (24 hour) Colourometric- 200-1600
mg/24 hour
quantative
 PARAMETERS THAT HAVE BEEN IMPLEMENTED
Parameter Specimen Method Reference Limit Values

Urine Spectrophotometric 25 mg / lt (critical

Phenol &Colourometric- > 20 mg/lt (normal < 20 mg/lt maximum value)
quantative value) (pathologic value)

Benzole Blood 5 gama /dl (critical

maximum value)

Blood (with EDTA and Spectophotometric

Methemoglobin (nitro heparine)
derivatives of alifatic
hydrocarbons)

Carboxyhemoglobin Blood (with EDTA and Spectophotometric

(CO) heparine)
 OEL VALUES EXAMPLE
Hazardous Threshold Limit Value
substance TLV
8 hour 15 minute
Isopropyl alcohol 200ppm 400ppm
Benzene 0.5ppm 2.5ppm
Ammonia 25ppm 35ppm
Acrolein - C 0.1ppm

Particles not otherwise 10 mg/m3 -

specified An instantaneous ceiling
value that should not be
Cobalt 0.02 mg/m3 - exceeded
Source: ACGIH 2007
 What to do with the OEL

◼ If you use Respiratory Protection Equipment, compare the calculated exposure inside the mask with the
OEL to check if the effective exposure is OK

◼ Use the protection factor of the mask to get the concentration inside the mask
OEL DATABASE
 Procedures of the Chemical Substances Threshold Limit Value Committee (ACGIH)

❖ Epidemiologic studies having detailed exposure data;

❖ Toxicologic studies in whole-body bioassays in mammals;

❖ Epidemiologic studies of a descriptive nature;

❖ Case histories from clinical records;

❖ Short-term bioassays for genotoxicity;

❖ Toxicologic studies of non-mammalian species;

❖ Chemical structure analogy.

 Calculation of OEL

The approach used to set OELs was based on the

"no-observed-effect-level/safety factor"(NOEL/SF)approach.

1. In this approach, all of the pertinent animal studies are reviewed and the highest dose that did not cause an effect
in the most sensitive health endpoint (the NOEL) is identified.

2.Once a NOEL has been identified, a set of uncertainty (or safety) factors are applied to this value to accommodate
for limitations in the data and to try to assure that workers are protected.
(The number and magnitude of these safety factors depend on the quality of the data.)

***If a NOEL is not available, then a LOEL can be used. The LOEL, or lowest-observed effect-level, is the lowest dose
that causes an effect in the most sensitive health endpoint.
 Calculation of OEL

OEL = [(NOEL) x (human body weight)]/[(safety factor)n x (human breathing rate)]

NOEL is typically in units of milligram of chemical administered/kilogram of animal body weight/day;

Human body weight typically is assumed to be 70 kilograms for an adult male;

Safety factors for accomodating limitations in the data,

Breathing rate in workers typically is assumed to be 10 m3 /8-hour workday.

Example of OEL Calculation

• Example of using this approach for the synthetic estrogen, ethinyl estradiol:
The NOEL in humans has been estimated to be around 3.5 μ g/day.
(Because it is reported in these units, there is no need to multiply by the human body weight).

If one assumes a safety factor of 10 for the human variability in response and a breathing rate 10 m3/8-hour
workday, then the OEL is estimated to be 0.035 μ g/m3.
 IDLH Concentrations

• IDLH is an acronym for Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health.

• These IDLH concentrations have been established by NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) for
several hundred chemicals.
• For most chemicals, the IDLH concentrations are based on toxicity if the chemical is inhaled.

❖ Lower explosive limit (LEL) or lower flammable limit (LFL) of a substance is the minimum concentration of gas or
vapor in air below which the substance will not burn when exposed to a source of ignition.
❖ This concentration is usually expressed in percent by volume. Below this concentration, the mixture is too "lean" to
burn or explode.

❖ For a small number of chemicals, the IDLH concentration is set at 10% of the LEL even though toxicity information
might allow for a much higher concentration.

• LEL is almost always expressed as volume %

• IDLH is typically expressed as ppm (although for hazardous materials typically found in the form of dusts
or particulates it may be expressed as mg/m3).
 Upper explosive limit (UEL)
• The flashpoint of a substance is the minimum temperature at which it gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable
mixture with the air just above the surface of the substance.
• Ignition of a substance at the flashpoint is not continuous.
• The ignition temperature or autoignition temperature is the minimum temperature required to initiate or cause self-
sustained combustion without an ignition source.
❖ Upper explosive limit (UEL) or upper flammable limit (UFL) of a substance is the maximum concentration of gas or
vapor above which the substance will not burn when exposed to a source of ignition.
❖ Above this concentration, the mixture is too "rich" to burn or explode.
❖ The flammable range is the range of concentrations between the LFL and UFL where the gas-air mixture will support
combustion'.

• When evaluating the fire or explosion potential at a hazardous waste site, all equipment used should be intrinsically safe or
explosion-proof.
• Where flammable or explosive atmospheres are detected, ventilation may dilute the mixture to below the LEL/LFL.
• However, ventilation is generally not recommended if concentrations exceed the UFL/UEL, since the mixture will pass through
the flammable/explosive range as it is diluted.
 Example 1

• Propane has a lower explosive limit (LEL) of 2.1% and an upper explosive limit (UEL) of 9.5% at room temperature.
• At elevated temperatures these numbers could be different.
• The IDLH concentration is 10% of LEL or 2100 parts per million (ppm).
• 2.1% concentration of propane in air is equivalent to 21,000 ppm.
• Ten percent of 21,000 ppm is 2100 ppm, and this is the IDLH concentration.

Example 2
• Methane is the primary ingredient of natural gas.
• Methane has a LEL of 5% and an UEL of 15% at room temperature.
• Concentration of 5% methane in air is equivalent to 50,000 ppm.
• IDLH concentration set at 10% of LEL would be 5,000 ppm.
 If the chemical is also toxic, the IDLH will probably be much lower than 10% of LEL.
• An example is benzene which has a LEL of 1.2% but the IDLH value is 500 ppm.
• Benzene is also a recognized carcinogen.

Example 3

❖ Gasoline is a complex mixture of about 200 different chemicals, many of which are toxic.
❖ The LEL of gasoline is about 1.3% or 1.4% overall.
❖ Some of the components of gasoline have lower LEL values and IDLH values less than 10% of LEL.
❖ A major component of gasoline is heptane which has an LEL of 1.05% (n-heptane) and an IDLH value of 750 ppm.
❖ Benzene is also found in gasoline.
❖ Because gasoline composition can vary, it is difficult to establish an IDLH number.
❖ Because gasoline components are toxic, if an IDLH number were established, it would probably be less than 10% of LEL.
 Hazard Identification

❖ To ensure safety of all concerned, an active program of identifying and correcting hazards within the work
environment should be put in place.
❖ “walk around inspections” as well as
❖ more formal periodic “safety/hazard inspections.”

• A safety committee should be involved with the inspections

• whether it is to actually conduct them or at least review the results of each inspection and become instrumental
in the correction of those hazards.
➢ Hazard identification provides the means for hazard remediation equating to an effective safety program.
 Hazard Detection & Inspection

Detection and inspection requires us to ask particulars about a hazard:

• What is it?
• What should I be looking for?
• How do I perform the inspection and properly?
• How do I document my findings?
• Is there a way to measure or evaluate the magnitude of the hazard?
• What are the recommended and acceptable control measures for what I find?
• Are there particular standards which can be cited for my identifying the particulars
as hazards?

• There are hazards and near misses that can exist in the workplace and all employees should know the difference as well
as understand the importance of reporting both.
➢ To understand the difference between
➢ a hazard and
➢ a near miss employees should know.
 Identifying Hazards

It takes a hazard & someone exposed to the hazard to produce an incident.

❖ Hazard + Exposure = Incident

“Exposure?”

• How close are you to the “danger zone?” Hazards outside the immediate area may serve as “proximate” harm.

✓ Physical exposure – generally arm’s length.

✓ Environmental exposure – everyone in facility might be affected ,e.g. explosive ruptures of vessels, vapor clouds due
to releases of gases as examples.
 Hazard Identification (or HAZID)
HAZID process must be ongoing to ensure existing hazards
are known, and

• New hazards recognized before they are introduced:
➢ Prior to modification of facility
➢ Prior to change in workforce
➢ Before and during abnormal operations,
troubleshooting
➢ Facility early warning signals
❑ Hazards should not be disregarded simply because:
➢ They appear to be very unlikely.
➢ They have not happened previously.
➢ They are considered to be adequately controlled
by existing measures.

➢ Employee feedback

➢ After an incident

❖ A systematic, transparent and comprehensive HAZID process should be used based on a comprehensive and accurate
description of the facility.
 Hazard Identification (or HAZID)
The HAZID should:

▪ Be team-based. The more talents viewing the situation-the more input to identify possibilities.

▪ Use a process that is systematic.

▪ Be pro-active in searching for hazards.

▪ Assess all hazards.

▪ Analyze existing controls and barriers - preventative and mitigative

▪ Consideration needs to be given in selecting the HAZID technique (checklist, Job Safety Analysis (JSA),
walkthrough, etc.)
 Conducting the HAZID – Consider the Past, Present and Future

What has gone wrong in the past?

Historical • Root Cause
conditions • Historical Records
• Process Experience
• Near Misses

What could go wrong currently?

Existing conditions • HAZID Workshop
• HAZOP Study Identified Hazards
• Scenario Definitions
• Checklists

Future conditions What could go wrong?

• Change Management Unforeseeable
• What-If Judgment
• Prediction
 Hazard Identification (or HAZID)
It is tempting to disregard “Non-Credible” Scenarios
BUT:
• “Non-credible” scenarios have happened to others.
• Worst cases are important to emergency planning.
❖ Look at your type of industry to determine incidents
which have occurred to others.
❖ Learn from their incidents.
❖ What can happen?
❖ If you have a water hazard on your facility,
there is always the possibility of water-type
incidents;
❖ drowning.
Issues for consideration
• Equipment can be off-line. Without lockout/tagout programs,
restarts may be attempted.
• Safety devices can be disabled or fail to operate. Once locked-
out, try to restart to ensure out of service.
• Several tasks may be concurrent.
• Procedures are not always followed.
• People are not always available.
• How we act is not always how we plan to act.
• Things can take twice as long as planned.
• Abnormal conditions may arise;
▪ Power failure.
▪ Impact from neighbouring facilities which intrude your
location.
 Hazard Detection & Identification

•The following list shows the main ways to

HAZID Techniques
identify hazards
• Checklists - questions to assist in hazard identification.
→ Walkthrough Surveys

→ Inspection Checklists • Brainstorming - whatever anyone can think of along with solutions
contributed.
→ Past Records
• “What If” Analysis - possible outcomes of change and alternate
→ Accident Investigations solutions.
→ Consultation
• HAZOP - identifies “process plant” type incidents.
→ Documentation
• Job Safety Analysis – procedures which exist or must be created.

• Fault Tree Analysis - combinations of failures and results to plan for.

 Checklists

A checklist, as the term implies, is used for various aspects of the process under view. Checklists can be used for:

• Audit of operators. Is their training current; performance checked.

• Equipment and construction issues. How will these impact your operation.

• Maintenance records. Do they indicate a periodicity required for continued operations?

• Others as determined.

Advantages Disadvantages
• Highly valuable as a cross check review tool following the • Tends to limit creative thinking
use of other techniques • Used alone introduces the potential of limiting to
• Useful tool to review continued compliance with Safety already known hazards - no new hazard types are
Management Systems identified

• On their own will rarely be able to satisfy regulatory

requirements
Safety Inspection Checklist
 Brainstorming
Advantages

• Useful starting point for many HAZID techniques to focus a group’s ideas, especially at the concept phase

• Facilitates active participation and input

• Allows employees experience to surface

• Enables “thinking outside the box”

• Very useful at early stages hazard identification

Disadvantages

• Less rigorous and systematic than other techniques

• High risk of missing hazards unless combined with other tools

• Relies on experience and competency of facilitator

 What If Analysis Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP)

Through developed questions and answers, the effects ▪ Makes a determination of deviation from their design basis.

of component failures or process errors are evaluated. ▪ Diagrams of the facility’s piping, electrical system and

• Shutdown logics and restart methods are instrumentation can be used.

determined. Advantages
• Will identify hazards, and events leading to an accident or other
Advantages undesired event
• Useful for an early method of identifying hazards • Systematic and rigorous process
• The systematic approach goes some way to ensuring all hazards
• It can be used for almost every type of analysis are considered
situation
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
• Requires significant resource commitment
• Checklists are used extensively which can provide • HAZOPs are time consuming
tunnel vision, running the risk of overlooking possible • The HAZOP process is quite monotonous and maintaining
participant interest can be a challenge
causal factors
 Job Safety Analysis

Advantages
• Provides first hand job related information

• Helps to create job-employee fit

• Helps in analysing training needs

Disadvantages

• Time consuming

• Mental abilities cannot be directly observed

• Does not always address process deviations

• The National Safety Council has a formatted method to perform this function.
• Create your own or “buy-in” to another agency’s method.
 Fault Tree Analysis
The Fault Tree Analysis includes all segments which may cause, contribute to or be affected by an incident.

The Fault Tree Analysis views potential event sequences which may result in an incident.

• Diagram looks like a tree.

• Each branch lists sequence of events (failures) for different paths to the end event.

• Probabilities assigned to each event then used to determine the statistical probability to the end event which is posed.

• An appropriate equivalent methodology may also be adopted for use.

Advantages
• Quantitative - defines probabilities to each event which
can be used to calculate the probability of the top event.
• Easy to read and understand.

Disadvantages
• Need to have identified the top event first.
• More difficult than other techniques to document.
• Complex and time consuming.
• Quantitative data needed to perform properly.
 Fault Tree Analysis
• The fault tree is a graphical representation of the basic causes interactions that may result in a hazardous or undesirable
event.
❖ Use of deductive logic.
❖ Logical diagram in the reverse sequence
❖ Failure frequency are available Fail To Get
To Work On
❖ Be estimated with the common sense Time

Collision: Collision:
Major Minor
Bike Flat Tire
Stolen Damage Damage
to Bike to Bike

Cyclist Ride Driver

Driver cuts Potential Bike To Hits Cyclist
Cannot
Off Cyclist Calamity Work With Door
Avoid Car
 Purpose of Safety Inspections

▪ Identify potential hazards so they are corrected before an
injury occurs
▪ Implement or improve safety programs
▪ Increase safety awareness
▪ Display concern for workers’ safety
▪ Communicate safety standards of performance
The person conducting the inspection:
• Must have the requisite PPE to safely perform the job
• They must be knowledgeable on how to locate safety and
health hazards
• They should have the authority, given by management, to
act and make recommendations.
❖ If unsafe conditions are revealed, this person should also

The person conducting the hazard inspections should have the authority to shutdown an operation and notify

▪ Be thoroughly-versed in the facility’s operation management.

▪ Knowledgeable of relevant regulations, codes & company ❖ Consider giving this authority to all personnel, re:

policies operation shutdowns which are unsafe.

▪ Competent regarding the inspection steps

▪ Capable of collecting, evaluating & reporting the data
A dedicated person can be educated and trained to successfully
assume this task.
 Hazard Inspection Guidelines Safety Inspections Steps

Hazard inspection guidelines will be determined prior to Steps in a Safety Inspection are generally:

conducting field inspections. 1. Research of the area and/or operation to be viewed.

▪ Decide what to inspect (as well as what will NOT be 2. Organize the documents and PPE which will be required

inspected, i.e., those aspects outside the scope of the 3. Analyze findings of the inspection

safety inspection). 4. Record the findings and recommendations

▪ Prepare an inspection sequence 5. Follow-up with reporting-out the final report to proper

▪ Use a checklist committees

▪ Ask employees in area for input

▪ Record observations – location & nature of hazards
▪ Document the inspection participants
 HAZID Process
HAZID is an automated hazard identification tool for continuous process plants and principle features of

❖Sectionalizing the process plant into several units

❖Generation of hazardous incident scenarios

❖Use of models to distinguish between the feasible and infeasible scenarios

❖Use rules to detect plant configuration problem.

 POSSIBLE HAZARD LIKELIHOOD

Description Level Specific Individual Item Fleet or Inventory

Frequent A Likely to occur frequently Continuously experienced

Probable B Will occur several times in Will occur frequently

life of an item

Occasional C Likely to occur sometime in Will occur several times

life of an item

Remote D Unlikely but possible to Unlikely but can reasonably be expected to occur
occur in life of an item

improbable E So unlikely, it can be Unlikely to occur, but possible

assumed occurrence may not
be experienced
 Hazard Assessment Matrix
HAZARD CATEGORIES
Frequency of
Occurrence I II III IV
Catastrophic Critical Marginal Negligible

(A) Frequent 1A 2A 3A 4A
(B) Probable 1B 2B 3B 4B
(C) Occasional 1C 2C 3C 4C
(D) Remote 1D 2D 3D 4D
(E) improbable 1D 2E 3E 4E
Hazard Risk Index HRI
1A, 1B, 1C, 2A, 2B, 3A I ➢Unacceptable
1D, 2C, 2D, 3B, 3C II ➢Undesirable (Management decision required)
1E, 2E, 3E, 3E, 4A, 4B III ➢Acceptable with review by management
4C, 4D, 4E IV ➢Acceptable without review
 Relationship of qualitative probability ranking to quantitative values

Frequency of Potential relationship to

Description Level
occurrence Quantitative Value

Frequent A High 10-1

Probable B  
Occasional C Medium > 10-3
Remote D  > 10-4
Improbable E Low > 10-6

Risk: ”Chances or possibility of accidental losses or undesired consequences."

❖The probability of a dangerous event posed by a hazard, over a definite time period of exposure or
❖The frequency at which such events will occur and results in fatalities to certain number of people and
❖The consequence of such events in terms of expected number of fatalities per year.
Risk = (Probability) x (Consequences)
 Consequence Analysis or Semi Quantitative Risk Analysis
Assessment of possibilities
--- By use of various hazard identification techniques like
➢ Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)
➢ Hazard & Operability Study
➢ Safety Audit
MODELS
➢ Fault tree analysis
Conceiving a credible scenario by hazard identification techniques
➢ Event tree analysis, etc.
Computation of physical effects of the scenario by suitable models like:
▪ Outflow model
▪ Dispersion model
▪ Unconfined vapour cloud explosion models
▪ Jet fire dimensions
▪ Damage from shock wave on BLEVE
▪ Fire ball radiation damages
▪ Pool fire radiation damages etc.
 Techniques Available

❖ Fire & Explosion Index (Dow Index) and Toxicity Index

➢ Calculation of damages likely from the fires, explosions
➢ and toxic releases and combining the damages with probabilities of occurrence in terms of Individual Risk and
Societal Risk. ( The later is more objective for estimating the distances likely to be affected)

Dow and Mond Indices

❖ Dow index calculates the Fire & Explosion index for
❖ a process unit taking into consideration the flammability
❖ reactivity of the material handled in the process units under the general
❖ and special process condition.
❖ Mond Index on the other hand uses specifically the material toxicity in addition to the other aspects.

The Dow FEI is a ranking system that gives a relative index to the risk of individual process units due to potential fires
and explosions.
➢ Closely related and as such Mond Index was developed as an extension of DOW index.
 Dow and Mond Indices
Fire & Explosion index :(F & EI) = MF x (GPH) (SPH)

Toxicity Index : Th + Ts (1+GPH+SPH)

100
Where, MF = Material Factor
SPH = Special Process Hazard
GPH = General Process Hazard
Th = Toxicity factor based on the NFPA hazard index (0 – 4)
Ts = Correction factor (additional penalty) for toxicity based on Maximum Allowable Concentration
(MAC) value in ppm
Toxicity Factors and Correction Factor for MAC values

NFPA Index Number Toxicity Factor (Th) MAC (in ppm) TS

0 0 5 and blow 125

1 50 Between 5 and 50 75
2 125 50 and more 50
3 250
4 325
 General Process Hazard (GPH)

▪ GPH includes processes.

▪ Different penalties are assigned for different processes.

❖ Exothermic reactions.
❖ Endothermic processes.
❖ Material handling and transfer
❖ Enclosed or indoor process units.
❖ Access.
❖ Drainage and spill control.

e.g., exothermic reaction, endothermic reactions, hydrogenation, alkylation, isomerisation, sulphurization,

neutralization, esterification, oxidation, polymerization, condensation, halogenation, nitration, loading-unloading
operation, enclosed process units, inadequate drainage and proper access etc.
 Special Process Hazard (SPH)
▪ SPH includes special hazards posed due to process parameters like temp., pressure, flammability ranges (UEL, LEL) of
material and issues like internal and external corrosion, leakage from joints etc.
▪ Additional penalties are assigned for special process hazards.
▪ Selection of the process units which may contribute to a fire or explosion or toxic release

➢ Toxic materials. ➢ Low temperature.

➢ Sub-atmospheric pressure (<500 mmHg).
➢ Operating in or near flammable range.
➢ Tank farm storage flammable liquids.
➢ Process upset or purge failure.
➢ Always in flammable range.
➢ Dust explosion.
➢ Pressure.
➢ Quantity of flammable/unstable material.
➢ Liquids or gases in process.
➢ Liquids or gases in storage.
➢ Combustible solids in storage.
➢ Corrosion and erosion.
➢ Leakage – joints and packing.
➢ Use of fired equipment.
➢ Hot oil heat exchanger system.
➢ Rotating equipment.
 Material Factor
The material factor which are the functions of flammable and reactivity can be calculated by the following way
❖Find out flash point of a material /HCV by multiplying heat of combustion by the vapor pressure of that substance at 27 C.
❖Find out flammability factor from the next table from the flash point data or HCV value.
❖Find out the adiabatic decomposition temp. of the substance.
❖Find out the reactivity factor from the table from decomposition temp. value.

Table for finding out Material Factor (Mf) Calculate Mf from following Table from Left to Right
Decomposition temp. Td < 830 830 - 935 - 1010 - > 1080
Deg K 935 1010 1080
Flash HCV Reactivity …………………

Pt. kJ bar/ mol F 0 1 2 3 4

L
None < 4 x 10-5 A 0 0 14 24 29 40
>100 4 x 10-5 2.5 M 1 4 14 24 29 40
40-100 2.5 - 40 A 2 10 14 24 29 40
20-40 40 – 600 B 3 16 16 24 29 40
< -20 > 600 I 4 21 21 24 29 40
L Material Factor MF
ITY
 Procedure for Calculating the Indices

❖ Identify the most process units for risk point of view.

❖ Determine the material factor (MF) for each process units (flammability & reactivity of material)

❖ Determine the Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI) and the problem exposure area for each process unit from the
formula.

❖ Calculate the Maximum Probable Property Damage (MPPD).

Indices and the Extent of Hazard

F & E index Toxicity Index Degree of Hazard

1 – 60 1–6 Light
61 – 96 6 – 10 Moderate
97 – 127 > 10 Intermediate
128 – 158 > 10 Heavy
> 159 > 10 Severe
 FEI Example
DOW FIRE AND EXPLOSION INDEX 7th Edition, January, 1994 dB No. = 1 (1,6,16)

Area / Country Division: WC Location Date

Site Mnfg Unit: LHC#1 Process Unit C2 Splitter
Prepared By Appr'd By Building
Reviewed By Mgt Review By: TC Review By: S&LP
Materials In Process Ethylene
State Of Operation Design Startup Norm Opn Shutdown
Basic Materials For Material Factor Ethylene
Material Factor (See Table 1 or Appendix A or B) Note temperature requirements when unit temperatures over 140 °F = 24

Penalty Penalty
1 General Process Hazards Factor Factor
Range Used
Base Factor 1.00 1.00
p-16 A Exothermic Chemical Reactions Type = None 0.3 - 1.25 0.00
p-17 B Endothermic Processes Type = None 0.2 - 0.4 0.00
p-17 C Material Handling & Transfer (Table 1) Type = None 0.25 - 1.05 0.00
p-17 D Enclosed or Indoor Process Units Type = Open 0.25 - 0.9 0.00
p-18 E Access Type = Two Sides 0.2 - 0.35 0.00
p-18 F Drainage and Spill Control Notes Meets NFPA 30? No USG = 1.73E+05 0.25 - 0.5 0.50
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) = 1.50
 2 Special Process Hazards

Base Factor = 1.00 1.00

p-20 A Toxic Material(s), Use (0.2)(Nh) Nh = 1.00 Note 0.2 - 0.8 0.20
p-20 B Sub-Atmospheric Pressure (< 500 mm Hg) Possible vacuum? No Penalty 0.50 0.00
p-21 C Operation Near In or Near Flammable Range Padding? None Penalties
p-21 1 Tank Farms Storage Flammable Liquids Note C1: 0.50 0.00
p-21 2 Process Upset or Purge Failure Note C2: 0.30 0.00
p-21 3 Always in Flammable Range Note C3: 0.80 0.00
p-21 D Dust Explosion (See Table 3) Type = None Micron Sz = 0 Inerted? No 0.25 - 2.0 0.00
p-22 E Pressure (See Fig. 2) Operating Psig = 58.4 Relief Set psig = 125 0.16 - 1.5 0.24
p-25 F Lowest Temperature = -155 °F Material Suitable ? = Yes 0.2 - 0.3 0.00
p-25 G Quantity of Flammables / Unstable Material lb = 217,000 Heat Comb BTU/lb = 20,800
p-26 1 Liquids or Gases In Process (See Fig. 3) Penalty = 2.18 2.18
p-28 2 Liquids or Gases in Storage (See Fig. 4) Type = A Penalty = 0.96 0.00
p-30 3 Combustible Solids in Stg (See Fig. 5) lbs = 0 Density = 0 0.00
p-32 H Corrosion and Erosion Rates = 0.00 mil / Yr. Penalty = 0.00 0.1 - 0.75 0.00
p-33 I Leakage - Joints and Packing Type = Minor Penalty 0.1 - 1.50 0.10
p-33 J Use of Fired Equipment (See Fig. 6) Dist = 600 ft. Penalty Curve A-2 0.10
p-35 K Hot Oil Heat Exchange System (See Table 5) Volume = 0.00 Penalty 0.15 - 1.15 0.00
p-36 L Rotating Equipment Type = Comp Penalty 0.50 0.50
Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) 4.32
Process Unit Hazards Factor (F1 x F2) = F3 = 6.47

Fire and Explosion Index (F3 x MF = FEI) = 155.36

Fire and Explosion Class (See Table 6) = FEI Range = 128 - 158 Heavy
 Limitations of Dow FEI

❖ No scientific basis for many of the features can be found in Dow records. (RAH study – 1993).
❖ Does not correlate well with known plant disasters (Flixborough, Phillips, Norco).
❖ While explosion damage is fairly advanced (Flixborough – 1974), fire damage alone is more difficult to predict.
❖ Not scenario driven as in recent QRA work in Holland and the U.K.
 Relief system and Detectors
Flare stacks

▪ The flare is a last line of defense in the safe emergency release system in a refinery or
chemical plant.
▪ They are used to eliminate waste gas which is otherwise not feasible to use or transport.
▪ They also act as safety systems for non-waste gas and is released via pressure relief valve
when needed to ease the strain on equipment.
❖ They protect gas processing equipments from being overpressure.
❖ Emergency, the flare system helps burn out the total reserve gas.
▪ The chemical process used for flaring is a high temperature oxidation reaction to burn
combustible components, mostly hydrocarbons, or waste gases from industrial operations.
▪ In combustion, the gaseous hydrocarbon (natural gas, propane, ethylene, propylene,
butadiene, butane and etc) reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water.
 Flare Type
In industries, the most common utilized flare systems are elevated flares and ground flares.
❖ Elevated Flare
▪ Elevated flare is the most commonly used type in refineries and chemical plants. Have larger capacities than ground
flares.
▪ The waste gas stream is fed through a stack from 32ft to over 320 ft tall and is combusted at the tip of the stack.
▪ The elevated flare, can be steam assisted, air assisted or non-assisted.

❖ Ground Flare
▪ A ground flare is where the combustion takes place at ground level.
▪ it have poor dispersion of combustion product because it stack is near to ground, this may result in severe air pollution
or hazard if the combustion products are toxic .
 FLARE STACKS
Typical flare system consists of:-
• Gas collection header and piping for collecting gases from processing units,
• A knockout drum to remove and store condensable and entrained liquids,
• A proprietary seal, water seal, to prevent flash-back
• A single or multiple burner unit and a flare stack,
• Gas pilots and an ignitor to ignite the mixture of waste gas and air and
• A provision for external momentum force (steam injection or forced air)
 RELIEF VALVES & RUPTURE DISCS

➢ Increases in process pressures beyond safe levels, potentially resulting in … OVERPRESSURE due to a RELIEF EVENT

What are Relief Events? Potential Lines of Defense

➢ External fire ❖ Inherently Safe Design

➢ Flow from high pressure source ❖ Low pressure processes
➢ Heat input from associated equipment ❖ Passive Control
➢ Pumps and compressors ❖ Overdesign of process equipment
➢ Ambient heat transfer ❖ Active Control
➢ Liquid expansion in pipes and surge ❖ Install Relief Systems

What is a Relief System?

▪ A relief device, and

▪ Associated lines and process equipment to safely handle the material ejected
 Pressure Terminology Code Requirements

▪ MAWP General Code requirements include:

▪ Design pressure • ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Codes

▪ Operating pressure • ASME B31.3 / Petroleum Refinery Piping
▪ Set pressure • ASME B16.5 / Flanges & Flanged Fittings

▪ Overpressure
Relieving pressure shall not exceed MAWP (accumulation)
▪ Accumulation by more than:
▪ Blowdown • 3% for fired and unfired steam boilers
• 10% for vessels equipped with a single pressure
relief device
• 16% for vessels equipped with multiple pressure
relief devices
• 21% for fire contingency
 Locating Reliefs – Where? Spring-Operated Valves
• Conventional Type
▪ All vessels
▪ Blocked in sections of cool liquid lines that are • Safety devices for pressure vessels
exposed to heat Heat exchangers, distillation columns, reactors,
▪ Discharge sides of positive displacement steam boilers etc.
pumps, compressors, and turbines • Emergency valves both in liquid and vapour side
▪ Vessel steam jackets • Discharge the excess gas and vapors to a safe exit
▪ Where PHA indicates the need

Choosing Relief Types

• Spring-Operated Valves

• Rupture Devices

• Conventional Type • Balanced Bellows Type

 • Conventional Type • Balanced Bellows Type
Advantages
• Advantages
+Relieving pressure not affected by back pressure
+Most reliable type if properly sized and operated
+Can handle higher built-up back pressure
+Versatile -- can be used in many services
+Protects spring from corrosion
• Disadvantages
Disadvantages
• Relieving pressure affected by back pressure
• Bellows susceptible to fatigue/rupture
• Susceptible to chatter if built-up back pressure
• May release flammables/toxics to atmosphere
is too high
• Requires separate venting system

When to Use a Spring-Operated Valve

• Losing entire contents is unacceptable
• Fluids above normal boiling point
• Toxic fluids
• Need to avoid failing low
• Return to normal operations quickly
• Withstand process pressure changes, including vacuum
 • Rupture Devices

• Rupture Disc
• Non-metallic impregnated graphite disk are used to burst at 1.34 times operating pressure
• Bursting pressure must never be greater than the maximum allowable working pressure of the vessel.
 • Rupture Pin

•The buckling pin concept is derived from Euler’s formula. Euler’s formula relates the force or
pressure needed to buckle a long, thin column to the length 2 , diameter 4 , and modulus of
elasticity of the column.

•The key to the accuracy of the buckling pin valve is the repeatability of the buckling pin.

When to Use a Rupture Disc/Pin When to Use Both Types

• Capital and maintenance savings • Need a positive seal (toxic material,

material balance requirements)
• Losing the contents is not an issue
• Benign service (nontoxic, non-hazardous) • Protect safety valve from corrosion

• Need for fast-acting device • System contains solids

• Potential for relief valve plugging
• High viscosity liquids
TYPICAL RELIEF SYSTEM INSTALLATION
 Hazard area classification.

Organizations have a (relatively) uniform approach when it comes to classifying equipment for use in hazardous areas.

❖ Through rigorous testing, a piece of equipment is assigned

❖ an area classification,
❖ division or zone,
❖ equipment group,
❖ and temperature class.
 Classes - defines the general nature of the hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere
Class Nature of Hazardous Material
Hazardous because flammable gases or vapors are present (or may be present) in quantities
Class I
sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Hazardous because combustible or conductive dusts are present (or may be present) in
Class II
quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
Hazardous because ignitable fibers or flyings are present (or may be present) in quantities
Class III
sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.

Divisions - defines the probability of hazardous material being present the surrounding atmosphere

Division Probability of Hazardous Material

The substance referred to by class has a high probability of producing an explosive or ignitable
Division 1 mixture due to it being present continuously, intermittently, or periodically or from
the equipment itself under normal operating conditions.
The substance referred to by class has a low probability of producing an explosive or ignitable
Division 2 mixture and is present only during abnormal conditions for a short period of time - such as a
container failure or system breakdown
 Zone system

• In Europe and most of the world outside North America hazardous areas are classified with the Zone system
➢ Zones - defines the general nature (or properties) of the hazardous material - if its gas or dust, and the probability of
the hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere
✓ The Zone area classification system is based on the International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 60079 Explosive
atmospheres.

▪ The level of risk of an explosion is based on the frequency and duration of the occurrence of an explosive atmosphere.
▪ This level of risk is represented by classifying the hazardous area as Zone 0, Zone 1 or Zone 2 (for gas, vapour and
mist atmospheres) or
▪ Zone 21 or Zone 22 for dust atmospheres.
 Gases, Vapors and Mists

Zone Nature and Probability of Hazard Material

Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors which are present continuously or for long
Zone 0
periods of time.
Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors which are likely to occur under normal
Zone 1
operating conditions.
Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors which are not likely to occur under normal
Zone 2
operating conditions and do so only for a short period of time.

Dusts
Zone Nature and Probability of Hazard Material
An area where combustible dusts or ignitable fibers and flyings are present continuously or for
Zone 20
long periods of time.
An area where combustible dusts or ignitable fibers and flyings are likely to occur under normal
Zone 21
operating conditions.
An area where combustible dusts or ignitable fibers and flyings are not likely to occur under
Zone 22
normal operating conditions and do so only for a short period of time.
 • Group define the type of hazardous material and (partly) the location of the surrounding atmosphere.
• Group is divided in three groups where Group I is reserved for mining locations.
• Group II is for explosive gases (Zone 0, 1 and 2)
• and Group III is for explosive dusts (Zone 20, 21 and 22).

Group Type of Hazardous Material and Location of Atmosphere

Mines
Group I
susceptible to firedamp (flammable mixture of gases naturally occurring in a mine).

Explosive gas
Group II
atmosphere other than mines susceptible to firedamp. Group II equipment is subdivided into three subgroups.

Atmospheres containing propane, acetone, benzene, butane, methane, petrol, hexane, paint solvents or gases and vapors of
A
equivalent hazard.
Atmospheres containing ethylene, propylene oxide, ethylene oxide, butadiene, cyclopropane, ethyl ether, or gases and vapors of
B
equivalent hazard.

C Atmospheres containing acetylene, hydrogen, carbon disulphide or gases and vapors of equivalent hazard.

Explosive dust
Group III
atmosphere. Group III equipment is subdivided into three subgroups.
A Atmospheres containing combustible flyings.
B Atmospheres containing non-conductive dust.
C Atmospheres containing conductive dust.
 Groups - defines the type of the hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere

MESG (Maximum Experimental Safe Gap) - The maximum clearance between two parallel metal surfaces that has been
found under specified test conditions to prevent an explosion in a test chamber from being propagated to a secondary
chamber containing the same gas or vapor at the same concentration.

MIC (Minimum Igniting Current) Ratio - The ratio of the minimum current required from an inductive spark discharge
to ignite the most easily ignitable mixture of a gas or vapor, divided by the minimum current required from an inductive
spark discharge to ignite methane under the same test conditions.

Group Type of Hazardous Material

Group A Atmosphere containing acetylene.
Atmosphere containing a flammable gas, a flammable liquid produced vapor, or a combustible
liquid produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode, having either a MESG value less
Group B than or equal to 0.45 mm or a MIC ratio less than or equal to 0.40 - such as hydrogen or fuel and
combustible process gases containing more than 30% hydrogen by volume - or gases of
equivalent hazard such as butadiene, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide and acrolein.
 Group Type of Hazardous Material
Atmosphere containing a flammable gas, a flammable liquid produced vapor or a combustible
liquid-produced vapor whose MESG is greater than 0.75 mm or MIC ratio is greater than 0.40 and
Group C less than 0.80 - such as carbon monoxide, ether, hydrogen
sulfide, morphline, cyclopropane, ethyl, isoprene, acetaldhyde and ethylene or gases of
equivalent hazard.
Atmosphere containing flammable gas, flammable liquid produced vapor, or combustible liquid
produced vapor mixed with air that may burn or explode, having either a MESG value greater than
Group D 0.75 mm or a MIC ratio greater than 0.80 - such
as gasoline, acetone, ammonia, benzene, butane, ethanol, hexane, methanol, methane, vinyl
chloride, natural gas, naphtha, propane or gases of equivalent hazard.
Atmosphere containing combustible metal dusts, including aluminum, magnesium, bronze,
chromium, titanium, zinc and their commercial alloys or other combustible dusts whose particle
Group E
size, abrasiveness and conductivity present similar hazards in connection with electrical
equipment.
Atmosphere containing carbonaceous dusts, carbon black, coal black, charcoal, coal or coke dusts
Group F that have more than 8% total entrapped volatiles or dusts that have been sensitized by other
materials, so they present an explosion hazard.
Atmosphere containing combustible dust not included in Group E & F - such
Group G
as flour, grain, starch, sugar, wood, plastics and chemicals.
• Whenever you are filling up your tank you are standing in a Zone 1 hazardous area.
• Use of mobile phones on petrol forecourts are banned.

A room with a propane gas installation will typically be classified with the

Class/Division system as: Class I, Division 2, Group D

Zone system as: Zone 2, Group IIA
 Equipment Group

The tag for equipment group relates to groups in the Zone system were

I - is for use in underground mines

II - is for all other places

Category
The tag for category relates to the Zone in the Zone system were

1 - is for equipment for use in areas where an explosive atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods or frequently
2 - is for equipment for use in areas where an explosive atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operations
3 - is for equipment for use in areas where an explosive atmosphere is unlikely to occur in normal operations

Gas/Dust
G - equipment certified for flammable gases
D - equipment certified for dust atmosphere
 Temperature Classification
Hazardous area equipment is classified according to maximum surface temperature produced under fault conditions at
ambient temperature 40 OC or as otherwise specified.
Temperature Code oC Typical Substances
T1 450 Hydrogen, Toluene, Ethyl acetate
T2 300
T3 200 Petrol, Gasoline, Diesel
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85
An industrial area is considered a hazardous area when it contains three fundamental components: A flammable
substance (which can be a gas, liquid, or solid), an oxidizer, and a source of ignition.

Protection Techniques
Protection techniques for equipment based on the Class/Division system can be summarized to
•Dust Ignition-proof
•Explosion-proof
•Intrinsically Safe
•Non-incendive
• Dust-ignition proof
A dust ignition proof component prevents dust entering from outside.
▪ Arcs, sparks and heat generated inside of the enclosure will not be able
to ignite the exterior surroundings near the component.
• Explosion proof
An explosion proof component is capable to keep an internal explosion of a specific flammable
air-vapor mixture within the component enclosure without releasing burning or hot gases to the
external environment which may be potential explosive.

• The explosion proof equipment must also operate below safe temperatures.
▪ The potentially sparking parts are encapsulated in a special house which is
designed to prevent explosions by
▪ preventing the entry of hazardous material in potentially hazardous
concentrations encapsulate potential hazardous materials in an encapsulation
chamber capable to contain any explosion or fire,
▪ preventing to spread outside the chamber causing secondary explosions
• Primary explosion protection

Primary explosion protection aims at substituting something else for the flammable substances or the atmospheric
oxygen or reducing their quantities to the point where there is no danger of an explosive mixture forming.

▪ Increased air circulation, air flushing through ventilation can be achieved by structural measures

• Secondary explosion protection

❖ If, despite primary explosion protection measures,

❖ the ignition of this hazardous, potentially explosive atmosphere must be
effectively prevented.
❖ All possible sources of ignition are evaluated,
❖ and the appropriate protective measures applied.
• Tertiary explosion protection

➢ If the primary and secondary explosion protection measures are not enough, additional protective measures must
be taken.
➢ The purpose of these is to limit the impact of an explosion and/or to reduce it to a non-hazardous level.

❖ Explosion-resistant design: containers, apparatus, pipelines are built to be pressure shock resistant in order to withstand
an explosion inside.

❖ Explosion relief: bursting discs or explosion flaps are deployed which open in a safe direction if an explosion occurs and
make sure that the plant is not subjected to strain over and above its explosion resistance.

❖ Explosion suppression and preventing propagation of the explosion: Explosion suppression systems prevent attainment
of the maximum explosion pressure by rapidly injecting extinguishing agents into containers and plant.
❖ Explosion decoupling restricts possible explosions to individual parts of the plant
• Intrinsically Safe
Intrinsically safe equipment is defined as "equipment and wiring which is incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or
thermal energy under normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its
most easily ignited concentration.“

✓ This is achieved by limiting the amount of power available to the electrical equipment in the hazardous area to a level
below that which will ignite the gases.

❖ Safety barriers are grounded to be effective under fault conditions and intrinsic safety is provided through voltage and
current limiters.
❖ Zener diodes and resistors limiting the energy are usually mounted away from the hazardous areas.
❖ Failure to replace enclosure covers or bolts will not imperil protection.
 ▪ Intrinsic Safety (IS) is an approach to the design of equipment going into hazardous areas.
▪ The idea is to reduce the available energy to a level where it is too low to cause ignition.
▪ That means preventing sparks and keeping temperatures low.

• The basic design of an intrinsic safety barrier uses Zener Diodes to limit voltage, resistors to limit current and a fuse.

• Oxygen is excluded (by purging with inert gas) or to isolate possible sources of ignition.

Intrinsic Safety barriers offer several benefits.

❖ It helps ensure a safe work environment and protects those nearby from explosion risks.
❖ It avoids the cost and bulk of explosion proof enclosures. Additional cost savings accrue from the ability to use
standard instrumentation cables.
❖ Maintenance and diagnostic work can be performed without shutting down production and ventilating the work area.
❖ Insurance premiums may be lower as a result of the reduction in risk.
 Non Incendive
Non incendive components are non-sparking and incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy to cause
ignition of a hazardous substances under normal operating conditions.

Protection Techniques
High level protection concepts with the Zone system are indicated below. The protection concepts are subdivided in
several sub classes.

➢ Encapsulated
• Protection applied by encasing the components in a resin type material.

▪ The protection is referred to as "Ex m".

▪ Subdivisions ma for Zone 0 and mb for Zone 1.

➢ Flameproof
• The enclosure can withstand the pressure developed during an internal explosion of an explosive mixture.
• The explosion is not transmitted to the explosive surrounding atmosphere and the enclosure operates with a
temperature to low for the surrounding explosive gas or vapor to ignite.

▪ Protection is referred to as "Ex d".

➢ Intrinsically Safe
• Electrical equipment is under normal or abnormal conditions incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal
energy to cause an ignition of the hazardous surrounding atmospheric mixture.
▪ Protection is referred to as "Ex i".
Subdivisions ia for Zone 0, ib for Zone 1 and ic for Zone 2.
➢ Increased Safety
• High quality and very robust components.
• Various measures are applied to reduce the probability of excessive temperatures and the occurrence of arcs or sparks
in the interior and on the external parts of the equipment.
• Increased safety may be used with flame-proof type of protection.
▪ Protection is referred to as "Ex e".
Protection applied by submerging the components in oil. "Ex o"
Pressurized/purged "Ex p"
Sand/Powder/Quartz Filled "Ex q"
Non Incendive "Ex n"
Special Protection "Ex s"
 Safety in transportation of hazardous chemicals by road

District Collector should monitor the following points of Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR) 1989 to reduce the road
disasters carrying chemicals

HAZCHEM CODE

❖ The classification of chemical hazards as recommended by the UN Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous
Goods has been widely adopted for transport of hazardous chemicals for all modes of transport.
❖ Hazard types are segregated into nine basic classes represented numerically.

➢ The hazchem code (also called Emergency Action Code) gives vital information to fire brigade and other emergency
services on the action to be taken to combat spillage, leakage or fire in an emergency involving a hazardous substance.
 • The hazchem code consists of a number from 1 to 4 and any one of the letters, P, R, S , T, W, X, Y, Z followed at
times by the letter E

• The numbers signify the extinguishing medium to be

employed

• letter V is shown next to the second code character,

there is a risk of violent reaction
The letters signify 4 aspects viz.
i) Method of controlling spillage
a) by diluting or
b) by containing
ii) Personal protective equipment to be worn by fire fighters
iii) Reactive nature of Chemical, and
iv) Need for evacuation.
 TREM CARD
TREM card or a Transport Emergency Card as it is also known as is a document that is used when transporting
dangerous goods.