Chapter 4

Biological
molecules

IN THIS CHAPTER YOU WILL:

find out about the components of
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids
use food tests to detect the presence of different biological molecules
learn about the structure of
DNA
GETTING STARTED

and moiecwies
atoms
c o m p o u n d s

e s TueTtigns
ab
21svier

Can yoU comtened toga

ators
is r a d e up of pairs
f ryger
Oxyger gas

hat t e oriula tor orygen gas? combined

tgere
atorns
or more
What o
a articie made up of two
en or a comps
sy syrmbois C, H and

Ghucose s
e eements
that have the
2 atoms of
anc 6
Wha stan 12 atons of nydrogen
cnta ns é atoms cf carbon,

b One Ose uccse?

Oyge
is guc

HOW DID LIFE STA meteorites contain amino acids,

which a r e what
Ear delivered t o
ysteries of life on
a r e made of.
Did amino acids,
One of the greatest iorme
proteins
contribute t o the origin
how it began. Today,
all ving things are
Earth from space, perhaps
But how did it ai egin?
from other irving things. of life?
substances o n Earth first
How did non-living
forrn life? Many scientists researching these questions
are

f we can understand how life first a r o s e o n Earth,

made up of special types of another important
Living celis are
this can heip us to answer
molecules that are not often tound in non-líving is there life anywhere else in the
Scientists think that these molecules may question -

things. when the universe?

have formed from simpler substances
Earth was still very young, perhaps 4 billion years Discussion questions
chemnicals that w e know
ago. The mixture ot 11 Most scientists think that all life on Earth today
existed in the seas and atmosphere at that time,
from other life. Suggest why scientists
and the energy provided by volcanic eruptions and comes
think it is unlikely that life could arise from
ightning strikes, could possibly explain how these
molecules of ife were first produced. non-living things today.
Another possibility is that at least some of these 2 Recent discoveries on Mars suggest that there
molecules arrived on Earth from outer space. used to be liquid water there. It is possible
Meteorites are rocks that arrive on Earth from that simnple life once existed o n Mars. In your
space. They come from the asteroid belt, far opinion, what precautions should we take if w
away towards the edge of the solar system. Some send humans to Mars o n e day?
 COURSEBOOn
piOLOGY:
CAMBRIDGE IGCSETm

Glucose is the way that rbohydratesaare

4.1 Carbohydrates, fats
aound the human.

plasma, which
body. Glucose dissolyves
delivers it to cvery cel in sported
Cells needbloodghucone
for energy

link together in cha

and proteins Glucose
molecule

much larger molecul

can

In animals, the large o lorm

whal is a human made of? The
most abundan
that are formed
are glycogen. The liver helps to
Compound in our bodies is
water, which makes up concentration of glucos in the blood cons ke
About 16o
around 62% of our total body mass about this in Chapter 13. If there is to o
% s can read
S protein, another 16% is fat,
and arvund the blood, the liver links glucose m
caleium and glucosein
Carbohydrate The remaining 6% is together to make glycogen. Glycogen is stored n
other elements
and some be broken down to form gluco e liver
phosphorus (mosty in bones) and chloride
ions.
ells. It can

Such as potassium, sodium.

phosphate
of our mass. the body needs it. wben
DNA makes up less than 1%
the three
main
In plants, glucose
molecule n together
will find out about
diflerent way, to make
in a
n this chapter,
you
fats and proteins slightly
br
igure 4.2). Starckh
in plant cells. It can be
compounds-carbohydrates,

organic
things. If you is stored 2down to
that make up the bodies
of all living
know when the plant needs form
also need to glucose again
are studying the Supplement, you
about DNA.
KEY WORDS

carbohydrates: substances that ude sugars

Carbohydrates starch and cellulose; they contain carbon.
Carbohydrates include starch, cellulose and sugar. hydrogen and oxygen
elements
made from three
Carbohydrate molecules are
One molecule of sugars: carbohydrates that have relatively small
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
twice as many hydrogen
carbohydrate contains about molecules; they are soluble in water and they
atoms.
atoms as carbon or oxygen
taste sweet
smallest
The simplest types of carbohydrate, with the
glucose: a sugar that is used in respiration to
molecules, are sugars. Sugars taste sweet. They are
soluble in water. release energy

One type of sugar is glucose. A glucose molecule is made glycogen: a carbohydrate that is used as an
of six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six energy store in animal cells
Oxygen atoms Its formula is CH,O, These atoms are
urranged to form a hexagon shape (Figure 4. ) starch: a carbohydrate that is used as an enerqy
store in plant cells

Plants also make another

Figure 4.1:Glucose molecules
a hexagon shape
carbohydrate, called cellulose
Cellulose molecules are also made of
many glucose
molecules linked in a chain, but
they form straight lines
instead of coiling into a
spiral. Cellulose is used for
making plant cell walls.
are
quite small and have
 4 Biological molecutes

The tube
Positive results
of the Benedict's test.
Figurs .4: a m o u n t of reducing
sugar th-
molecule. it is contains a
small
starch let tube
4.2: This is a small part of a on the to green. The
Figure in a has changed
molecules linked together
solution
Benedict's
glucose blue ot reducing sugar.
made trom many amount
spiral shape. contains a large
chain, which coils
into a the right
long
iodine
detect the presence
of starch using
You can
blue-black if starch KEY WORDS
changes from brown to
solution. This

is present (Figure 4.3). solution of iodine in potassiu

iodine solution: a blue-blac-
orange-brown,
and turns
iodide; it is
starch
when mixed with

Benedict's solution: a
blue liquid that turns
heated with reducing sugar
orange-red when
such as glucose, whi-
reducing sugars: sugars
heas
turn Benedict's
solution orange-red when

together
ODINE

Questions
1 Give two similarities and one difference bet=
molecule of starch and a molecule of cellule
shows that starch is present in
Figure 4.3: The black colour 2 Name one carbohydrate that is found in bo
the potato.
and animals.
solution.
Most sugars be detected using Benedict's
can

Benedict's solution is blue, and it changes to orange-

red when it is heated with reducing sugars such
as

the blue
glucose. The colour change is gradual, so
solution becomes green and yellow beforefinally turning
orange-red (Figure 4.4).
 EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 4.1
Method: Testing for reducing sugarg
Testing for carbohydrates
1 Read through the instructions and
You are going to test
several different foods to
out it they contain starch or sugar
find
a resuits chart ostru
coe

2 Take some of your tirst food and cut

ut
You will need:
snall pieces. Put the pieces into a
and add a little water. Shake the
boiinintt vee
the tube to tube try
a selection of foods to test, kept dissolve any sugar in the food
another
te,
seperate from one

3 Add some Benedicts solution enoucth

a knife to cut the foods into small pieces cover the food. Shake to mix. to
a white tile
with a
f you are using an electric
heaker and fill it with water from the
vater-bath, take
a small bottle of iodine solution,
dropper wateih Mand the beaker in the
t 7-ube in the beaker watert
a water-bath set at about 80 °C (you can
de your own water-bath, sim.
use an electric one or you can make your

own water-bath by heating water in a

t k ein the beaker of hot ater sirnpiy
beaker over a burner - see Figure 4.5)

Vwatch as ne tmixture of food and Benedicy

a thermometer to check the temperature
solutiorn heats uo. It it stays blue, there is nDo
of the water-bath
the tood. If it
several large test-tubes (boiling tubes),
reducing Jar in

there is sugar in the food.

changes tored
and a beaker to stand them in
6 Repeat with several other samples of
some Benedict's solution, with a dropper. different foods.

Method: Testing for starch

Read through the instructions, and decide
which foods you are going to test for starch.

Construct a results chart ready to fill in as you

work. You will need a column for the food,
another column for your observations, and a
third column for your conclusion.

When you record your results, make sure

that you state the colour that you see.
Do not write "'no change"
Figure 4.5: Heating a mixture of Benedict's solution and
Take a small piece of the first food and place it food in a water-bath, to test for reducing sugar.
on the white tile. Add a drop or two of iodine
solution. If the iodine solution stays brown, Questions
there is no starch in the food. If you see a dark
blue or black colour, then starch is present. 1 Make a list of the foods that contained starch,
and the foods that contained reducing suga
Repeat with several other samples of 2 Do these foods come from plants,
different foods
or from animals?
 Comparing reducing sugar content
Work in a
group of two or three for this
When you tested foods activity
for glycerol molecule
probably noticed that the redreducing sugar, you
colour took a few
fatty acid molecule
minutes to appear.
The less time it takes
for the red colour
themore to
appear,
reducing sugar there is in the food.
Discuss how you could use
the quantity of this fact to
reducing sugar in three compare fat molecule
foods. Write a list of instituctions that ditferent
could follow someone Figure 4.6: A fat molecule is made
that would
make this comparison. maKe it easy for
themio and three fatty acid molecules
from a
glycerol molecule
combined together.
Peer assessmet Fats are
important for making cell membranes. They are
aiso used as
energy stores. Mammals often have a
When your group has complet the of cells layer
containing fat droplets beneath the skin. This
exchange the instructicns with athernei.ciois. fat-containing tissue is both an energy store and a heat
g32
How well have they insulating layer.
written ther
Would they be easy to follcw? ist ul they vE
Fats and oils do not dissolve in
water. However, they
a correct indication
of wh.ch focc coutemed the do dissolve in ethanol. We can use this to
detect their
most reducing sugar? presence in food. First, the food is shaken with
to allow any fats in it to
ethanol.
Give feedback to the dissolve in the ethanol. Next. the
group about what they ethanol is poured into a clean tube
have done well, and also one or two there are fats in the ethanol, containing water. If
could be improved things that they form tiny droplets in
the water, which give it a
milky appearance (Figure 4.7).
When you get your own feedback, think The mixture of tiny droplets in water is
about called an
it carefuly. If you were asked to emulsion, so this test is called the ethanol emulsion test.
plan similar
a
experiment in tuture, what would you do
differently? KEY WORDS

fats: lipids that are solid at room temperature

oils: lipids that are liquid at room temperature
Fats and oils lipids: substances containing carbon, hydrogen
Fats and oils are also known as lipids. A fat is a lipid that and oxygen; they are insoluble in water and are
is solid at room temperature, and an oil is a lipid that is used as energy stores in organisms
liquid at room temperature.
emulsion: a liquid containing two substances that
Fats and oils contain the three elements carbon, do not fully mix; one of them forms tiny droplets
hydrogen and oxygen. You may remember that dispersed throughout the other
carbohydrates also contain these elements. However, in
fats, each molecule contains much less oxygen than is
found in a carbohydrate molecule.
Fat molecules are made of two kinds of smaller molecule
- glycerol and fatty acids. Figure 4.6 shows how these are
joined together to make a fat molecule.
 ExPERIIVENIAL SKIL
4.2
Testing for fats and oils

You are going to test a

selection
foods to find out if
they contain o differe
fats or
You will need oils
a selection ot foOds to
separate fror one test,
another kept
a knife to cut the
toods into
several very clea test-tubes small pie
a small bottle ethanol, with a
some distilledrtes droppe
Figure 4.7: This milky Method
appearance is what you see when you
get a positive result using the ethanol emulsion test for fats Read through the
and oils.
1
a results chart.
ctions and constr
2 Take some ot your s t tood and
small pieces. P
cs
cut it i
very he
pieces into a
Questions clean test-tube ancd add alittle
ethanol Nery
3 Animals that live in very cold places often have
Shake the tube to try to dissolve any fa
oils in the food. tats or
especially thick layers of fat underneath the skin
(Figure 4.8). Suggest why. 3 Take another clean test-tube and put son
e
distilled water into it. Very
Fat stores contain more energy per gram than carefully, pour the
carbohydrate stores. Suggest why birds that are ethanol from the tirst tube into the distille
about to go on long migrations build up stores of
water. Do not let any ofthe food go ini
If you see a milky white colour appearino
fat before they fly
this shows that there was tat in the food

Figure 4.8: Bearded seals

have a really thick layer of
fat underneath their skin.
 4 Biological molecüles

Proteins
carbon.
Protein nmolecules contain four elements
Some proteins, but not
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
of the element sulfur.
al. also contain a smali quantity
molecule is made of a long chaîn of smaller
A protein There
molecules, called acids(Figure 4.9).
amino
are

20 different kinds of amino acid. Each kind of protein

has different amino acids linked together
in a precise
order. If even one amino acid is changed or moves into
in the protein molecule. then we get
a
a different place
there is an almost infinite number
diflerent protein. So,
be made.
of different kinds of protein that can

in organisms.
Proteins have many diflerent functions results ot the
enzymes in the 4.10: These arenegative and positive
All enzymes are proteins. (You
will study Figure
The tube on the left
has no protein, but the o n e
which help to protect the body biuret test.
next chapter.) \ i h e s d , So is haemoglobin, the the right does contain protein.
against pathogen-, are proteins.
on

in mammalian blood
red pigment that transports oxygen
cell membranes
Proteins are also important for forming
in all organisms. In humans.
hair and fingernails are ORDS
made from a protein called a substance whose molecules are made
each
of many amino acids linked together;
different has a different sequence ot
protein
amino acids

molecules
amino acids: substances with and
containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
amino acids found
nitrogen;there are 20 ditferent
in organisms
antibodies: molecules secreted by white blood
cells, which bind to pathogens and help to
destroy them
that cause disease,
pathogens: microorganisms
such as bacteria

keratin: the protein that forms hair

biuret reagent: a blue solution that turns purple

when mixed with amino acids or proteins
amino acid
molecule

Figure 4.9: A small part of a protein

molecule. Proteins are
Questions
molecules.
made of long chains of amino acid Which element is found in all proteins, but not in
5
carbohydrates and fats?
This is blue,
To test for proteins, we use biuret reagent.
proteins are soluble in water, but some
are
Some
and it changes to violet when in contact with proteins
not. Do you think that the protein keratin is solub
(Figure4.10). in water? Explain your answer.
 EXFERIveNA NILLS 4.4
XPERIMENTAL SKILLS 43
Testing for vitamin C
esting for proteins
Vitamin C is not a carbohydrate, fat
fat oor protein
test a selection of different
ou gong to We can test for it using a purple
are

ods to find out if they contain proteins. pCPIP DCPIP loses its colour solution
hen vitamincalled
Cis
mixed with it
u may find ithelptul to start by testing
such
omething that you know contains protein,
cooked egg white. Keep a tube showing
a
You wili need
to water,
egative result (biuret reagent added $ome pu PP solution, kept
hich will be blue) with the tube showinga COverecd with oxygen tromm
ositive result (violet) in a test-tube rack, youa
so
have theail, y oses its colour)
en refer to these to decide whether you
gative or positive result in each of your
two or f Dipettes
od tests
severai te

You will need: Some io vitamin C- for

a selection of foods to test, kept example 2
and other fruit
separate trom one another juices, mik, o Es, cooked rice
a knife to cut the foods into small pieces a pestle and mortar to crush any
non-liquid foods (such as the potato
several clean test-tubes
or rice)
a small bottle of biuret solution with
a dropper Method
1 Choose the foods you are going to test,
ethod and then construct a results chat.
Read through the instructions and construct
2 Put about 1 cm depth of DCPIP into a test
a results chart.
tube. Use a dropper pipette to add lemon
Take some of your first food and cut it into juice to the DCPIP. Lemon juice contains a lo
very small pieces. Put the pieces into a clean of vitamin C, so this should make the DCPIP
test-tube and add some biuret solution. lose its colour.
Shake to mix.
3 Now test at least four other kinds of food.
Look for a change from blue to violet. If the food is solid, you will need to mash it
up first, and then mix it with distilled water,
before adding it to DCPIP.
Y WORD

PIP: a purple liquid that becomes colourless

en mixed with vitamin C
REFLECTION
With a partner, discuss good ways of
remembering the ditterent reagents used
for the four tests you have met in this
topic.
Which methods do you think are likely to work
best for you?
 4 Biological molecules

4.2 The structure of DNA

bases
DNA stands tor
deoxyribonucleic acid. You do TDA
not need to remember this
long namne.
two strarngs,
D is the maierial that
makes up our
A each made up
chromosomes. The nucleus of genes and
every cell in the body fa chain of
(apart
Irom red biood cells. which do not nucleotides
contains DNA. We inhert our DNA have a nucle1s)
from ou
Our parents
ONA is an amazing motecuie. It carries a
'code. which
ctructs the cell which anino acids to
nst link together in
which sequence. to 1:ae proteins. The sequence cf bases
inthe DNA molecue 2nes the
amino acids that ar sequence ot the
builda protein. You
find out more about
Chapter 16.
ill DEA the two strands wind
ound each cther to
Because proteins he
organisms, DNA de
2ny different functions.n form a double heli
:aimost everything abo
an organism's bod and how its metaboie
4.11: Pan ofa DNA molecule
reactions take place

DNA iS made of sm olecules called nucleot

Each nucleotide con e. There are four bases,
A.C.Gand T.
A DNA moiecule c o : 2 s two chains of nucleotides.
coiled around one another tFigure 4.11). This shape
is called a double helix I he two chains or strands are
held together by bonds that form between the bases of
opposite strands. A always forms bonds with T. and C
with G. This is called compiementary base pairing.
ORDS
ucieotides: molecules that are linked together
into long chains, to make up a DNA molecule
base: one of the components of DNA; there are
four bases, A, C, G and T, and their sequence
determines the proteins that are made in a cell
complementary base pairing: the way in which
the bases of the two strands of DNA pair up
A always pairs with T, and C with G

SUMMARY

Carbohydrates are made of the elements C, H and O. Sugars, such as glucose. have relatively smail molecules.
Starch. glycogen and cellulose are made of many glucose molecules linked in a long chain.
Starch can be detected using the iodine test. Benedict's solution is used to test for reducing sugars.

Fats and oils are also made of the elements C, H and O. Another name for fats and oils is lipids. A lipid
molecuie is made of three fatty acid molecules combined with one glycerol molecule.

The ethanol emulsion test is used to detect the presence of fats and oils.
Proteins contain the elements C, H, O and N. A protein moleculeismade of many amino acid molecules
their specific sequence in the molecule
combined in a long chain. There are 20 different amino acids, and
determines the sneciic nrotein that is formed.
CONTINUED

T rEeapenm is 15Pd to teRt for preins

helix.
inC double
The IP tekt is Used to tet for vifam form a
to pairs
with C with G
coiled
mucleotides
A
DNA I made of twos nds of
pairs
bases,
of
betweet
bonds
The two stra are held ether by

PROJECT
Modelling biological molecules molecules.

biological
You are oing to make models of some
the cla
Work in a group ofthree or four. Try to organise
at difterent groups work on different molecuies
Make your models using paper and card.

Different groups could make models of:

Starch and cellulose molecules both made of glucose

-

coiled while
molecules linked in chains, but starch is
celulose is straight
acids
protein molecules -

made of 20 different amino

in different sequences
fats and oils - made of glycerol and fatty acids

DNA made of two strands ofnucleotides linked by bases

Figure 4.12: Modelling biological molecules.

 EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS

is used to test for proteins?

1 Which liquid
A Benedict's solution

B biuret reagent
[11
C DCPIP

D iodine solution

amino acids together

substance is made by linking
2 Which
A celluloe
B fat
C protein
D vitamin
3 Which elenneni

A carbon an

B carbon, hya
C carbon, hi 1
D carbon, OxyE c
food.
fonr saaples of
esals of iests on
4 The tabie shows te
Which food contains only
iat

DCPIP test
test Ethanol emulsiontest
lodine test Benedict's purple
milky white
A brown blue
colourless
colourless
blue-black red
colourless purple
brown blue
milky white colourlesS[1
Dblue-black red
11
Which diagram shows part of a DNA molecule?
5

CGTA ACTG
T
CGTA ACT G
ATGCCAG T GTCTTAGC
B
A

cGCAT
GTAÀ TG cGTAÀTCA
TG
T GAC TAC G G
C D
it Ne. starnh. glvejgen an! cellujose afe catiydrates
not
t theNe sibstanee are fond in pBants only. and
t e elements that the molccules ol all these substances con 11
P Tbe the structure of a starch molecule. 12
e e I8 A reiduc1ng supar Describe bow vou could test a lQ

tind oui if it contams 13

glucose. 1Total: 7
77 a Biuret reagent is used to test for
protcins.
incorrect. Write Correto
S statcnenis about the biuret test are
Versions of each statement.
biuret solution tothe food and
O u t the biuret test, add
heat gently
aood contains protein, biuret reagent turns from
purple to blue
b Ethanol is used to test for fats and oils.
Describe how you would carry out the ethanoltesSt. 13]
I11
D e s c r i b e what you would see if the test gives positive result.
a

Total: 6]
8 juice be tested to find out if it contains vitamin Cby adding the juice
can

to DCPIP. The less juice that has to be added to the DCPIP to make
it lose its
colour, the more vitamin Cis contained in the juice.
of fresh lemon juice
Describe how you could compare the vitamin C content
and preserved lemon juice. T6
9 A sample of DNA was tested to find out which bases were present,

It was found that 30% of the bases were T.

a What percentage of the bases would you expect to be A? Explain your
answer (21
b What percentage of the bases in the DNA would you expect to be C?
Explain your answer 121
c Outline the function of DNA in a cell. 13]
Total: 71
SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST
After studyng this chapter, tnk about how oonadent you are with the different topics. This will help you to see
any gaps m your knowledge and help vou to tearn more cflectively

I can See Needs Almost Confident

Opic more work there to move on

list the chemica element 1t make wp

4.
carbohydrates. fats and protei
statethat siarch. celluos1gcgenre mad:
from glucose 4.
state that fats and oils ar d e f fatt 415
4.
and glycerol

state that proteins are made from anino acids

describe how to use the Benedict's test ior

4.1
reducing sugars
describe how to use the iodine test for starch 4.1

describe how to use the biuret test for proteins 4.1

deseribe how to use the ethanol emulsion iest for
4.1
fats and oils
describe how to use the DCPIP test for vitamin C 4.1

describe the structure of a DNA molecule,

including reference to base pairing between A and 4.2
T, C and G