Chapter

M n tintO
ane cells

IN TLIS
 COURSEBoOK
CAMBRIDGE
IGCSEM BIOLOGY:

GETTING STARTED

to explain how matter behaves.

particle theory helps
us
The
them describe solids, descriho
Here are six about particles. Some of
statements
some
scribe liquids ar
which?
describe gases. Which are some
other.
far and rarely collide with each
apart
The particles are

The particles vibrate on the spot.

another but can move around.

The particles are close to one

in all directions.
The particles move freely
in contact and slide past one another as they move
The particles stay
another.
The particles are in fixed positions, close to one

THE BLOOD
USING DIFFUSION TO CLEAN

We each have two whose function is to

kidneys
remove unwanted substances from the blood
a solution of the
unwanted
The kidneys produce
substances, which is removed
from the body
as urine.

sometimes kidneys stop working.

When
However,
this happens, the unwanted substances build
Some of them can be quite
up in the blood.
find another way
dangerous so it is important to
to remove them.

The boy in Figure 3.1 is attached to a dialysis

machine. The blood trom a vein in his arm tlows
into the machine. Inside the machine, a liquid
Figure 3.1: A patient undergoing dialysis.
called dialysis fluid flows past his blood. There is
blood and the
very thin membrane between his
dialysis fluid. The unwanted substances in his blood Discussion questions
diffuse through the membrane into the dialysis
1 lf the boy could have a kidney transplant,
uid, which then tlows away. His cleaned blood he would not have to spend time attached
ows back into his body. It takes several hours
to a dialysis machine. Why do you think not
or all the unwanted substances to be removed everyone who needs a kidney transplant can
om his blood, and he has to do this several timnes
have one?
week.
2 The dialysis fluid flows constantly through
the machine. Can you suggest why this woris
better than just having stationary fluid in
the machine?
 3 Movement into and out of cells

The hydrogen sulfide molecules have spread

out through
3.1 Diffusion the air. This spreading out is called
diffusion. Diffusion

move randomly. They

do
Everything - including living cells i s made of atoms happens because the molecules
not purposefully move from place to another. Each
one
molecules and ions. These articlesare always moving. direction when
molecule just moves by chance, changing
The higher the temperature, the faster they move. This is molecules might
it bumps into another molecule. Some
because the particies have more intie che g at higher But, overall, the
even go back into the rotten egg again.
temperatures. The more kinetic energy they have, the
molecules spread fairly evenly across the
room.
faster they move.
of the molecules. Some go
In a solid substance. the particles cannot move very lar We call this the net movement

because they are held together by attractive forces between
them. They simply vibrate around a fixcd position. ln a
liquid they can move more freely but stay in contact with
one another. They bump into one another and rebound. I
a gas they are freer still, with ne attractive forces betwet
the molecules or atoms. When molecules and iens are in a
solution, they can move as freely as when they are lia id
Diffusion down a CCr
gradient
When they can move freely, particles tend to spread
themselves out as evenly as they can. This happens with
gases, solutions, and mixtures of liquids.
Imagine, for example, a rotten egg full of hydrogen
sulfide gas in one corner of a room. Hydrogen sulfide
gas is very smelly. To begin with, there is a high
concentration of the gas near the egg but none in the rest
of theroom (Figure 3.2). The
hydrogen sulfide molecules
quickly spread through the air in the whole room. Soon,
you cannot tell where the smell first came from - the
whole room smells of rotten egg!
from the cgg into the room, and a few from the
room
from the
back into the egg - but overall, most of them go
Cgg into the room.
A place where a lot of the molecules are quite close
together has a high concentration of molecules. In this
example, the rotten egg had the highest concentration
of nydrogen sulfide molecules. The rest of the room
had a low concentration of hydrogen sulfide molecules.
Overal, the random movements of the molecules caused
hern io spread out evenly throughout all of the space
ihey couid get to.
One way of thinking about this is to imagine a slope.
The place with the high concentration (the rotten
egg) is at the top of the slope. The place with the low
concentration (the rest of the room) is at the bottom of
the slope. The molecules move 'down the slope from
where there is a high concentration to where there is a
low concentration. Another word for
'slope' is gradient'.
We can therefore say that there is a concentration gradient
from the rotten egg to the rest of the room. The overall
result of diffusion is that the hydrogen sulfide molecules
move 'down' this concentration gradient.

There is a high
KEYWORDS
concentration of particles: (in this context) the smallest
pieces
hydrogen sulfide of which a substance is made; particles can be
molecules in molecules, atoms or ions
one corner.
kinetic energy: energy of
moving objects
diffusion: the net movement of
b
Given time, the particles from
a region of their
higher concentration to a
molecules spread region of their lower concentration i.e. down
evenly through a concentration gradient),
the space as a result of their
random movement
available.
net movement: overall
or
average movement
concentration gradient: an
Figure high concentration to imaginary 'slope'
3.2: The random movements from
of gas molecules result a
a low
in them
spreading evenly through all the space available. concentration
 C U

BIOLOGY

IGCSET"

CAMBRIDOGE CONTINUED

Continue
doing
this tor a
few minut
tes.hen ta
around you.
and look

Questions

low concentration to the particlee'"g

happened
What has in one corne
ofparticles 1 concentrated

Are they st
tris happened
why
Concentration
2 Try to explain
gradient

use
the analogy
can
how we
shows We c a n
diagram gradient. REFLECTION
3.3: This
concentration

gure think
about a from a high gfte 1 models of
slape
to down the slope, used two
a particdes
moving You have
now
was pcture of
nagine concentration

diffusion. The first

one
oncentration
to a
low
3.3, ard
the1 0ond model
a slope in Figure to rep particles.
used movingpeople
ACTIVITY 3.1 Ou t
these modeis
Do either of thinkthat is?
understand diffusion? Why
Modelling diffusion

ditfusion using
will model
In this activity, you
particles.
represent
people to anisms
Diffusion in living
You will need:
of the
substances they need
get many
Living organisms
move
to their waste
space rid of many of
a fairly big, emptyplayground or They also get
around in-e.g. a by diffusion. For example, plants
need carbon
this way.
a large hall. products in This diífuses from the air into
dioxide for photosynthesis. this because there
stomata. It does
the
whole class for this activity.
the leaves, through carbon dioxide inside the
Work as a concentration of
in is a lower Outside the leaf in the air,
class represents a particle are using it up.
Each person in the leaf, as the cells concentration. Carbon dioxide molecules
gas. there is a higher of their random
of the room therefore diffuse into
the leaf, as a result
corner
in one concentration gradient.
Start with most people remember down this
movement,
Don't crowd too closely
-

or space.
one another.
not touch product of photosynthesis,
Oxygen, which is a
waste
that gas particles do
like. There is a higher
Face any way that you diffuses out in the same way.
concentration of oxygen
inside the leaf, because it is
move in a straight
Each person now starts to diffuses out through
there. Oxygen therefore
line in the direction they
are tacing. (Real gas being made
but it's best if the stomata into the air.
particles move very quickly,
there might be for
you don't
move too tast, or
Diffusion is also important in gas exchange
uncomfortable collisions.)
respiration in animals and plants (Figure
3.4). Cell
to and carbon
line until you hit membranes freely permeable oxygen
are
Keep going in your straight and out of ceils
something. This might be another particle,
or it dioxide, so these gases casily diffuse into
When you
might be the wall of your 'container.
collide, change direction and keep going in your
new straight line.

high concentiation
of oxygen
Oxygen difuses down
a concentration gradient
ow concentration
of oxygen
Figure 3.4: Some substances, such as eaygen and rarbon
dioxide, move into and out of cell: by aifiusicr throgh the
cell membrane.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are beth gases t ti
organisms also rely on diffusion of so.uies A so:u
isa substance that has dissolved in a hauid. hich is
called a solvent. In organisms, the soivent is alvays
EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 3.1
Investigating how surface area affects diffusion
In this investigation, you will use pieces of agar
jelly to represent cells. You will follow instructions
to investigate how the surface area of the 'cells
affects the diffusion of a substance through them.
You will need:
a dish containing agar jelly, made with a
little bit of a weak alkali such as ammonium
hydroxide, and coloured with a dye called
cresol red
a sharp knife to cut the jelly into pieces
some plastic or blunt-ended forceps
(tweezers)
a ruler to measure in mm
two large test-tubes or other large glass
tubes, more than 1cm in diameter
a stopwatch
some dilute hydrochloric acid.
3 Movement into and out of cells
water. For example, the cytoplasm of all cells contains
ions.
many solutes, such as glucose molecules or sodium
These particles are free to move through the cytoplasm,
so they diffuse, spreading to all parts of the cytoplasm.
Questions
Look at the definition of diffusion in the
Key words box.
Explain what cach of these words in the definition
means
nct movement
concentration gradicnt
random movement
When suhtances diffuse intoand out of cells,
hach par of the cell must they move through?
ibe iseeexamples of diffusion in organisms.
ch e ample, state whether the substance that
ng S a gas or a solute.
does the energy for diffusion come from?
Safety: Take care with the acid. Wear safety glasses
in case of splashes. If you spill it, clean up the spills
immediately, using plenty of cold water.
Take care with the sharp blade. Cut with the blade
facing away from you. Place the jelly on a firm
surface before you start to cut it.
Method
1 Cut two cubes of agar jelly, with sides of 1 cm.
2 Cut one of the cubes into four smaller cubes,
each with sides of 0.5 cm.
3 Put the large cube into a test-tube. Put the four
small cubes into the other test-tube.
4 Add equal volumes of dilute hydrochloric acid
to each tube, making sure that all of the cubes
are covered with acid.
5 Start the stopwatch. Time how many seconds
it takes for the cubes in each test-tube to
become fully yellow.
 Copy and
the correctcomplete
words these sent

P
E y cubes contamed a weak alkali and
Fed, whiich is an indicatcr Explain why The time taken for
ences, chou
the cutes changed colou the four
small cu
completely change colour was gr cubes t
HOW did the volume of the four small cubes smalierthan the one single
cWnare with the volume of the one larger This is
cube ater/
because the surface
cube a s it greater, smaller, or the same?
greaterarea/
the smal bes was volur of
Iler ume
/
How did the totai surface area of the tour small the single cube.
smaller than for
ubes compare with the surface area of the 5 Write a conclusion for your experime
one larger cube? Was it greater, smaller, Include the words
or the same?
in your conclusion.
diffus. n nent
and surface

area

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 3.2

investigating how temperature, concentration 3 Think about how
gradient or distance affect diffusion you can cha
independent variable. Decid your
in the iast experiment, you used cubes of alkaline different values you will have
w
mas
any
agar jelly and an indicator, so that you could
4 The variable that you
measure the time taken for an acid to
diffuse measure
your results, is the depend youcollect
through the cubes. Now you are going to plan how
you can use this technique to
investigate other
is the
dependent variable in able. What
factors. You may be able to do the
you plan. experiment
that 5 Describe how you will
measure your
ycurexperiment?
variable. depends
ndent
As well as surface area, diffusion is also 6 It is
important that
affected by: than the
no
variables, other
one you are
investigating,
your experiment. Which variables affect
temperature will
you standardise (keep the same) in
concentration gradient experiment? How will you do this? your
distance. Write a short, clear description of how
Choose do your experiment. you will
one of these variables to
investigate. 8
2 The variable that Drawa results chart that
you change in your you could use to fillin
experiment is called the independent variable. your results. Include
What is the in any results headings, but do not put
independent variable in your (unless you are able to
experiment? your experiment, of course). actually do
9 Predict what you would
expect to find in your
experiment.
KEY WORos

independent variable: the variable that

in an experiment you changge dependent variable: the variable that
as
you collect your results you measure,
 3Movement into and out of celis
relearama

dlutm sugar sroytirjt onRrtrat sugar sutio

Questions
Using what you know about how diffunion happe1s,
explain cach of these statenments
a Diffusion huppens laster nt higher
tcmperaturex
The greater the diflevence in concentration
between two solutions, the laster diffusion
happens.
In a kidney dialysis machinc, many small tubes
conuining dialysis fuid are used, rather tha
one big one
d In a kidney dialysis nmachine, the membrane

separating the blood and the dialysis tuid is Viitor

partially permeabie
rnernbrane
rnoleule
molecules
very thi.
to think
Flgure 3.5: How osmosis happens. It is important
rnolecule separately
3.2 Osmosis al out the diffusion of each kind of

Water is one of the most important also very small. Each one is made
Wnter molecules are
of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Sugar
ving organisms. It can makeup aroun 3
S

organisms' bodics. Ithas nmany funcfis, molecules are many times larger than this.
iLe

s:sto
acting as a solvent for many different big enough to let the
For example:
In dialysis tubing, the holes are

water molecules through, but not the sugar molecules.

swallow food, of it dissoives in membrane
Dialysis tubing is called a partially permeable
when we some

water in the alimentary canal, where

it can be acted not others.
because it will let some molecules through but
on by enzymeswhich are also dissolved in water
molecules on
There is a higher concentration of sugar
(Chapter 7)
the right-hand side of the membrane in Figure 3.5,
dissolved in water, to form side. If the
the kidneys excrete urea
and a lower concentration on the left-hand
urine (Chapter 13) molecules would
membrane was not there, the sugar
dilute one
substances are transported around the body diffuse from the concentrated solution into the
until they were evenly spread out. However, they
cannot
dissolved in the water in blood plasma (Chapter 9).
are too small
do this because the holes in the membrane
water inside it and
Every cell in an organism's body has dissolved in this
for them to get through.
outside it. Many different substances are the water
be different inside There is also a concentration gradient for
water, and their concentrations may there is
concentration gradients, molecules. On the left-hand side of the membrane,
and outside the cell. This creates
a high concentration of
water molecules. On the right-hane
down which water and solutes will diffuse, if they are
is lower because
able to pass through the membrane. side, the concentration of water molecules
a lot of space is taken up by sugar
molecules
consider a simple
It's easiest to think about this if we
3.5 illustrates
situation involving just one solute. Figure
from a dilute KEY WORDS
a concentrated sugar solution, separated
membrane. The membrane has holes
Sugar solution by a compound: substance formed by the chemical
a
small. An example ofa fixed
orpores in it which are very combination of two or more elements in
membrane like this is dialysis tubing. proportions
membrane
partially permeable membrane: a
(very thin layer) that lets some particles
move

through it, but prevents others passing throug

 COURSEBO

BIOLOGY
K E YW O R D S

CAMBRIDGE
IGCSETM

h a n d
of
water potential): the net
potentialh

terms
from
on
the
lef1-

hole
n
osmosis
(in
water
m o l e c u l e s

regon of
a

molecules

hit'a of ilute solution)

n o r e
w a t e r

of
them
w7ll
other
side
than m o v e m e n t

potential
(dilute

centrated solut
(conce
region
there
are m o r e

the
will
water
there potential
moment to higher l e membran
Because time, water
thugh
one
to
p e r m e a b l e

Ovcr lower
a t any lett
STde, membrane
and
move

to
lefi) from of partially
(right a
where ther there are a lot
walet

he other way m o v e m e n t o f through

an
area

the potential:
7go net,
diflusion.
solution
or water dilute
ovrrall, of
an osmosis. kind where high
e called a
m o l e c u l e s - a

just
This is
there are not
thers
u a t i o n

right. o s m o s i s
isreally in a
sit
can
pass ofwater an
area
where

can
see
that
water
m o l c c u l e s

m o l e c u l e s

potential c o n c e n t r a t e d
so ution
water
You of solute
low
d i f f u s i o n
the m o l e C U l e s - a

not
the but
It 1s m o l e c u l e s
water a difference in water
water
many
the
t h r o u g h a m e m b r a n e

water potential grad

areas
two
between
through potential
KEY WORD m o l e c u l e s

diffusicon ofwater
o s m o s i s :
the m e m b r a n e

permeable

partially
a Questions
ram in Figure 3.5.
abou
are
Water potential of
the
'concentration'

normally
These
questions
ar solution? What is
about
is solventn
to alk What is the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n

confusing
the ternm
in
It c a n be
dissolved
because solute the solute?
molecules of the We say
can move irom one
term.
w a t e r mo
c o n c e n t r a t i o n

water
the different
why ther, but sugar
used to
mean
to
usea
has a Explain
lot of water)
better membrane

w a t e r lt
is much there is a there is the
the (where (where side of
solution solution molecules cannot.
dilute
that a A
c o n c e n t r a t e d

net
movement of water
water
potential.
potential direction 1s the
high
In which
water
has a low the left- 8
less water) potential
on

is a high
water side molecules?

from, to cause this

3.6, there on the right-hand come
in Figure potential the energy
water
two sides Where does
side and a low between the 9
hand
potential
gradient from a high movement?

There is a
water
down this
gradient, solution has the higher water
diffiuse
molecules
3.5, which
The water
potential. 10 In Figure answer.
to a low water your
water potential
importance
to potential? Explain
are of great
and osmosis when organisms
Water potential
affect how and
because they the uptake
organisms out about
water. You will find of
lose
take up and 8. The uptake Chapter
and loss of
water by plants in
described in Chapter 7.
water by humans is
partially permeable
high water
membrane
potential

water potential gradient

low water
potential

Figure 3.6: We can think of a water potential gradient as

a

slope'. Water molecules have a tendency to move down the

slope, from a high water potential to a low water potential.
 3 Movement into and out of cells

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 3.3

Using dialysis tubing to investigate osmosis Method
In this investigation, you will watch osmosis 1 Collect a piece of dialysis tubing. Put a few
happen. You can also use the apparatus to
investigate how differences in concentration of the
drops of water on it to soften it, and rub it
gently between your fingers until it opens.
solutions atfect the rate at which osmosis Tie one end of it around itself in a tight knot.
happens.
22 Use a dropper pipette to carefully fill the piece
You will need: of tubing with the most concentrated sugar
the apparatus shown in solution.
Figure 3.7
a dropper pipette 3 Place a long, narrow glass tube into the dialysis
tubing, as shown in Figure 3.7. Use some
a stopwatch strong thread to tie the dialysis tubing very
atleast two ditterent concentrations ot tightly around the glass tube.
Sugar solution. 4 Place the dialysis tubing inside a beaker of
water, as shown in Figure 3.7. Support the glas
It is best to do this experiment wiih a tube using a retort stand, boss and
partner, clamp.
as you otten need at least ree 2nds to
do some
of the steps successfully 5 Mark the level of the liquid inside the
glass tube.
6 Every two minutes, record the level of liquid
retort stand inside the glass tube.
77 You can now
boss
try repeating your experiment,
clamp but this time use a different concentration
of sugar solution. This is
ruler
quite tricky to do,
because you will need to take
your apparatu
apart change
to the sugar solution. Record y
narrow results using the new sugar solution.
glass tube
8 On a large sheet of graph paper, drawa line
graph tor your first set of results. Remember
that the independent variable
goes on the
x-axis, and the dependent variable goesson
the y-axis.
water tube held tightly
by thread 9 If you were able to repeat the
Sugar solution a
experiment
different sugar solution, plot another
gran
dialysis tubing on the same pair of axes.
(also known as
Viskingtubing)
Figure 3.7: Apparatus you will need for this investigation.
 C O U R S E B O U R

BIOLOGY

I G C S E M

CAMBRIDGE

dialysis
are
able to u s e
tubine
Imagine you fa smooth sur
i n s t e a d ofa
4
with ridges
it, on
fect
affec your results
face
CONTINUED how this might
Predict
Explain your prediction
the glass
tube
Questions moved up could mo modify this expe
th e n t
work
the liquid to how you
Explain
why of
results
Suggest temperature
affects
first set
up 5 how
ould aexpect.
moved
for the to find
out would
graph which
the liquid the r e s u l t s you
Use y o u r Predict
at
2 mean
rate osmosis.
out the second.

in mm per with
the tube, experiment

the two
repeat the
able to
were compare

t you solution, d i t f e r e n c e s

explain any
different sugar
a Can you
results.
sets of
between them? n with Figure 3,5, v
will
thiS S1tua
compare ilute solution in iFigure 35
If you simlar u
that they are e are each separated
cells see
water in Fip
and
animal
solutions
and the pure sol:
y partially permeable
10entratedsolution
Osmosis concentrated

happens
when two from a
In Figure
is the
3 c aable
b i e membrane is the
that
osmosis from membrane
seen separated membrane.
You have water) a r e parli
cytoplasm and the
The
solution and
pure membrane.
721 will occur.
(or a permeable c e l lm e m b r a n e . T h e r e f o r e
partially but not the
each other by amolecules
through,
ihe dilutesolution
membrane
lets w a t e r
dissolved in
the waler.
molecules
will ditiuse and more
molecules
that are
water
Water sofuts. S more wa.
ater
other
They let into the
concentrated
has to streta
partially
permeable.
often cannot
it swells.
The es!
membrane
stretch
enters the celi,
are
Cell
membranes
and ions the strain is too
eveniuaily
molecules
but other untii
the cell gets bigger,
across

through casily, that osmosis happens

as
This means bursts.
the cell
get through. much, and
cell membranes cell in a
concentrated solution
water. The shows an animal
shows an
animal cell in pure solution. Figure 3.9 concentrated than the cytoplasm
Figure 3.8 fairly
concentrated

If this solution
is more
of the cell. Look
inside the cell is a
dissolved in it will diftuse out
cytoplasm substances molecules
other then water molecules go out
The proieins
and many membrane.
However,
to see why.
As the water
cell 3.5
through the at Figure shrinks, so the
membrane, the cytoplasm
large to get
a r e too the m e m b r a n e .
water
molecules can get through through the cell
cell gets smaller.

more dilute solution cell

concentrated solution
cell inside the cell membrane
more concentrated Outside the cell
pure water membrane
solution inside the cell
outside the cell

Osmosis takes place.

Water diffuses out of the
Osmosis takes place. cell through the partially
Water diffuses into the permeable cell membrane.
cell through the partially
permeable cell membrane.

water Figure 3.9: If an animal cell is placed in a concentrated

gure 3.8: lf an animal cell is placed in pure water, shrinks.
bursts. solution, water leaves the cell by osmosis. The cell
ters the cell by osmosis. The cell swells and

Osmosis and plant cells
Plant cells do not burst in pure water. Figure 3.10 shows
a plant cell in pure water. Plant celis arc surrounded by a
cell wall. 1This is fully permeable. which means that it will
let any molecules go through it.
pure water more concentrated
outside solution inside cell
the cell the cell cell wall membrane
Osmosis takes place.
Water diffuses into the cytoplasm andvec. ielet ic
the partially permeable cell merh ane.
Figure 3.10: lfa plant cell is placed in pure walsi weter
enters the cell by osmosis. The celi swells ibut coes not
burst, because of its strong celi wall.
Although it is not easy to see, a plant ceil also has a cell
membrane just like an animal cell. The cell membrane is
partially permeable. A plant cell in pure water will take
in water by osmosis through its partially permeable cell
membrane in the same way as an animal cell. As the
water goes in, the cytoplasm and vacuole will swell.
However, the plant cell has a very strong cell wall around
it. The cell wall is much stronger than the cell membrane
and it stops the plant cell from bursting. The cytoplasm
presses out against the cell wall, but the wall resists and
presses back on the contents.
In a plant leaf, cells that have plenty of water are all in
this state. In each one, the cytoplasm presses out on the
cell walls. The pressure of the water pushing outwards on
the cells' walls keeps the whole group of cells strong and
firm. This helps to support plant leaves.
A plant cell in this state is rather like a blown-up tyre -
tight and firm. It is said to be turgid. The pressure of the
water pushing outwards on the cell wall is called turgor
pressure. Turgor pressure helps a plant that has no wood
in it to stay upright, and keeps the leaves firm. Plant cells
are usually turgid.
3 Movement into and out of cells
KEYWORDS
turgid: a description of a plant ce!l that is tight
and firm
turgor pressure: the pressure of the water
pushing outwards on a plant cell wall
Now imagine that a plant cell is placed in a solution that
is more concentrated than its cytoplasm. Water leaves
the cell by osmosis. The cytoplasm and vacuole shrink.
But the cell wall is strong and stays in position. The
cytoplasm thercfore pulls away from the cell wall. This
pulls the membrane away from the cell wall, too. The
cell now looks like the diagram in Figure 3.11 and the
photographed cells in Figure 3.12.
Concentrated less concentrated
solution outside solution inside celi
the cell the cell cell wall membrane
space X
Osmosis takes place.
Water difuses out of the cytoplasm and vacuole through
the partially permeable cell membrane.
Figure 3.11: If a plant cell is placed in a concentrated
solution, water moves out of it by osmosis. The cytoplasm
and vacuole shrink, and the cell membrane pulls away from
the cell wal.
When a plant cell loses a lot of water, it also loses its
turgor pressure. The contents of the cell do not push
outwards on the cell wall, so the cell becomes soft and
floppy. It is said to be flaccid. If the cells in a plant
become flaccid, the plant loses its firmness and begins
to wilt.
KEY WORD
flaccid: a
description of a plant cell that is soft
 C O U R S E B O O

BIOLOGY

C A M B R I D G E
IGCSE Q u e s t i o n s

wal, this sentence:

cell
the and complete
from
a
11 Copy
When an animal cell is placed in pure water, water
membrane
tears
away
Plasmolysis
can kin
cell a s Tt
the cell by
When the
t
cell is said
to be
plasmoly

the cell
ued.
membrane
is
damageu

partiallypermeablecell through the

Be becaue

DIt
oell wall. ed in
they are placed in .

from the
cell
cells burst if pure waler,
12 Animal
away
tears

cells do
not. Explain why. bu
plant of what han
the desCriptions
KEY WORD of a
cell in
which

13 Here are
some
in a corICCntrated solut plann
wall it is placed on. They
cell when
description
the cell
p i a s m o l y s e d :
a
tears away
from
in the wrong
order. Wrtte the description in the
m e m b r a n e
are
cell correct order.

cytoplasm
The cytoplasm and shrink.
The cell membrane away from the
- cell wall
cell wall.
cell membrane that
Water moves
out of arough the partial
permeable cell merni
has pulled away

cell wall 3.11. Wh. pace X! Explain

from the at Figure
14 Look
your answer.

space between
iaced in a
cells has
of plant
cell membrane
A group
15 concentrated solution, and ells are plasmo
and cell wall
ells
olysed,
Predict what will happen if
e are now aced
been placed
in a
water. your 'aiwer, ising the term
Explain
cells have
onion much water, in pure
3.12: These has lost so
Figure The cytoplasm wall.
water potential.
concentrated
solution.
from the cell
has pulled away
much, that it
so
and shrunk

EXPERIMENTAL SKILLS 3.4

Method
Method

of osmosis on potato strips Use a cork borer to cut six

the effect Peel the potato.
Investigating 1 ends from
pieces of plant the potato. Cut the
you will place cylinders from
In this investigation, that each one is the
the same
solutions and
measure

ditferent each cylinder so

tissue into
length to use. Record
length-4Omm is good have a cork borer,
a
effect on their length.
this length. If you do
not
trom the potato
you can
cut rectangular pieces
You will need:
instead (see Figure 3.13).
a large potato
to peel the potato |10 mm
a sharp knife or other way
from the potato
a cork borer to aut cylinders 10 mm 40 mm
or you can use the knite to cut strips)
a ruler to measure in mm

three containers such as small beakers

40 mm
some distilled water, a dilute sugar solution Figure 3.13: You can cut either cylinders or rectangular
and a concentrated sugar solution.
blocks from the potato.
 3 Movement into and out of cells

CONTINUED

2 Pour the distilled water into one beaker,
and the two sugar solutions into the other
two beakers. Label each beaker with the
concentration of the solution.
Place two potato strips into each liquid, making
sure they are completely covered.
4 Leave the potato strips in their liquids for about
20 minutes. While you are waiting, construct a
results chart. You can f in the original lengths
of the strios.
6 Calculate the change in length of each strip
Remember to say whether it has got longer (a
positive change) or shorter (a negative change).
Questions
What happened to the length of the potato
1
strips that were placed in the distilled water?
2 Use your knowledge of osmosis to explain why
this happerned.
3 What happened to the length of the potato

5 After 20 minutes, take the potato strips out oft strips that were placed in the concetrated
solution?
their solutions. Meas.re the iength of each one
again Recora he neenghs Use your knowledge of osmosis to explain why
this happened.

Peer assessn There are no units written anywhere except in

the headings.
When yOu have com
exchange it witn a 20ier t is really easy to understand the results table.
Look at your parther s work, 2 Score The changes in length are shown in the results
for each of the tollowing features table.
0 marks not done at all, or very poor The changes in length have been correctly
1 mark quite well done calculated, and say whether the strips increased
or decreased in
length.
2 marks really good
Add up the marks you will give to your partner.
The results table is drawn with a ruler. If you have not given them full marks, make sure
you can explain why.
There are clear headings for all the columns,
with units.

3.3 Active transport

There are many occasions when cells need to take in
substances which are only present in small quantities
around them. If the substance has a lower concentration
outside the cell than inside, then we would expect the
substance to diffuse out of the cell.
If the cell needs this substance, then it has to do
something to make it go into the cell instead of diffusing
out of it. Cells can use
energy to make substances move
across their membranes,
up the concentration gradient.
This process is called active transport. The
energy needed
to do this is provided by respiration. Aerobic respiration,
in mitochondria in the cell, releases energy for the cell
to use. Some of this energy is used for active
transport,
moving substances against their concentration gradients.
KEY WORDS
active transport: the movement of molecules
or ions through a cell membrane from a
region
of lower concentration to a
region of higher
concentration (i.e. against a concentration
gradient) using energy from respiration
7CAMBRIDGE IGCSET BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK
carrier
nitrate ion
protein
nitrate 1ons
in plants, for example, roothair cells take inions inside the
ntration of nitrat
from the soil. The
than their concentrato
outside

usually higher 1 The nitrate ion

root hair cell is
the nitrate 1ons i the cell

diffusion gradient for enters the carrier

in the soil. The the root ha
into the soil. But cell
protein.
Out of the root
hair, and in. using
active m e m b r a n e

nitrate ions
to take
cells are still abie do this. inside

shows how they 2 The carrier protein

Figure 3.14 the cell
changes shape. The
membrane

transport. cell
proteins
in the 1ons

carrie
nitrate
energy needed for
There are special pick up they
These proteins so
that to do thiS is provid
hair ceils. shape
the r o o t change
o the cell,
and then membrane
and
by respiration in
Irom
outside
the cell by
the the cell.
through
nitrate ions
provided
push the the cell. Energy
of respiration
The change of
into the cytoplasm out
aerobic
which carry in the shape of the
mitochondria,
change
the shape carrier protein
needed to produce
IS
pushes the nitrat-
carrier protein.
ion into the cell.

KEY WORDS

carriers): protein
proteins (or protein can u s e
energy
active transport
happens.
carrier that 3.14: How
membranes
into Figure
molecules in cell molecules
ions or
and m o v e
to change shape
out of a
cell
or

SUMMARY concentration, a
concentration to a lower
or ions
from a high
Diffusion is the net m o v e m e n t of molecules
movement and kinetic energy.
result of their
random membranes, down a
leave cells by diffusion through the cell
dioxide enter and
Oxygen and carbon
concentration gradient. into a cell. This
concentration gradient or
surface area speeds up diffusion
Anincrease in temperature,
of agar jelly.
be investigated using pieces
excretion and transport.
Water is important in organisms as a solvent,
for example in digestion,
membranes, including cell membranes, by osmosis.
Water ditfusesthrough partially permeable
Dialysis tubing is partially permeable and can be used to investigate osmosis.
nOt
Animal cells burst in pure water and shrink when placed in a concentrated solution. Plant cells do
in pure water because their cell wall stops this happening.

Asolutioncontainingalot ofwater has ahigh water potential; in osmosis, water diffuses down a wat
notentialaradiant
 A t w i e n t ut7o and t e

CONTINUED
exert outwad
&Nmes urgid, as txcoantents
N e Waty akes eh watet y a a s i s and biecemnes ttacent
sutioan ses water by oxtnasis ar
N a A kemi cedl st a MNNLaRENË
wesuse

active
to NONE SARDstances
aCEUSS the cell niembrane diuring
carTeS t e i nndNats a n e stape
R

PROUECT
herent kinds Ot tea bag attect the
S substances out ot the tea leaves
tthe water?

es aang miik to the cup betore you ada

ater attect the dittusion ot melecuies o

three
dt or tour.

eang question to investigate

on a

hen pan how you will do yourexperiment

R e m e m o e r to e h a n g e only o n e variable - your

cependent variable. Think caretutly about hon

Does the temperature
O ne nater 3e vOwi measure your dependent vanable, and
es u s e
rateat vtich the moecu vou wil try to standardise otner variables.
tea bag
You could try to predict the results you would
ware artect e
Does the remperature or he
expect to get. Think about how you will recordd
Our o the tea them, and how you will use them to answer the
Question you are investigating
 CAMBR

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
partices
movement
of
resalt of the
1 Diffusion is a move"
partice
How does each
gradent
concentration

A down a
direction ony 1
B in one

C randomly
concentration
gradient
Dup a come trom
fordiffiusion
does the
energy
Where

A gucose molecuies
and 1ons
energy
of
B kinctic
mitochondna

respiration in
C diltuses across
substance

D sunlight at
which a

increase
the rate
would
Which
change
membrane?' gradient
c o n c e n t r a t i o n

in membrane

A a
decrease
area
of the
surface
decrease in the membrane

B a across
the
distance
increase in
C an

in temperature active transport

increase osmosis and
D an
diffusion,
information
about
shows
The table
correct?
Which row is Active transport

Osmosis uses protein carriers

Diffusion always involves a

in membranes
trom
A uses energy partially permeable
respiration membrane
involves movement

uses kinetic energy up a concentration

uses kinetic energy of water molecules

o fmolecules and gradient
always involves a
ons movement
carriers involves partially permeable
usesprotein u pa concentration

in m e m b r a n e s membrane

gradient
trom
carriers uses energy
involves a uses protein
D always membranes respiration
partially permeable | in
membrane

Which process involves active transport?

5 plant leaf
A the uptake of carbon dioxide by a cell in a
by a root hair cell
B the uptake of magnesium ions
cell
C the uptake of oxygen by an animal
D the uptake of water by a root hair cell
 CONTINUEC

6 A learner investigated how temperature

affected the rate at which a dye moved
through a piece of agar jelly
She placed each tube into
She filled seven test-tubes with a solution of red dye.
a water-bath at a difterent temperature and left them for ten minutes.
She cut seven cubes of jelly. She placed each cube into one of the tubes
for the cubes to change
containing the red dye. She measured the time taken
colour.

This graph shews her resiits

11

10

5
A
3

0 60
10 20 30 40 50

Temperature/°C

a Name and describe the process by which the dye moved through the jelly
b Suggest why the learner left the tubes of red dye in the water-baths for
ten minutes.
c List two variables that the learner should standardise (keep the same) in
her experiment.
d One of the learner's results is anomalous. Identify this resultand
explain why you think it isanomalous.
ii Describe thetrend or patternshown by the results
ii Use your knowledge of diffusion to explain theresults
Total
a Describe what is meant by osmosis 13
b
Compare the elfect of immersing an animal cell and a plant ce
water. Explain the reasons for
any differences that you describe 16)
[Total:9
ons
s
Dar chart shows the concentration of potassium ions andsoarun
na sample of pond water, and in thecells of a plant growing im water

plant cells
pond water

O
sodium
potassIum
lon

concentrations of the ions in the

a Describe the differences between the
pond water and in the plant
cells 131
how the ions move between the
b Use the data in the graph to suggest
pond water and the plant
cells. Explain your answer. [21
described in your answer to b
Describe how the process you have
takes place. 141
Total: 9]
 gapsKin
in ihis chapter,
your 1hink about
knowledje and hetp
how how confident
contio you are with the different topacs Tas wili heip you to see
can you learnou to
more effectively.
eltecivey
desetibe tiltuson, See Needs Almost Confident
kinetic ener vefenii Topic
CxplaI wat is ipaites more work there to move on

CXplan why meant by lf1S11 de a

diffusion is
describe how to i1nortant ory.2tteto

diffusion jnvestigate factors that.ect

deseribe osnmosis.
through a partiallyreferin 1od t c e t
deseribe how permeable e t
to investigate
tubing Os * eat

describe what
happens when animai t i
cells are immersed anma

in
Concentrations solutions of ifiereni
3.2
explain how water in their
cells
plants helps to
support
3.2
describe osmosis, using the term water
potential 3.2
explain what
happens when animal or plant
cells immersed in solutions of different
are
3.2
concentrations
describe active transport 3.3
explain how active transport happens, including
the role of protein carriers in membranes 3.3