A Handbook on Civil Engineering Strength of Materials 1. Properties of Metals, Stress and Strain 8 2. Shear Force and Bending Moment 19 3. Principal Stress/Principal Strain 21 4. Theory of Failure 28 5. Deflection of Beam 28 6. Pressure Vessels 30 7. Torsion of Shalt... 34 8 Shear Centre : 40 8. Columns 4“ 10. Springs 43 «op»Properties of Metals, Stress and Strain Important Mechanical Properties + Elasticity Itis the property by virtue of which a material deformed under the load is enabledtto return to its original dimension when the load is removed If body regains completely its original shape then it is called perfectly elastic body Elastic limit marks the partial break down of elasticity beyond which removal of load resull in a degree of permanent deformation. Steel, Aluminium, Copper, may be considered to be perfectly clastic within certain limit. + Plasticity ‘The characteristics of the material by which it undergoes inelastic strain beyond those at the elastic limitis known as plasticity. This property is particularly useful in operation of pressingand forging. ‘When large deformation occurs ina ductile material loaded in plastic region, the material is said to undergo plastic flow. = Duetility Itis the property which permits a material to be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section, under the action of tensile force. Facil mato mst passe a Fgh Gores ot asta | and strength Ductile material must have low degree of elasticity | Ths usell in wie drawing + Brittloness Itis lack of ductility, Brittleness implies that it can not be drawn out by tension to smaller section 3% Inbrittle material failure take place under load without significant, 3B _cetormation MADEEASY i Strength of Materials (— Ordinary Giassis nearly ideal brittie mate Cast iron, concrete and ceramic material are brit Malleability Itis the property of a material which permits the majerial to be extended in all direction without rupture { > nah deatel x 'A malleable material posses a high degree of plasticity, but “notnecessarily great strength. Toughness Itis the property of material which enables it o absorb energy without fracture. Vik Tis desirable in material : which is subjected to cyclic or shock | &. loading. Itis represented by area under stress-strain curve of material upto fracture Bend test used for common comparative test of toughness. = Hardness Itis the ability of a material to resist indentation or surface abrasion Brinnell hardness testis used to check hardness. —( where, P = Standard load | | D = Diameter of stee! ball (rm) d = Diameter of indent (mm) + Strength This property enables material to resist fracture under loadoe AHandbook on Civil Engineering I MADEEASY % & ‘This is most important property from dasign point of view. Load required to cause fracture, divided by area of test x specimen, is termed as ultimate strength Creep Creep is a permanent deformation which is recorded with passage of time at constant loading. itis plastic deformation (permanent and non- recoverable) in nature. Note: The temperature at which creep is uncontrolable is called Homologous Temperature. + Fatigue Due to cyclic or reverse cyclic loading fracture failure may occur if total accumulated strain energy exceeds the toughness. Fatigue causesrough fracture surface even in ductile metals. + Resilience It is the total elastic strain energy which can be stored in the given volume of metal and can be released after unloading, itis equal to area under load deflection curve within elastic limit. SCCSEn Stress (N/mm?) Itis the resistance offered by the body to deformation Load Nominal stress (Engineering stress) = ~~ b®8d__ (Engineering sess) = Sriginal Area Toad Changed (Actual) Area « [Actuate sass Strain Deformation per unit length in the direction of deformation is known as strain. Str pf &_Itis.a dimensionless quantity. MADEEASY Engineering Stress-Strain curve of mild steel for tension under static-loading Strength of Materials i. OA - Straight line sess (proportional region, ores Hooke's faw is alc) our * OB - Elastic region BC - Elasto plastic re, CD - Perfectly plastic region DE - Strain hardening EF - Necking region 1 Strain(%) A= Limit of proportionality B - Elastic limit C- Upper yield point © - Lower yield point D - Strain hardening starts F - Fracture point E - Ultimate point or maximum stress point © Limit of Proportionality itis the stress at which the stress-strain curve ceasesto be a straight line. G _Hooke'sawis vai unto proporionalimmt. * Elastic Limit = 7 Itis the point on the stress-strain curve upto which the materials remains elastin &): Upto this point there is no permanentdoformation after rernoval of load Plastic Range !tis the region of the stress-strain curve between the elastic limit and point of rupture. + Yield Point This point is just beyond the elastic limit, at which the specimen undergoes an appreciable increase in length without further increase inthe load. ‘+ Rupture Strength Itis the stress corresponding to the failure point of the stress-strain curve. «Proof Stress itis the stress necessary to cause a permanent extension equal to defined percentage of gauge length,2 ‘AHandbook on Civil Engineering m_MADE EASY Slope of OA = Modulus of elasticity ) (Young's Modulus) tis constant of proportionality which is defined as the intensity of stress that causes unit strain Plastic strain is 10 to 15 times elastic strain. Fracture strain (c,) depends on percentage carbonin steel. ‘When carbon percentage increases then fracture strain decreases and yield stress increases. Type of Tension failure in Metal A. Ductile metal (Shear failure) Failure plane is at 45° Cup-cone fracture B. Brittle metal Gy. Failure plane at 90°with ongitudinal direction ‘Type of failure in compression A. . Ductile material B. Brittle material JP shear faire 7 ine at ase MADE EASY Bt Strength of Materials a Stress-Strain Diagram for Various type of Stee!/Material atte) ¢ & & ws (Duets) Niro) (Hi tension sto ——~ntgn vila ste e Lr Wood Concrete Pubbor a - All grades of steel have same young's modulus but diferent yiold stress. Ductile materi WW post elastic strain is greater than 5% itis called ductile material. Itundergoes large permanent strains betore failure, Large reduction in area before fracture @.g. lead, mild steel, copper Brittle Material If post elastic strain is less than 5%. Itis called brittle material, _ it fails with only litle elongation after the proportional limit is - exceected Very less reduction in area before fracture, €.g. Bronze, sowie Rubber, Glass Behaviour of Various Material t s C4 gt Esto [Barco paste Paste ‘sew ost | winaren® |! oa hardening es Fluid Where tress, € = Strain ‘Mild steel'is more elastic than ‘Rubber’ )ae A Handbook on Civil Engineering Hooke's Law When a material behaves elastically and exhibits a linear relationship between stress and strain, itis called linearly elastic. For such materials stress (a) is directly proportional to strain (e). a LrC—~—~— Mm _MADEEASY foung modulus of elasticity 4 . 1 cst von Ea Enamnum ~ Eda E, Axial elongation (A) of prismatic bar due to external load er Here, P = Load applied asf L = Length of bar i A= Areaof bar at | (222 + AS ERK ia EI. = Flexural stifness Lei El = Flexural rigidity Deflection of bar (A) due to self-weight A. Prismatic bar a Wee T 2AE 2E : 4 ‘trose diagram Here, W = Total Self weight B. Conical bar 1 - 1 x Detlection of prismatic bar of same length 63 Here, Wa Specific weight length of bar foung’s modulus a L E be MADE EASY Deflection (A) of Tapered Bar A. Circular tapering bar Strength of Materials oat) 4* RED, D;| where, P = Load applied L = Length of bar D, and 0, are Diameter as shown in fig. B. Rectangular tapering bar PL tone A= EG, -8,) whore, t= thickness P = Load applied E = Young modulus Equivalent Young's Modulus of Parallel Composite Bar Ez “AE, + Ages E, lent = — a where, Ay = Piea ol et Bar 11 area ot eecond bar E, = Young's modulus of first bar E, = Young's modulus of second bar 1 Bend Elastic constants are those factor which determine the deformation produced by a given stress systom acting on material . Longitudinal stress Longitudinal strain Shear stress ‘Shear strain Direct stress Volumetric strain Modulus of elasticity (E) ‘Modulus of rigidity (G) ‘Bulk modulus (K)m MADE EASY Poisson's Ratio (1) = (Lateral strain) ] ‘ongitudinal Strain| 16 ‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering Under uniaxial loading Os p05 h [Lateral strain — Longitudinal strain O for cork 0.5 For perfectly plastic body (Rubber) 0.25 to 0.42 for elastic metals, 0.1 00.2 for concrete 0.286 mild stee! is greater for ductile metals than for brittie metals. erEerce Volumetric Strain under Tri-Axial Loading where. = Stress indirection @, = Stress iny-diection @, = Sites in z-direction ey = Volumetric strain esate te a, +0,+ ASEH yyy Under hydrostatic loading 9, = 0, s ev=Za-ay Uni-axial Loading on Rectangular Parallelopipe Here, €,, ¢ and e, are strain in x, y and z directions respectively. Al, Ab and Ad are change in length, width and depth respectively. 4, b and dare original length, width and depth respectively. MADEEASY mt _Strength of Materials 2 Parallelopipe Triaxial loading on Rectangul: , 4. 3& Sign convention: Tensile is positive, and Compressive is nega Volumetric Strain of Cylindrical Bar ommamamaea) D) fp [ec = Longitudinal Strain + (@ xDiametic strain) Volumetric Strain of Sphere [ev=SxDiametiic sirain] €v Matrix Representation of Stress and Strain 3-D stress matrix 3-D strain matrix Gn ty Te Sa Ge 6, 4, eee 1 ty on oe ee ix ty Gas mc, 4 La 202 Relation between E,G,K, 1 + (E=3K(=2n) . OKG . 3K+G : Young's modulus, G = shear modulus K = Bulk modulus, = Poisson ratio8: AHandbook on lm MADE EASY . i no Number of Independent lastioconstant [Romooaneous €sorepet—"s : Strain Energy Iti the aby of material to absorb energy when itis stlned Tren] Here P Apolo [u=gexs—Frxe] MPG Aeptoste ong 2" T DAppledtorgue 0 = Angle of wit ue fo appedtorque Resilience: Abilty of a material to absorb energy in the elastic region when itis strained ‘Area under P-8 curve = dx 8 Proof Resilience: Maximum energy absorbing capacity of a material in the elastic region is called root resilience. = Areaunder P-3 curve = 1Pa x dq, Hero Pa, = Load at elastic limit Elongation upto elastic limit Modulus of Resilience = Pt00t Resilience _ of | “Volume ~ 2E Here oq = Strain at elastic limit E = Modulus of elasticity Thermal Stress and Strain where,c = Thermal stress © = Coetticient of thermal expansion T = Temperature change 4 = Chango in length 12x10 °C] (G When bar is fae to expand then tore wil bo ‘no thermal | [AE __ stress due to change in temperature ‘Shear ear Force an Bending Moment Types of Beam * Simply Supported Beam Ifthe ends of a beam are made to rest freely on supports itis call simply ({reely) supported beam, CUR + Fixed Beam Ifa beam is fixed at both ends it is called fixed beam its another n Js encastre or built-in beam. © Cantilever Beam ifa beams fixed at one end while other end is free, itis called canti beam * Continuous Beam If more than two supports are provided to beam, itis called continu beam, : cad a as Shear Force Itis the internal resistance developed at any section to maintain j body equilibrium of either lett or right part of the section. * Sign Convention [ Ls. Itmay be horizontal or vertical ‘Shear force having an upward direction to the left | hand side of sectionor downward direction to the AGE Shear force at any section is algebraic sum of all transvers awenaw forces either from lett or right of that section, right hand side of section will be taken positive and vice-versa.Bending Moment Bending moment at any section Is the internal reaction due to all the transverse torce either trom left side or from right side of that section, Itis equal to algebraic sum of moments af that section either from lett or from right side of that section Bending moment is different from twisting moment. =) Sign convention of Bending moment a A bending moment causing concavity upward will be SL taken as positive and called sagging bending moment, 52898 A bending moment causing convexity upwardwillbe (\_© /) taken as negativeandvillbceleda hoggingbending © Soom moment Relationship Between Bending Moment (M), Shear Force(S)and Loading Rate (w) ‘+ Rate of change of shear force is equal to load ds _ | a w = Load per unit length * Rate of change of bending moment along the length of beam is dM [z-5] “peye_ Athinge, bending moment willbe zero, 3 Bending moment is maximum or minimum when shear force is zer0 oF changes sign at a section If degree of loading curve = n then degree of shear force curve =n + 1 and degree of bending moment curve =n +2 Point of contraclextureinflexion is that point where bending moment changes its sign Principal Stress/ Principal Strain Principal Stress Principal stress are maximum or minimum normal stress which ma developed on a loaded body. n Conventions * Tensilestress is considered (@_The plane of pincipl soos cary 2070 shear stress positive and compressive Stress is negative. Eee (ek We positive if it is in anti- postive shear sess Negative shea clockwise direction. * Shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is consid positive if it is acts in positive direction of one of the coordi axes and negative if acts in the negative direction of the 2 Similarly on a negative face of an element is positive if it a negative direction of the axes and negative if it act in the pos direction, Normally the reference plane taken are major principal plane vertical plane, Analytical Method of Analysis () Ito, and¢, are given principalstress as shown in figure, then ne and shear stress on plane a-a which is inclined at angle '8" major principal plane(o,>,) 1 608 8+.05 sin*O on Gp, ES. (e 22) c0s20 bu 2 = eee (252%) cos20 2 2 at (& 22))sin20oe “aHandbook on Civil Engineering ‘im MADEEASY | MADEEASY Strength of Materials Sy, .. On, +O =, +0, = Gonslant G9 6/26, 46,26, 6,25, +6 = Constant e 10= 45° or 125° then, Qc. +e, = 6, +6, = constant oe (5%) qb On the plane of, (i) If 6, and a, are normal stress on vertical and horizontal plane respectively and this plane is accompanied by shear stress ,, then normal stress and shear stress on plane a-a, which is inclined at an angle 6 from plane of 6, ) 08204 sina ) 20020 5 singo spring equal 1079300 MPa. ‘Shot peening, result in raising the fatigue life of spring because it leave the surface in compression, Matrix Method of Sttuctural Analysis aoe 75 RomamberStatic and Kinematic indeterminacy Statically Determinate Structures Conditions of equilibrium are sufficient to analyse the structure, Bending moment and shear force is independent of the cross-sectional area of the components and flexural rigidity of the members. No stresses are caused due to temperature change. No stresses are caused due to lack of ft or differential settlement. Statically Indeterminate Structures Additional compatibility conditions are required. Bending moment and shear force depends upon the cross-sectional area and tlexural rigidity of the members. Stresses are caused due to ternperature variation. Stresses are caused due to lack of ft or differential settlement. Incoterms —— aa state Kinematic dermal StaticIndeterminacy Ifa structure can not be analyzed for external and internal reactions. Using static equilibrium conditions alone then such a structure is called indeterminate structure, @ [D.=D.+Dy where, D, = Degree of static indeterminacy 0,, = External static indeterminacy 1D, = Internal static indeterminacy * External static indeterminacy: Itis related with the support system of the structure and itis equal to number of external reaction components in addition to number of static equilibrium equations. MADE EASY i ) (wv) ” wi) vi) willy () Structural Analysis a7 Ww For 20 For 3D =6] where, fr, = total external reactions Internal static indeterminacy: Itrefers to the geometric stability of the structure. If after knowing the external reactions it is not possible to determine all internal forces/internal reactions using static equilibrium equations alone then the structure is said to be internally indeterminate, For geometric stability sufficient number of members are required to preserve the shape of rigid body without excessive deformation. Da i For 2D For 3D and r, = released reaction, For 20 For 3D m, = number of member cohnecting with J number of joints. and J’ = number of hybrid joint. For 2D truss For 3D truss 20 Rigid trame. 80 rigid frame. [De = (te = 6) ¥(6C= 4) 3D rigid frame48 ‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering 1 MADEEASY Kinematicindeterminacy Ifthe number of unknown displacement components are greater than the number of compatibility equations, for these structures additional equations based on equilibrium must be written in order to obtain sufficient number of. equations for the determination of all the unknown displacement components. The number of these additional equations necessary is known as degree of kinematic indeterminacy or degree of freedom of the structure. A fixed beam is kinematically determinate and a simply supported beams kinematically indeterminate. (Each joint of plane pin jointed trame has 2 degree of freedom. (ii) Each joint of space pin jointed frame has 3 degree of reedom, (ii) Each joint of plane rigid jointed frame has 3 degree of freedom (jv) Each joint of space rigid jointed frame has 6 degree of freedom. Dagree of kinematic indeterminacy is given by: For 2D Rigid frame when all members are axially extensible, ai) For 2D Rigid frame if ‘m’ members are axially rigid/inextensible, (i) [D=30+—_ mer For 20 Rigid frame when J’ = Number of Hybrid joints is available. (iv) [Dy = 60+ 1) For 3D Rigid frame. =min w For 2D Pin jointed truss. wi) For 3D Pin jointed truss. Influence Line Diagram and Rolling Loads Influence Line Diagram represents variation in the values of a particu stress function such as reactions, SF, BM, axial force, slope or deflectio etc., when a unit concentrated load moves from one end to the other end span. Simply Supported Beam ‘The ordinate of influence line at any section (say y,) represents magnitu of that stress function when unit concentrated load Is placed at that sectic BPs 4, sy vw unidrun “> © wer am a4 | vt Toa vertical reactions RB eat + due to given load system is TBR [RaPY TEN Twa tg $8 Hivoringedeentcieaararn (ii) Atwo hinged semicircular arch of radius R carrying a UDL w per unit length over the whole span. H iwi a 3 vaewal “Two hinged semicircular arch (iv) Atwo hinged semicircular arch of radius R carrying a distributed oad uniformly varying from zero at the left end to w per unit run at the right end. Val Two hinged semicicuiar arch (v) Atwo hinged parabolic arch carries a UDL of w per unit run on entire span. If the span of the arch is L and its rise is h.0 ‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY “Two hinged parabotie arch Horizontal thrust for two hinged parabolic arch is equal to XPS horizontal thrust for three hinged parabolic arch carrying UDL peninoer over entire span. MADEEASY Structural Analysis a (vil) Atwo hinged parabolic. carries a concentrated i load w at the crown, | [y_ 2 wi] H= = 128 h | 2 + 7 vo - — Two hinged parabolic aren ‘Temperature Effect on Two Hinged Arches (vi) When hatfof the parabolic arch s loaded by UDL. then the horizontal reaction at support is given by wi a 36h “Two hinged parabolic arch (vii) When two hinged parabolic arch carries varying UDL, from zero to w the horizontal thrust is given by a wl tv. be 1 4 ‘Two hinged parabolic arch Tat pee EI balat 0 ZElat] where H = Horizontal thrust for two hinged Hae semicircular arch due to rise In temperature by T °C. (® [pr TS ElgaT |where |, = Moment of inertia the arch at crown 8 he H = Horizontal thrust for two hinged ———- parabolic arch due to rise in temperature T°C. n Locus fora Two Hinged Arch (a) Two Hinged Semicircular Arch Reaction locus's straight line parallel to the line joining abutments aR and height at 2 ones easton lous2 ‘AHandbook on Civil Engineering (b) Two Hinged Parabolic Arch Eddy’s Theorem Linear arch ay Given Arch where, M, = BMat any section y = distance between given arch and linear arch @_MADEEASY Methods of Structural Analysis Do f Force Methodiiexbity Displacement Method NethouiCompatibiy Sunes thodum Method method Examples: Examples: {5 Vrtal workload method (0 Slope delecton metros {) Method ofconsitert deformation {f)_ Moment dtiouton method (i) Thee moment theorem (Ww). Column eralogy method (6) Elastic centre method (i) Castgiano's theorem of minimum sain energy (i) MaxweltMohr equation Difference between Force Method and Displacement Method Force Method 1.Unknowns are taken |_tedundants forces/reactions. 2.To find unknown forces ‘or redundants compatibility equations are written, ‘3.The number of compatibility [3.The number of equiiorium conditions equations needed is equal to | needed is equal to degree of jegree of static indeterminacy. | _ kinematic indeterminacy. | i) Minimums potential energy method DSpRcemaRMeod 1.Unknowns are taken displacement 2.To find unknown displacement joint ‘equilibrium conditions are written. STRAIN ENERGY METHOD * Strain energy stored due to axial load T pF] were. P= aloo DAE Ix lemental length AE = Axial rgilty + Strain energy stored due to bending zac] Where," M, = Bending moment at section x-x z ; u = jase ds = Elemental length El = Floxural rigidity u,‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY or = Modulus of elasticity Moment of inertia Strain energy stored due to shear — where, q = Shear sress v= fw G = Modulus of rigidity dy = Elemental volume Strain energy stored due to shear force where, A, = Areaof shear S = Shearforce G = Modulus of rigity ds = Elemental length, Strain energy stored due to torsion where, T= Torque acting on circular ber. dx = Elemental length G = Modulus of rigiaty |p = Polar moment of inertia Strain energy stored in terms of maximum shear stress, Where, Tag, = Maximum shear stress at the surface of rod under twisting. G = Modulus of rigity V = Volume Strain energy stored in hollow circular shatt is, [<2 (o®aae)] where, D=External dia of hollow d=Internal dia of hollow circular shat Maxirnum shear stress [, _ pTdx] [Y= Soar, | 2 Tage Wate Castigliano’ss first theorem where, U=Total strain energy aU aU pa? |] 55M A=Displacement in the direction of force P, 9 Rotation in the direction ‘of moment M MADEEASY Structural Analysis 65 ‘© Castiglianos Second Theorem B=} | Lap. Lam =} © Bettis Law Pn P. EFnban = EP.San | im Be Where, P,, = Load applied in the direction m. P,, = Load applied in the direction n. 8, = Deflection in the direction ‘m’ due to lead applied in the direction ‘a’ Deflection in the direction ‘n’ due to load applied in the direction ‘m’, 4 * Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem Ba he deflection in the direction @ due to applied load in the direction ®. Detection in ho direction @ due to appiod oad in the direction ®. where, \¢_ © Total real external work done ey = Deflection caused by a static force P in the direction of P | where, * Total external virtual work done, [wsP:3*] where, 8 = Deflection caused by any other force system say Q.[AHandbook on Civil Engineering Structural Analysis, 7. 1 _MADEEASY | mape Easy * Standard Cases of Deflection (iv) portal frame as shown in figure carties a load P at A (i) For the portal frame shown in the figure below horizontal otlection at D due to load P, assuming all members have 8 same flexural rigidity is given by | A z 3 8 ic 3, = Pah] a [5, -Pavaran] 2EI 2E s = Phe(2h+ 36) i a 4 ae where, 8, & 8, is horizontal & vertical detiection at end A a lo respectively. a (¥) Figure shows two identical wires OA and OB each of area A ee and inclined at 45° from horizontal. A load P is supported at O whore, 8 = Deflection of Din the direction of load P, (i) Semiciroular arch whose one end is hinged and other supported ‘on roller carried a load P as shown in the figure. x PR® So E where, 8, = Vertical deflection at 0" where, 8 = Deflection at B in the direction of load P. . moment distribution method (Hardy Cross (il) Aquadrantal ring AB of radius r support a concentrated load d (Hardy Cross method) eet © Stifiness: Itis the force/moment required to be applied at a joint so €s to produce unit deflection/rotation at that joint a Figg Mi] where, K = Stifiness =A F = Force required to produce deflection A. - M-= Moment required to produce rotation 8. a * Stiffness of beam 4 El (Stiffness of member BA when farther end A is fixed. =) & = Vertical defiection (deflection in the direction of load P) at end A = Horizontal deflection of end A, = Horizontal where where, 1 K = Stiffness of BA at joint B. When farther ends fixed, El = Flexural rigidity L = Length of the beam M = Moment at B.Handbook on CivilEngineering __—_ MADE EASY (i) Stifness of member BA when farther end A is hinged wa arg! (— where, K = Stifness of A at joint B, When farther end ishinges Carry over factor [cave over tector ‘Applied moment COF may greater than, equal to or less than + Standard Cases: 1 |cor=5 0) ii) Distribution Factor (D-F) oF Stifiness ofamember—_—| Sum of stifiness of all members at that joint| eae Relative stifiness of a member al Sum of relative stiffness of all member at that joi MADEEASY i Structural Analysis 69. where M,, M., M, and M, are moment induced in member OA, OB, OC and OD respectively. Relative Stiffness: () When farther end is fixed. Relative stiffness for member i (i) When farther endis hinged. sto, T= NOland = Lengo Beam ade [ Ag — re sitnoss ot 08 = 2! ; Fixed End Moments. Sign Convention +ve Sagging -ve + Hogging and All clockwise moment — +ve and All Anti clockwise moment —> —ve Span length is / (5 Summation of DF tor all member ata joints one. a] he a PL 8 8 —Pab? ab 7 P M(DF of OA) M. = M(DF of OC) M, = M(DF of OB) M, = M(DF of OD)70 _Atandbook on Civil Engineering ta MADE EASY ami? we 12 12 -wi? wi? 30 U2 Swe ja” ion" wi 36 Mb(3a—1) | Myatao—0 eG i Mo 4 ~6EIA MADE EASY Structural Analysis coe Tis cay 0 = +} eeIta+4,) | 6€14, +45) ry ee [a EG 7 ci a: wa? wa? ba tata) af 12 12F (6P-8i6.a+3a)| (41a) L Slope deflection Method (G.A. Maney Method) In this method, joints are considered rigid. it means joints rotate as @ Whole and the angles between the tangents to the elastic curve meeting at that joint do not change due to rotation. The basic unknowns are joint displacements (@ and A). To find @ and A, joints equilibrium conditions and shear equations are established. The forces (moments) are found using force displacement relations. Which are called slope deflection equations. * Slope Deflection Equation ‘The slope deflection equation at the end A for member AB can be written as: wEngineering w MADE EASY AHandbook on (i) The slope deflection equation at the end B for member BA can be written as: c+ (a0 +04 88)] Flexural Rigidity Mpa where, L = Length of beam, EI Mag & Gq are fixed end moments at A & B respectively. Maa & Mag are final moments at A & B respectively. 0, and 8, are rotation of joint A & B respectively. A = Seltlement of support. * Sign Convention + M- Clockwise M— Anti-clockwise +8 Clockwise — 0 Anti-clockwise A 4ve fit produces clockwise rotation to the member, & vice-versa The number of joint equilibrium conditions will be equal to number of'6” ‘components & numiber of shear equations will be equal to number of ‘A’ components. Trusses Degree of Static Indeterminacy where, D, =Degree of static indeterminacy Total external reactions @ [e=man =2 m= Number of members, ‘otal number of joints w = Truss is determinate +18 then [D, = 0] at specified point. Dai = Truss is indeterminate or redundant. i) Truss Member Carrying Zero forces ha Joint (My. Mp, My meet at a joint ? M, & M, ate collinear. = M, carries zero force. fr where M,, Mz, Mg represents member. (i) M, &M, are non collinear and [Fox = 0 9 ud = M, &M, carries zero force, Indeterminate Truss () Final force in the truss member sign convn -> +ve for tension, — ve for compression. where, S = Final force in the truss member K = Force in the member when unit oad is applied inthe redundant member@ MADE EASY 7h ‘AHandbook on Ci L = Length of the member A = Area of the member E = Modulus of elasticity P = Force in the member when truss become determinate after removing one of the member, P= Zero for redundant member. +7 then reaction is taken as redundant | td. eee kal +1 then member is taken as redundant. il Engineering Lack of Fitin Truss fouae| aL TA] where, u = Fe ax ORE = Force induce in the member due to that member which isa too shor o's’ t00 long is pulled by force Deflection of Truss 7 afer] If effect of temperature is neglected then Coefficient of thermal expansion Change in temperature where, y, = Deflection of truss due to effect of loading & temp. both. Yo= ittemperature is increased ve ittemperature is decreased. P & K have same meaning as mentioned above. Stiffness Method for Truss Bean [Bas [aa = AE Tra5, — Aen) 6088 + (ny Ay) 5iN0) ‘Axial deflection of member AB. Force in member AB (Axial force) where, Arg Matrix Method of Structural Analysis Flexibility The flexibility of a structure is dofined as the displacement caused unit force. or where, f= itty, 5 = Displacement P = Force, @= Rotation, M = Mom Pp 8] tw] Stiffness The stiffness is defined as the force required to produce a u displacement. P| {,_M [K= 5] or|k= 9] whore, k= stiness [3]. eta where, From Mazel Reciprocal Theorem f, = Deflection in direction x due J L to.unit force in direction y, Direction of displacement « + Direction of unit force. kx y = Force in direction x due to unit J L displacement in direction y, fection of force: Direction of unit displacement. Results Type of Displacement Diagram Flexibility Stifines oe @ LAE ( Axial tae = = (li) Transverse Displacement tn cS Le 1261 (@) withfarendiixed ——geia” +f Te c1 (b) with far end hinged (ii) Flexural Displacement (@) with far end end fixed (b) with far end hinged (iv) Torsional Displacement ‘ste willbe homogeneous. Itis not necessary that all members of flexibility or stiffness matri 76. AHandbookon CivilEngineering xl. MADE EASY eI A Handbook on Civil Engineering : RCC & Prestressed Concrete t Introduction t 2. Working Stress Method 8 4. Shear ‘ ; 8 Bond, Anchorage & Development Length 9 : 6. Torsion 9Introduction Concrete 1. Modulus of elasticity of concrete = 5000 fa. | where ¢ strength of concrete 2. Tensile strength of concrete in flexure y-5- Characteristic strength of concrete is the valve of strength of | : ste below which not more than 5% of test results are | (nu@aae expected to fall j 3. Permissible value of strength in concrete rect oneie | Compression [eondavems(e)] race AG strength ed | ct] Bonding = Biect/Berdral wou | usm a mo} 28 |s-| 7 | os { 12 mos} a2 | 6 | es | oo |-t4 mo] 36 |e | wo | 10 | 15 wos} 40 foo fs | ta | a7 wo| 44 | 10 | 130 | 12 | 19 * ta given in table is only for plain mild steel bar in tension, * Tyg value should be increased by 60% for deformed bars both in LSM and WSM. ‘+ For bars in compression the value should be increased by 25%. Steel 4. Young's modulus ofall ype of stee! is 2 x 10% Nimm®. + Type of steel 1. Mild steel — Fe 250 Here, 250s the characteristic strength of mild ste Also, f, = 260mm? RCC & Prestressed Concrete _ 79 MADEEASY “3. HYSD bars Feat5 Fe500 Permissible stresses in steel 3 Permissible Stresse: Steel Reinforcement Pormissibie stresses in N/m? ype of Stress in Stee! Reinforcement Mid steo! bars High yield strength (F280) deformed bars (Fe 415) nf 2 @ @), i | Tension (6, OF Gy) {@) Up 10 and including 140 230 20mm {e) Over 20 mm 190 230 1 | Comoression In column 30 190 The calculated compressive sires In the surrounding ‘concrete multiplied by 1.5 times the modu Oe Whichever is lower | Compression in bars in ‘2 beam of slab when the compressive resistance ofthe conorate is taken wi] Compression in bars in a beam or slab where the compressive resistance of be concrete isnot taken into account: (a) Up o and including 140 120 zamm (©) Over 20 mm 130 190 2. Forwelded wire fabric, the permissible value in tension 6, is 230 Nimmé, 3, For the purpose of this standard, the yield stress of steels for which there is no clearly defined yield point should be taken to be 0.2 percent proof stress, For high yield strength deformed bars of Grade Fe 500 the permissible stress in direct tension and flexural tension shall be 0.55 f,. The permissible stresses for shear and compression reinforcement shall be as for Grade Fe 415.Working Stress Method Modulur Ratio [TE] where,m =Modular ratio m= E, = Modulus of elasticity of steel E, a (Ee Ey =Modulus of elasticity of concrete Equivalent Area of Concrete lamar] Here, A, =Areaof concrete oo A, =Area of steel Stress in Concrete [——p,] where, p, =stressin concrete Pc = P, =stress in steel Critical Depth of Neutral Axis (X.) TT ep ba [I oe Here, D = Overall depth Effective depth O.. = © = permissible stress in concrete yermissible stress in steel ‘SINGLE REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION Actual depth of Neutral axis (X,) In working stress method actual depth of neutral axis is calculated by equating moment of Area on both side of Neutral axis. MADEEASY & © Special case: RCC & Prestressed Concrete Br () when [X, =X ] for balanced section, (i) when [X, > Xe | for over reinforced section, (ii) when [Xq <% ] for under reinforced section. Moment of resistance (M,) (i) For balanced section (X, = X,) — Section Svess diagram ease: 3) Lever Arm forced section (X, < X.) I eee pi EEE c, < oe(lil) For over-reinforced section (X, > X,) Doubly reinforced section Section DOUBLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR SECTION Critical depth of Neutral axis, (X) Actual depth of Neutral axis, (X,) [Bea 5m—1) Ace (X, de) = MAg(d~X,) Here, X, = Actual depth of Neutral axis Moment of resistance (M,) | NA, | | ‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering m_MADE EASY Stress diagram Section Stress diagram M=CiCa) + Calne 4 s J+« Sm~1) Aged —de) MADEEASY M RCC Prestressed Concrete _ Design Steps (i) (iii) 7 mo Q= Fo. j-k Po] k= wv) wi) 280 — 3Gex0 Special case: () Balanced section (ii). Under reinforced section %e<% Cy < G0 t= On (il) Over reinforced section a> X C, = Gy. <6,; ‘A Handbook on Civil En: Engineering SINGLY REINFORCED T-SECTION __& MADE EASY hero, B= Effective wicthof lange | wo = Wath of web | Go Effective depth 1 Effective width of flange (a) For beam casted monolithic with slab = Distance between points of zero | ‘moments in the beam B = Total width of flange b, = Width of web Critical depth of Neutral axis (X,) When Neutral axis is in flange area (. Actual depth of Neutral axis CTs [PE =mano- x] Xa) emul) | Ag fos} Here, X, = Actual depth of Neutral axis " MADEEASY a RCC & Prestressed Concrete (i) Moment of resistance (M,) ca(eaxa [m 8% G(s" [eax bebe Balanced section — Under reinforced section|C, < 625. Over reinforced section |C, When Neutral axis is in web area Bie Sets —s——+ Section () For actual depth of neutral axis Bye (Xa -4) mAg(d~ Xa) Bed (X- Stress diagram By neglecting web area By considering d, (%- a)? _ $1) + pw Maa" mania X) |reroree Moment of resistance (M,) wos 25 [Beas] s] wo Bla w s=20]Limit State Method Design stress strain curve at ultimate state swrese ductile talure 0.45 fa oar, 2 voor o.00as a Strain Fe 200 + Design value of strength For concrete Where, ne = Partial factor of safety for concrete = 1.5 fg = design value of strength For stee! fa = Singly Reinforced Beam fax, 1.36%, (4-042) (ox, Ce or) T=08r, Section Strain Diagram =, —_Stoss Diagram RCC & Prestressed Concrete xd Steel | Xam Fe 250 [0.830 for Fo 415 [0.480 [Fe 500 [0.460 Hered = effective depth of beam 2. Actual depth of neutral axis (X,) CaT= [Xu= 3. Lever arm = d~0.42 X, 4, Ultimate moment of resistance [M,=0.86%0X,(G—042K,)] or [Mi = O87HAy (d= 0.49%,)] and tensile force, InLSM, actual depth of NAis found by equating total compressive | - + Some special cases 1 When X, < Xi Itis an under-reinforced section [M, = 0.36 (bX, (d- 0.42X,) and [M, = 0875,Ay (d= 0.42%) When X, = Xv in Itis balanced section [My = 0.36 640% sion (d= 0-42X in) My = O875Ag (d= 0.42X iin) When X, > Xam Itis over reinforced section. In this case, keep X, limited 0 Xi, land moment of resistance of the section shall be limited to limiting moment of resistance, (M, jn).es. AHandbook on € Doubly Reinforced Section Section Strain Diagram ‘Stioss Diagram 1. Limiting depth of neutral axis 700 Xutm = 9.87%, + 1700 *4 2. Foractual depth of neuttal ais (X,) C=T > [Gee T] t 0.36%,DX, + (fee — 0.45%) 3. Ultimate moment of resistance [Mo= 0.35% DK, (F= 0.4K) +(e — 0.45) Ara Ae) where stress in compression steel and itis calculated by strain at the location of compression steel (t,,) 87h A T-Beam 1. Effective width of flange [Discussed in WSM 2. Limiting depth of neutral axis ne) Xaim = B75 + 1100 ~4 Singly reinforced T-Beam Case When NA\is in flange area fu<0) m MADEEASY MADEEASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete (@) forx, (©) Ultimate moment of resistance |= 0.86 fb, (d= 0.42%.) or [i (Au (G= 0.42%) Case-2: When NA is in wob area (X, > 0) ‘ TH O87 Ay Section Strain Diagram Stress Diagram Case (@) when X, » Dy and D, < 3X, i.e., depth of flange is less than the depth of rectangular portion of stress diagram, 1. For actual depth of neutral ais IGF X, + 0.45%, (Dj —By)Dy 0875 Ay, 2. Ultimate moment of resistancei "90: ‘AHandbook on Civil Engineering mm MADE EASY 0.45 tx cy 7,=0.87 fu, Section Stress Diagram Stross Diagram MADEEASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete Ser or [0.36 foybwXu + 0.45f,, (Dy — By) ¥1 = 0.87 Ag 0.48 ta, M, = 0.864%, (d= 0.42%) + 0.45 (0) — b,)0( - By M,=0875Ay, (4 0.42X,)+0871,Ae, (6-34) TOBEEDX| fy 045k (b= by): "= O87t, ta = 0.874, Ae + special Case (2): When X, > D, and D,> 3%, i.e., depth of flange is more than depth of rectangular portion of stress diagram. —b Rectangular portion yd Parabolic portion As per IS 456: 2000 (b,-b,), portion of flange is converted into (b,~b,,)¥, Section for which stress is taken constant throughout the section is 0.45 fy. ‘As per IS 456: 2000 Yi = 0.1K, + 0.650; < Dy 1. For actual depth of neutral axis 0.36 f 4b, X, + 0.45% (Bs — By) ¥1 B7iAn, +0. | ‘ 4 | 7 M, = 0.36%, (d~ 0.42X,) + 0.45, (by ~ By) Vp (a-%) M, = 087IAg, (d-0.42X,) + 0876Aq, (d— 4) OS5GBX, Das b Aas = o7h, | and [Ase = 24Ba: (1 Pe)Shear Shear stress (a) For Homogeneous beam Section Shear sess clstributon C2 where, q = shear stress at any section V = shear force at any section AY = Moment of area of section above the point of consideration bl Moment of inertia of section = > (b) For Reinforced concrete beam Parabolic ‘As per I 456: 2000, of 74) ve ‘AS per elastic theory ‘Section Shear stress clstrbution () Shear stress above NA MADEEASY or (i) Shear stress below NA As per IS 456 : 2000 Nominal shear stress, | ty = —* u RCC & Prestressed Concrete oa id ‘The maximum shear stress | @= 57g | obtained from elastic ‘ory, is greater than the nominal shear stress (or Average Z) shear stress) +, suggested by IS 456: 2000. [LA pat x 100 Design shear strength of concrete (t,) without shear reinforcement as per IS 456: 2000 +. depends on () Grade of concrete (i) Percentage of steel, os015 rates. 0.25 oso | 076 41.00 0.18] 0.19 | 0.28 | 0.29 0.22 | 023 | 0.36 | 0.36 0.20 | 031 | 048 | 049 05 | 036 | 058 | 057 0.39 | 0.40} 02 | asa + Maximum shea siro08 mq, with shear reinforcement is Mis]ve0 M25] IV30 M35] V0 & above| ISM |25 [28 31{35/37| 40 WSM] 7.6] 78 ia{e2/e3} 25 © Minimum shear reinf o4 Sy 0874, $22 USI Aw ty # Tomax forcement (As per IS 456: 2000) ‘This is valid for both WSM and LSM. where, A,, = Area of shear reinforcement ‘Spacing of shear reinforcementSpacing of shear reinforcement Maximum spacing is minimum of (i), (ii) and (iti) 2.1754 As, | @ [S= ee | (i) 300mm (ii) 0.754 + For vertical stirrups d For inclined stirrups pees where, d = effective depth of the section Critical section for design shear Diagonal i crack fs Jani dot {wall ACC Column yb 8 @ on (9) Critical secton X-X at dl fram the face of the support +itidl oy os ee : a NY Hea At esr Pac columa cy «i (0) Citcal section XX athe face of the support The above provisions are applicable for beams generally carrying Unitormly distributed load or where the principal load is located beyond 2d from the face of the support MADEEASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete Vertical stirrup: (d= Hong bars eee te 7 = ree sleds va pan i Sew i Shear force V, llbe Resisted by shear Reinforcement provided length ofthe beam, where, A,, = Cross-sectional area of stirups $, = Contre centre spacing of straps * [va -(E) 40009749] rrtsu Inclined stirrups : or a series of bars bent-up at different cross- section: cS (ena + cosy 2) for WSM ———— Ves =Aav (0.87 f, (sina + 0% LsM eee Sy Bent up Bars. Single or a group of bent up bars are provided at distance /2a = V2jd tomauppotn si anay hat < ACB 457, Generally bar should not be bent up beyond a distance i/4 from the support. Where / = length of span.Bond, Anchorage and Development Length Bond stress (¢,,) Vv Epid : Torsion Equivalent shear force 16T Veg = ¥+“5~ | For ws ~ b vere V = Shear force = Torsional moment hou teh b = Width of tho section Yor = M+ BBE Fortin ] where V = Shear force at any section d = Effective depth of the section 2p = Sum ofall perimeter of reinforcement n-n(6) n= Number of reinforcement (9 = diameter of reinforcement Permissible bond stress As per IS 456 : 2000 __[Mi5]M20[M25]M30][M35|M40] WSN 06 [08 [O09] 10] 1.1] 12 tom — [42 [4 [15 [77] 79] These value of bond stress is for plain bar in tension For deformed bar the above value should be increased by 60%. For bar in compression the above value should be increased by 25%. Development length (L,) | | | | { | | | | | | i \ | + Nominal shear stress % ty = 82 tomax | For v= HE Roe | Fors [= [sam SP sear | Forti Equivalent moment i For WSM where, M = Bending moment D=Overall depth of the section d =Effective depth Ma silte 2 Meg = My a TI rou Transverse reinforcement Also, where,AMandbookon vilEngineering__ i MADE EASY Here, T = Torsional moment S, = Spacing of the stirrup reinforcement b, = Centre to centre distance between corer bars in the direction of width Centre to centre distance between comer bars in the direction of depth of member Breadth of member = Permissible tensile stress in shear reinforcement 4, ‘Maximum spacing for Transverse reinforcement XY ox wy (ii) 300 mm When a beam is subjected to torsion, if depth of the beam is more than 450 mm or for beam not subjected to torsion it the depth of web exceeds 750 mm then side face reinforcement equal to 0.1% of cross-sectional area and is ‘equally distributed on both faces of the beam. Beams and Slabs Effective span ‘A. Simply supported beams and slabs (/y) ai. a 4 — Y 6 L- [a= ‘imum jo *™ | 41 = minimum b+a| clear span w = width of support d = depth of beam or slab B. For continuous beam () Ifwidth of support <3 of clear span aoa] © twiam oteuppon » of tear epan (@)_ When one end fixed other end continuous or both end continuous. fen =o | + —ef (6) When one end continuous and other end simply supported, fig + w/2 Jay= Minit rimun| D2AHandbookonCivilEngineering ‘ml MADE EASY i 100. MADE EASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete 101 ©. Cantilever a i For simply supported 20 r For continuous 926 0 * (©) Forspan> 1 (spany* Lo | r span > 10 meffectiv = = 5p depin = (barr where ‘A’ is span to offective depth ratio for span upto 10m nd (©) Depending upon the tension reinforcement the value ‘A’ can ; i tbe modify by multiplying a factor called modification factor (id) | fort (MF,) b b [ies ’ — Centre to centre distance @ ha © ()._Thisis one of the mostimportant check for limit state of serviceability, 0 (2) The final deflection due to all loads including the effect of temperature, creep and shrinkage and measured from as cast | level of the support of floors, roofs and other horizontal | span members should not normally exceed => ‘The deflection including the effect of temperature, creep and shrinkage occurring after erection of partition and application (0) SP20 620 mm which 350) 1 offinishes should not normally exceed ever is less. For cantilever AxMF, Area of steal required Area of steel provided effective depth - 4, = 0.58 4, x where , Depending upon area of compression reinforcement, value (A) can be further modified using a modification factor (MF) effective depth = Span __ [stein est aE For flanged beam: A reduction factor is used Deflection check for two way slab oe ‘Simply supported Continuous Slenderness limit For simply supported or continuous beams 0b where, ly = Clear span ed i ical deflection limit rally be satisfied it (Tavera! deletion tray genera cai foo minimum, pe = Width of the section (@) Basic span to effective depth ratio for span upto 10 mis 250% ade een span Types of Beams: effective depth 2b 2. For cantilever beam | fy minimum}? a7 00%502 ‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY (Minimum tension reinforcement (i) Maximum tension reinforcement = 0.04 5D (ii) Maximum compression reinforcement = 0.04 6D. where, D= overall depth of the section (iv) Where, D > 750 mm, side face reinforcement is provided and it is equal to 0.1% of gross cross-section area (bxD), It is provided equally on both face () Maximum spacing of side face reinforcement is 300 mm. (vi) Maximum size of reinforcement for slab/beam is 1/8 of total | thickness of the member (vii) Nominal cover for different members Beams — 25mm Slab = 20 to 30 mm Column — 40. mm Foundations > 50 mm Moment and shear coefficient for beams/slabs ‘BMD Moment costfiient - 3 MADEEASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete at08! Oneway slab 0 where, 1, = length of longer span 1, = length of shorter span (ii) Slab is supported only on two edges. s of design a 2 Calcio of efecive span (lett) Catenion of a lead Dig eR ! 0196, Fe 4x5 [FH] Salutation of dosion 0.19 fy Fe 500 i aw [ion os ae * "af o- fe 5 [sw Ag = 25hK] 1 f;- 48M og 5 bed? is o [ps2 (ii) Slab is supported on alll edges. * Design of two way slab 1. Grasoff Rankine method ‘* Itis used for comers not held down position. * tis purely simply supported case.404 A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY 0 (i) Moment in x-direction (M,) Moment in y-direction (M,) (ii) Shear force Atshorter edge (V,) a \adws k= a Wh | Atlongeredue (V,) (oad Diswbuaon) 2. Design of slab with comer held down position (@ © Pigeauds method wi 18 where, the values of rf and ¢ are read from table LS. code method M, z = 2 o,wh | [M, =a, wk | The values of «and a, read from table (page 91, 1S columns Working Stress Method + Slenderness ratio (A) effective tength least lateral dimension | it [2572] then the column is long. ‘+ Load carrying capacity for short column Ges Aus + Oca Ae ‘Area of concrete, Stress in compression steel Stress in concrete A, = Total gross cross-sectional area A,_ = Atea of compression steo! + Load carrying capacity for long column P= C(GscAsc + FocAc) where, C, = Reduction factor ~ her 488 * eran 160 where, ty ~ Effective length of column Leastlateral dimension ign = Least radius of gyration and where | = Moment of inertia and A =AHandboo! * Effective length of column n Civil Engine: ye RCC & Prestressed Concrete 407 in with helical reinforcement = Colum fective Length of Compression Members seen of te column is increased by 5% Degree of End ‘Symbol Theoretical Recommended [P= 1.05 (65; Asc * Gee Ac) | for short column Restraint of value of value of Oe compression eae oe [P= LOB C,(6, Ase 4 8ue Ac) for long column members Length Length _ oO wy Ty ) Helical teinforcementis provided only for circular columns Effectively held in a a : ~ Postion end resaned 0501 0651 + Longitudinal reinforcement Sonica {@)_ Minimum area of steel = 0.8% of the gross area of column a (&) Maximum area of stee! on (when bars are not lapped A,,,, = 6% of the gross area of postion a bom ends column eral ncaa 0701 0.801 (i) when bars are lapped Ang, = 4% of the gross area of = column postion at both ond + Minimum number of bars for reinforcement Bot nt reine For rectangular column —> 4 ‘against rotation oe ee For circular column —> 6 poston and festsned + Minimum diameter of bar = 12mm against rotation at one * Maximum distance between longitudinal bar = 300 mm Sea, and th ober 1001 ta) + pedestal: tis a short length whose effective length is not more than 8 rotation but not held times of least lateral dimension. in position * Transverse reinforcement (Ties) Effectively held in position ee and recvained egainet Tan | a7 th rotation in one end, ana | = maximum 4 man | where, Ong, = dia of main logitudnal bar the other partially - [ restrained against rotation — ein ia of bar for transverse butnot held n poston reinforcement Effectively held in poston + Pitch (p) atone end but nol ‘esvained against tation, least lateral dimension eran nel eens 2001 201 = minimum 16 Onin but not held in postion 300mm Eectey main postion Where, pig = Minimum dia of main longitucnal bar ‘otton atone end But ret 2001 2001 2 ee ee held. in position nor restrained against rotation ft the other enc () Diameters of helical reinforcement is selected such that 7 oe] 42a] 2 x |® Voi ‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering l@ MADE EASY i (i) Pitch of helical reinforcement: (p) @)pa75mm ()p#Ldo (6)pe3e (a) px25mm where, d, = Core diameter = d, ~2 xclear cover tohelical reinforcement Gross area = Ed, Gross diameter /olume of helical reinforcement in unit length of column Diameter of steel bar forming the helix Aa Bae . = 00.)| Ve=Ae xi] = centre to centre dia of helix d,~2 clear cover ~6, 4, = diameter of the steel bar forming the helix = 1000 mm —i a ‘© Some others IS recommendations (@) Slenderness limit (Unsupported length between end restrains 4 60 times least lateral dimension. (i) fin any given plane one end of column is unrestrained than 100B* its unsupported length +=. (b) All column should be designed for a minimum eccentricity of ~ “ft or'D’ nin = maximum 4500 * 30 fe MADEEASY limit state method 4. Slenderness ratio (A) RCC & Prestressed Concrete 109), __ effective Tength L°* Teast lateral dimension | [2=22] short cotuemn BorD 20 2. Eccentricity = maximum) 565 0mm 5D | then itis a short axially loaded colurnn, [P.=04G, Als O67 where, P, = axial load on the column 3. Short axially loaded column with helical reinforcement 504 A FORTE A, 4, Some others IS code Recommendations (@) Slendemess limit (Unsupported length between end restrains + 60 times least lateral dimension, (i) Ifin any given plane one end of column is unrestrained than 4008? ‘ts unsupported length + (0) All column should be designed for a minimum eccentricity of Te enn = maximum {806 * 36 20mm {t Sty * Concentrically Loaded Columns where © =0, i.e, the column is truly axially loaded. This formula is also used for member subjected to combined axial load and bi-axial bending and also used when e > 0.050,Footings Isolated Footings Footings are structural elements that transfer loads coming from the superstructure to the earth. If these loads are to be properly transmitted, foundations must provide adequate safety against sliding and overturning, Theoretically speaking, isolated footings must be designed for both axial load and moment but practically isolated footings are designed only for axial loads. Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads: shallow foundation and deep foundation, According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if ts depth is equal to or less than it width. In the case of deep foundation, the depth is greater than the width. Apart from deep strip, rectangular or square foundations, other common forms of deep foundations are; pier foundations, pile foundation and well foundation. The shallow foundations are of the following types: Spread footing, strap footing, combined footing and mat or raft footing, Spread footings: A spread footing or simple footing, is a type of shallow foundation used to transmit the load of an isolated column, or that of a wall, on the subsoil. In the case of wall, the footing is continuous while in the case of column, itis isolated Combined footings: A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as a combined footing. Such a footing is provided when the individual footings are either very near to each other, or overtan, Combined footings may either be rectangular or trapezoidal Strap or Cantilever footings: A strap footing consists of spread footings of two columns connected by a strap beam. The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil, and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil Mat or Raft foundation: A mat or raft is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns. When the available soil pressure is low or the building loads MADE EASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete ti are heavy the use of spread footings would cover more than one halt of the area and itmay prove more economical to use ma or raft foundation Pile foundation: Pile foundation is a deep foundation used where the top soilis relatively weak, Piles transfer the load to a lower straturn of greater bearing capacity, by way of end bearing, oro the itermodiato soil though skin fiction, This is more common type of deep foundation | generally used for buildings where a group of piles transfer the load of the super-structure to the sub-soil Design of Isolated Footing Rectangular footing Given values 1. Load = P or P, 3. Size of column 2. Bering capacity of so =a, 4. Gredeotconcetoand sie Design steps () Sazecfoundaton Load fom column =P | Ade ofeunaaten 9-0. 4 TtalioadPy = 11P (even om catom lm sete method use unt for calculation of area) oe rae 4, ~ Bearing capacity of soi | Choose L and 8 such that A= Lx B Net soil pressure, Area of footing, Load from column without self weigl Area provided Net soil pressure over foundation For LSM. Net soil pressure | (w,i AHandbook on Civil Engineering (i) Cheek for bending moment Critical section for bending moment is at the face of the column Consider 1 m strip of foundation Bending about x-x +. Maximum bending moment ~~ [w by _ wiB =») wy )* (Sey | Similarly bending about y-y Where, b = 1000mm a (i) Depthreauires |= y GR [Murnax ForLsM |d : (iv) Check for single shear (one-way shear) ll MADEEASY Critical section for one-way shear is at distance ‘a! from the face of the column. Shear at x-x Overhang, (2)-41 Shear force, V,=wixL, MADEEASY “ RCC & Prestressed Coricrete Similarly Shear force at y-y Overhang, a= Find out maximum of V, and Wy, = / b-a)_ W=w.tet, = f[ 3 ) d Nominal shear stress where, t, is permissible design shear strength of concrete in Nimm? as given in IS 456 : 2000 Footing should be always safe in shear. No shear reinforcements provided. Check for (Punching Sheer). Critical section for punching shear also called two-way shear is at distance ‘d/2" from face of the column all around, Net punching force Pa =P—wa+ die +d) two-way Net punching fore Gross-section area of resisting section Punching shear stress develope “. Cross-section area = perimeter x depth Now perimeter = 2{(a+ d) + (b+ d)], Depth = wad) (b+ dl » Punching shear stress |“ Bf(a + d) + (b+ d)]xd | Above developed siress should be less than the permissible punching shear stress Permissible punching shear stress [rezk x016/G To =k x 025] (working sirese method) (Limit state method) k, = (05 + B,) but not greater than 1, i, being the ratioof short side tS long side ofthe column- Afondbook on Chil Engineering MADE EASY (vi) Area of stee! for longer span (i saemmneee (vit) The area of steel A,, of long bars parallel to direction Lis calculated as under For M, moment A= Ay My oid 0871, (d-0.42x,) (Working stress method) (Limit state method) This reinforcement is equally distributed over entire width B. Area of steel calculated above is for 1 m, width. Catoulate this} | area for width 8 and distribute uniformly over entire width ! For total width B of footing, total area of steel = B x Ay Area of steel for shorter span The area of steel A,, of short bars paral asunder a Guid 0.876 (d- 0.42x,) For total length L of footing, total area of steel ‘This area is provided in two distinct band widths: The central ane B of width B, and (0 direction B is calculated for 1m ‘The end bands A, each of width HL- B) 2 Bq * total reinforcement The reinforcementin central band width Bei in short direction, Where, B = ratio of ong side to the Long bars @ equal spacing short side of the aH Reon footing ben Bane end bands 4 ‘The remainder of reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in outer portions of the footing, prestress Concrete prestress Concrete is one in which there have been introduced internal stresses of such magnitude and distribution that stresses resulting from given external loading is counter balanced to a desired degree. Jassie ofpasressconcteven gh aan ses anigh san AX. concrete is used Analysis of prestress and Bending stress + Assumptions () Concrete is homogeneous elastic material (i) Within the range of working stresses, both concrete and stee! bbehave elastically and Hooke's lew is vali. (ii) A transverse plane section before bending remain plain after bending. * Following are the three concepts of analysis @) Stress concept analysis (b) Strength concept analysis (©) Load balancing method Stress concept Method Following are the two cases for analysis. Case-(i) Beam provided with a concentric tendon: Gaaaaanannnry ya i racers dE oe a Let, P prestressing force applied by the tendon. Due to this prestressing force, the direct compressive force induced is given Pp by, gee % aa Hf due to dead load & external loads, the bending moment at the section is M, then the extreme stresses at the section due to bendingi AHandbook on Civil Engineering __ ml MADE EASY MADE EASY RCC & Prestressed Concrete aig. moment alone is Stess at bottom fore = 452M PM By providing an eccentricity to the tendon, a hogging moment (Pe.) Hence final stress at th oo . Stross at the extreme top edge = 5 +7 is developed which will produce stresses, which will counteract the a stresses duo to external bending moment and stress at the extreme bottom edge = © RZ strength Concept method + Case-(i: Beams with eccentrics tendon | Considera beam of length fprovided with atendon at an eccentricity, ‘Suppose the beam is lying on the groundi.e. the beam is not subjected toany external load. Hence there is no external bending moment on the beam. Force Acting on tendon foe aus 2M Ze. ate 2 Stress Due “Stes Due Sizes Dus to Eccenticiy toExtemel to External olthe “Bending” “Benging Prosiress —Prestess = Moment Moment e Foros acing on Corerete (Direct stresses due to prestressing force = + The following equal forces are existing. (il) Extreme stresses due to eccentricity of the prestressing force (i) The P-force which is the tension in the tendon, (i). The C-torce which is the compressive force acting on the concrete Stresses in concrete are produced entiraly dus to C-force. In the absence of any external bending moment the C-force and P- force act at the same level. Line of action of P-torce is callod the Pine ‘The Paine is nothing but the tendon line itself. The line of action of the 4 force is called the C-line or Pressure line. Hence in the absence of eee any external bending moment the P-Jine and the C-line coincide. Pe az (iil) Extreme stresses due to bending moment Stress at top firejie AHandbookon CivilEngineering __«_ MADE EASY MADEEASY RCC& Prestressed Concrete sae ‘Suppose the beam is subjected to a bending moment M, then the C- == line wil be shifted from the P-line by a distance ‘a’ called lever arm, Direct stress on the section = =f M_M -_ (W=2P sino)? [eau woo, fa OU aH PC! 4 Extreme stresses in concrete are given by Where, w = dead load per unit length of the beam. Extreme fibre a at = C , Cxeccentrici weie | stress = hall eae Z i It may be realized that the profile of the tendon should follow the Load Balancing Concept shape of the bending moment diagram for the given external loads in order it may offer considerable and effective upward forces. For €.9., if the loading on the beam is a uniformly distributed load, the tendon may be provided along a parabolic profile. * Prestressed Beam with Bent Tendon —v ‘Tendon with Parabolic Profile ae FRPPPPTTT ETT tie iL * : ee By providing bent tendons, the tendons will exert an upward pressure on the concrete beam and will therefore counter act a part of the external downward loading. Considering the concrete as a free body. We find an upward force 2P sin. ‘The net downward load at the cenire will be (W-2P sind), ‘The axial longitudinal force provided by the tendon = P cos re ve per unt iun Loads Tranamtied to Tendon Let /be the span of the beam and h be the dip of the cable. The cable will exert an upward ual = wm on the beam, but the cable will be subjected to downward udl of w, per unit run. {since 8 is small) Let V and H are vertical and horizontal components of P.i AH ivil Engir MADE EA: mee A tlandbock on Civil Engineetang) i MADE EASY} MADGEASY, RCC & Prestressed Concrete 2 Wel vate I 2 The cable is an absolutely flexible member, therefore BM at every 1. Loss of prestress: section of cable is zero. Hence BM at the centre of the cable is during, tensioning ‘retin, Wel - fe wel? No Loss Py xt-wet4t-Hn=0 we (2) Loss due 10 length ee 2 2 2'4 8h. , effect. “ Since dip of the cable is very small, we can make approximation (2) Loss duet cuvatur | |_Netoes Pou cos a= 1 and P.cos a =P = te Now consider the beam, itis subjected to 1 | leg and caval ee () External load w per unit length i ofect (i) Upward udl transmitted by the cable = w, per unit length. i er. restessing fore Net UDL = w-w, atthe jacking end, k= Wobble. friction wea : cor INetBM at the centre Je | foto" per meter < K 50x10" permeter | Ja. = Cumulative angle in Extreme stresses = £ + NetBM j fedians. trough wich A fangent to ihe cable protite nas turned tween any two pons Losses of Prestress jinderconederstion. The steel wires of a prestressed concrete member do not retain all the Peon of preliminary prestress. A certain amount of loss of prestross always none takes place, Losses may be classified as follows: 2. Los of prestress at thoanchorng stage. | [_NoLoss 75 Here 4} = effective slip of the 1 Length of the tendon E, = Young's modulus Iortendonwitee 3. Loss of pr ress oceuring Sub- sequent,(2) Loss of aress due to shrinkage of concrete A Handbook on Civil Engineering Youngs modulus for tendon wire, T= Age of concrete at the time of transfer cof stress (indays) () Loss of sess due to craaptoconcrete em ere Modular ratio lavelot tea! (6) Loss of stress due to laste shortening of Celia need mh Design of Steel Structures |for subsequent Pre a tensioning Here f= Initial stress_in concrete at tne levelofstea! (4) Loss of stress due to 4 to Stor nia prostress ‘reap of steel or toss due to stress felaxations 105% inital prestress 1. Structural Fasteners 124 o 2. Tension Member J 133 3. Compression Member 136 4. Beams 147 5. Plate Girders ... 150 6. Industtial Roots. : 153, 7. Plastic Analysis on 184 «o>Structural Fasteners Riveting The size of the rivet is the diameter of the shank. (@) Gross dia of rivet or dia of hole ford < 25mm d+2.0mm | ford > 25 mm where od d! = Gross dia of rivet or dia of hole | Nominal dia of rivet For strength calculation elective diameters taken into account. ) | This is based on the assumption that rivet fills the hole | | completely. (b)_Unwins formula [Gre = 6.05 ton] WMTE. pen = dia of rivet in mm — thm = thickness of plate in mm, Bolted Joints Bolts may be used in place of rivets for structure not subjected to vibrations. The following types of bolts are used in structures: () Black bolts * Hexagonal black bolts are commonly used in steel works. * They are made from iow or medium carbon steels, * They are designated as black bolts M x dx / where d = diameter, and / = length of the bolts. ) Precision and Semi Precision Bolts © They are also known as close tolerance bolts. = Sometimes to prevent excessive siip, close tolerance bolts ae provided in holes of 0.15 to 0.2 mm oversize. This may cause difficulty in alignment and delay in the progress of work. MADE EASY + Types of Riveted and Bolted Joints There are two types of riveted or bolted joints, () Lap joint ‘+ The lap jointis that in which the plates to be connected overlap each other, * The lap joint may have single-row, staggered or chain riveting. Pp <= 125) ~_ | Lap joint (ii) Butt Joint ‘The butt joint is that in which the plates to be connected butt against each other and the connection is made by providing a cover plate on one or both sides of joint. Double-cover but joint ‘+ _The buttjoint may have a single row or staggered or chain riveting, (i) Nominal diameter (d): The diameter of the shank of a rivet before riveting, is called the nominal diameter. For a bolt, the diameter of the unthreaded portion of the shank is called its nominal diameter. (i) Effective diameter or gross diameter: The effective or gross diameter of a rivet is equal to the diameter of the hole it fills after riveting. For a bolt, the nominal diameter is same as the gross diameter. (ii) Net area: The net area of a bolts the area at the root of the thread. iv) Gauge: A row of rivets parallel to the direction of force Is called a | gauge line. The normal distance between two adjacent gauge line is called the gauge.Alandbook sh civilEngineering __l MADE EASY (v) Edge distance: lis the distance between the edge ofamember or ) cover plate and the centre of the nearest rivet hole. (vi) Proof load : Initial tension in HSFG bolts is known as proof load of the bolt (vil)Slip Factor: Coefficient of friction in friction type joint is known as slip factor. (vii)Pitch : The distance between centres of any two adjacent rivets parallel to the direction of force is called pitch. Diagonal pitch is the distance between centres of any two adjacent rivets in the diagonal direction is called diagonal pitch. End cistance Failure of Riveted/Bolted Joints (i) By Tearing of Plate between rivets Strength of tearing per pitch length Pra (p-a')txh Permissible tensile stress in plates ‘Thickness of plate Dia of hole (gross dia of rivet) Pitch. where, Gory (ii) Strength of rivet in single shear |: (iil) Strength of rivet in double shear = 2, ] Where, , = allowable shear stress in rivets Pe a2xtoh d’ = diaof hole (iv) Failure due to bearing or crushing of rivet or plates Strength of rivet in bearing Rabat where, f, = bearing strength of rivet. MADEEASY Design of Stee! Structures a7) Shearing strength of joints simply the sum of shearing strength of individual rivets Bearing strength of joints simply sum of bearing strength of individual rivets in the joints, J Efficiency of Joints (n) [aim Strength of joint in shear a Strength of oint in bearing Strength of joint in tearing P = Strength of plate in tearing when no deduction has been made for rivet holes = pith R + Rivet value | Ay Force © Number of rivet, |" =e «IS 800 : 1984 Recommendation Maximum permissible stress in rivets & bolts (Power driven (@)Shoprivets 100 100 300 (b)Fioldrivots | 80 270. ()_Handdiven rivets 2 80 250. (li). Giose tolerance andiumedboits | 120 00 “300 (iv) Botsin clearanceholes 10 | 0 250 + Flvet ameter Poh [aR aS aT | Maximumpitch for any woadjecentivers (rciudingtackingrvts (ivetshnginatineperalel ! tothoforceinthemember te 32tor300mm, whicheveristess {@)intension 16tor 200mm. whicheverisioss (b)incompression 42tor 200mm, whicheverisiess where t= thickness of thinner outside plate‘A Handbook on Civil Engineering MADE EASY 128 | MADEEASY Design of Steel Structures 539 Permissible Stresses - i Fe) Gases Permissible stréss @ [P= yar] ‘aial tension and compression 0.60, = In bending eenO.60i 7 ww [Fr Peta, In bearing(ex-at support) 075i, LTE sae] ine Tax, permissible avg = 0.40, a in shear max. permissible = 0.45 f ‘Special Case: When all the rivets are of same diameter then, Max Permissible Deflections | @ ©) | Fn el or [Fn = 8 Span (@)_ Max permissible horizontal and verticle deflection = aoe (wsM) () Max permissible deflection when supported elements are Span, susseptibie to cracking = a (LSM) (©) Max permissible deflection when supported element are ni e _ Span, sussepiible to cracking = S2°"(LsM) 7. When wind and earthquake loads are considered permissible stresses in steel structures are increased by 33.33% and in rivets and welds are increased by 25%. | 2, By providing proper edge distance, we can prevent shear { failure, splitting failure and bearing failure of plates. Arrangement of Rivets (@) Chain Riveting (b) Diarnond Riveting (©) Staggered Riveting 7 re, eee Eccentric Connections p v | | (iil) [Ft = VF)? + Fn)? + 2F Fr co: where, Fy = Direct force in i rivet. F, = Force in i® rivet due to torsional moment {= Distance of rivet from CG Fay Foy = Always acts in the direction of applied load P. F, = Always aots perpendicular to the line joining CG of rivet group and the rivet under consideration, F, = Resultant force in rivet (Note: Mest oriicalrivat iS one for which 018 7 A, = Area of i rivet ium anes ax) ‘Angi Bf fasion faces | Value Of [___ eo-e0 0.70 BI=100" 0165 oT 08"~ 0.60 TOretS O55 (20° 050_| + Minimum size of weld It depends upon thickness of thicker plate “THIGkHESS Of thicker plate | Minitnurt size: o10mm | 3mm | 17-20 mm Sm Bia mn mn 332mm ‘mm Max clear spacing between effective length of weld In compression zone = 12t ar 200 mmm (minimum). In tension zone = 16 t or 200 mm (minimum)= 1 4 beat ] - Iw< 3t or 25 mm, Side fist weld subjected to longitudinal shear + Side fillet weld End filet wels subjected to transverse cheat @ 420, (b)_b, # 16t to make stress distribution uniform (c) if b, > 16t use end fillet weld. Welded Connec! + Permissible Stresses (@) Tensions and compression on section through the throat of but weld = 150 Némm? ‘Shear on section through the throat of butt or fillet weld = 108 Nim? = 110 Nim? Throat thickness t = k x size of weld © Butt-welded Joint Loaded Eccentrically + Let thickness of weld throat length of weld = d (0) atl | at * Shear stress at weld, ip Where t = thickness of weld t and d = length of weld, | | MADEEASY Design of Steel Structures 131 * Tensile or compressive stress due to bending at extreme fibre, Pc [Po = Tica | For the safoty of joint the interaction equation aman wer eerwea) + (Fama etcmasteea) |" (Femnsane shear sivess Inweld) * | Permissibie tensile sirese ih weld, + Equivalency Method [VeE-+ (GP,) = 0.0%, | (based on max distortion energy theory) Permissible banding stress for anged section = 165 Nin? 0.67, For solid section (Bl. @. A) permissible bending stress i¢ 185 Nim? FILLET-WELDED JOINT LOADED Eccentrically ‘There can be twoicases (Load net ying in the plane of the wold (0) Load lying in the plane of the weld ())_ Load not lying in the plane of the weld + Let thickness of weld throat = tand total length of weld = 2 xc + Vertical shear stross at weld, ow] [Pes pane * Horizontal shear stress due to bending at extreme fibre, M be Tey + Resultant [p= Vpe+pé + Thevalue ofp, should not exceed the permissible shear siess p, (= 108 MPa) in the wel stress