Scotland

THEMED SPECIAL: MEDIEVAL SCOTLAND
Vol.22 No.5 September/October 2022
Scotland in the
Middle
Ages Ordinary folk
in Barbour’s
Bruce poem
Women
and work
in the medieval town
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SCOTLAND
PATRONS
David Breeze
Christopher Smout Historiographer Royal
Elizabeth Ewan University of Guelph
history
SCO
SC OTLAND
www.historyscotland.com
Volume 22, Number 5
September/October 2022
Richard Oram University of Stirling

Murray Pittock University of Glasgow FROM THE EDITOR
Welcome to our annual themed issue, this time on life for ordinary Scots
EDITORIAL BOARD in the Middle Ages. We have some wonderful new research to share within
FIND OUT MORE AT: HTTP://SCOT.SH/HIS-BOARD
the following pages, with lively, in-depth articles from some of the biggest
names in Scottish medieval history.
Mr Derek Alexander Cynthia J. Neville
Archaeologist, George Munro I suspect I’m not alone in having been taught at school about medieval
National Trust for Scotland Professor of History
and Political Economy,
kings and queens, battles and pageants, rather than the lives of everyday people. So, I hope
Dr John Atkinson Dalhousie University that you’ll enjoy our trip back to the Scotland of the Middle Ages, exploring everything from
Managing Director how medieval people protected themselves against plague, to what the interior of a parish
GUARD Archaeology Ltd Professor Aonghus church would have been like.
Medieval and post-medieval MacKechnie
Rachel Bellerby
settlement and industry Department of Architecture,
University of Strathclyde Editor, History Scotland
Dr Sonja Cameron
Historian, writer and editor Dr Ann MacSween
Head of Planning, Consents
MEET THE CONTRIBUTORS
Prof Hugh Cheape and Advice, Historic
Sabhal Mor Ostaig College, Environment Scotland. Elizabeth Ewan recently retired as professor of history and Scottish studies
University of the Highlands at the University of Guelph. A patron of History Scotland, she has published
and Islands Neil McLennan extensively on medieval and early modern Scotland, with a particular focus
Writer, education manager
on gender history.
Dr Piers Dixon and Past President of the
Operations Manager at Scottish Association of
On page 16, Elizabeth explores the role of women in the medieval town,
the Royal Commission on Teachers of History demonstrating how crucial their endeavours were for the smooth running of
the Ancient and Historical commercial life.
Monuments of Scotland Prof Angela McCarthy
(RCAHMS), (rural settlement Scottish and Irish History,
Richard Oram is professor of history at the University of Stirling, as well a
and medieval archaeology) University of Otago
patron of History Scotland. He has published extensively on various aspects
Mr Andrew Dunwell Dr Iain MacInnes of Scottish medieval and environmental history.
Director, CFA Archaeology, Lecturer in Scottish In his study on page 22, Richard explains how everyday Scots turned to religious
Edinburgh (Later prehistory History, University of the
rites and rituals to keep themselves safe from plague.
and Roman) Highlands and Islands.
Mark A Hall Matt Ritchie Dr Jackson Armstrong is senior lecturer in history at the University of
History Officer (archaeology Archaeologist, Aberdeen. He has published widely on the legal and political history of the
collections) at Perth Forestry and Land Scotland’
later Middle Ages, taking in both Scotland and England, and is also the leader
Museum & Art Gallery.
Mr Geoffrey Stell of the Aberdeen Burgh Records project.
Dr Kevin James Architectural Historian In ‘Writing and speaking in medieval Aberdeen’ (page 48), he draws upon the
Dept of History and Scottish unusually rich records of medieval Aberdeen to tease out fragments of written
Studies Programme, Dr Simon Taylor
and oral communication from everyday medieval interactions.
University of Guelph, Canada Scottish place-names,
University of Glasgow
Dr Catriona MacDonald A historian of medieval art and architecture, Dr Lizzie Swarbrick completed
Reader in Late Modern Dr Fiona Watson a PhD at the University of St Andrews on Scotland’s collegiate churches. She
Scottish History Historian, writer
subsequently joined the University of Edinburgh to work on a Leverhulme
University of Glasgow and broadcaster
Early Career project about the art of Rosslyn Chapel.
Dr Alex Woolf On page 36, she takes us on an imaginary tour of a medieval parish church,
Senior lecturer in History, showing how dazzling displays of art were intended to awe worshippers and set
University of St Andrews their thoughts firmly on the heavens.
Dr Callum Watson completed a PhD at the University of Edinburgh on

attitudes towards chivalry in Barbour’s Bruce and Blind Hary’s Wallace. He
runs the ‘Knight of the Two Ls’ blog, where he writes about various aspects of
medieval Scotland.
In this issue (page 31), he explores what Barbour’s epic Bruce poem can tell us
about ordinary Scots.
Join the history debate…

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CONTENTS 31
14 22
IN-DEPTH FEATURES
14 Women and work in medieval towns 31 Ordinary Scots in Barbour’s Bruce
An exploration of the often-overlooked wide variety of roles John Barbour’s The Bruce is unusual among medieval chivalric
played by women in ensuring the smooth functioning of the literature in lavishing approving attention on ordinary Scots. We
medieval town explore what the poem can tell us
22 Averting plague in medieval Scotland: saints, relics 36 Pre-reformation Scottish churches

and processions The dazzling art of the medieval parish church, intended to awe
The religious rites and rituals in which ordinary Scots partook in an worshippers and bring them closer to thoughts of heaven
attempt to avert dreaded outbreaks of plague
48 Writing and speaking in medieval Aberdeen
What can the unusually rich records of medieval Aberdeen tell us
about how ordinary Scots communicated?
NEWS
6
5 News The latest history & heritage news 56 St Dionysius’s chapel, Ayton
The story of a religious site with nine
6 George IV in Edinburgh centuries of history
A look back at a landmark visit - 200
years on 58 Food: recipe or remedy
A history of the relationship between food
9 WIN! A break for two! and health over the centuries
Enter our prize draw for the chance to win
a break in Dumfries & Galloway
ARCHAEOLOGY
FEATURES
28 10 Recent archaeological work at
19 Music & migration in Edinburgh Saughton Hall
The story of Felix Yaniewicz Excavations at a 17th-century Edinburgh
mansion
28 Establishing paternity in 17th-century
Scotland REGULARS… IN EVERY ISSUE
A case study of Rothesay, 1660, and its
torrent of testimony and hearsay 41 Book reviews Reviews of recent titles
44 Anatomy: a matter of death & life 54 National Records Scotland

53 What was behind the demand for a supply
of dead bodies in 19th-century Edinburgh?
Lady Evelyn Cobbold: the first Scottish
woman to make the pilgrimage to Mecca
46 Payback at Pitarrow 61 Scottish History Society

A tale of wrongful imprisonment brought Everyday life in the medieval town
against a notorious Jacobite governor
62 Final Word
53 Life in Glencoe Abeer Edany on her work on the Empire,
A 17th-century turf cottage re-creation Slavery and Scotland’s Museums project
4 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

HISTORY NEWS
Entry now open for the annual Alasdair Ross prize
The Scottish History Society and History Scotland magazine invite
entries for the annual Alasdair Ross prize, which aims to support
postgraduate students and early career researchers undertaking
archival research on Scottish history and/or environmental history
T
he winning applicant(s) will be awarded a sum of pioneering work
up to £500 to assist with expenses incurred during in environmental
archival visits. history.
This prize is awarded in memory of Dr Alasdair Entry is open to
Ross who served as a member of the Scottish History anyone registered for
Society Council and was editor of History Scotland prior to any postgraduate degree at any university; or anyone within five
his death in 2017. It reflects his ground-breaking scholarship years of graduation with a postgraduate qualification.
and his exceptional contribution to Scottish history generally For full entry requirements, and to download an application
both within and beyond the academic sphere, and his form, visit: https://scot.sh/3OkIm6t
Origins of the Black Death revealed for the first time

A team of researchers has ended a six-century mystery, after discovering the origins of the Black
Death for the first time
S
pecialist scientists from the University of Stirling, Max plague bacterium – whose
Planck Institute and the University of Tubingen have evolutionary position is
uncovered the first historical proof that the late medieval placed right at the very
bubonic plague originally began in north Kyrgyzstan in beginning of the Black
the late 1330s. Death outbreak and before
The origins of the pandemic have been postulated by medieval it arrived in Europe.
chroniclers ever since its appearance in Europe, the Middle East The research required
and north Africa 675 years ago, and debated by historians for the intricate work, with the
last 270 years. The present study ends this mystery and dispute teams studying the historic
over the origins of the outbreak. diaries of the original
The breakthrough discovery follows painstaking research excavations in order to
which brought together palaeogenetics, history and match the individual skeletons to their headstones, translating the
archaeology. Researchers were able to analyse ancient DNA taken inscriptions, which were written in Syriac language.
from the teeth of skeletons discovered in burial sites in the Tian The research study ‘The source of the Black Death in 14th-
Shan region. The sequencing showed they contained Yersinia pestis, century central Eurasia’ is published in the journal Nature.
Prestonpans Town Hall to host Victorian

opening ceremony re-enactment
Historic Environment Scotland has provided £4,500 funding to support a series of
projects to mark the heritage of Prestonpans Town Hall, including a Victorian
re-enactment of the hall's original opening ceremony
T
he Victorian town hall in Prestonans, East Lothian, was leased to the Battle
of Prestonpans (1745) Heritage Trust on a five-year basis in 2021 and the
organisation has invested in an extensive refurbishment of the historic building,
adding a museum, gift shop and programme of events and exhibitions.
This month, a full-scale costumed re-enactment of the Victorian opening
ceremony will take place marking 125 years since it was opened. The Trust has also
struck a commemorative 125th anniversary medal bearing an image of the hall and the
logo of the burgh of Prestonpans, which will be presented to the descendants of those
who originally took part in the opening ceremony in 1897.
H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 5

SIR WALTER SCOTT

AND THE KING
This summer sees the 200th
anniversary of a visit by King George
IV to Scotland. David McVey
assesses the significance of the visit,
explaining how its ramifications are
still with us today
A
ugust 1822 saw one George IV hosting a
of Scotland’s biggest levee at Holyrood Palace
ever public events, during his visit
comparable to 2021’s
COP26 in Glasgow or
the 2005 G8 Summit at Gleneagles;
for the first time in nearly 200 years,
a reigning monarch visited Scotland.
George IV was the monarch,
Edinburgh was the venue – and it
put on a spectacular show whose
cultural legacy is still felt today.
The historical context of the visit
is important. Napoleon had been
subdued, but those in power now
worried about ‘enemies’ closer to
home. Britain’s working classes
were becoming educated and
organised and were increasingly Celtic Society, to promote highland such as The Lady of the Lake, are also
demanding economic security and dress and culture amongst the upper stories, albeit in rhyme. Abbotsford
political rights. In 1819, a peaceful ranks of society and the military; as House, with its nods to the Scottish
gathering of workers at St Peter’s the Royal Celtic Society it still exists. past and displays of curios, is an
Field in Manchester was charged Sir Walter Scott, not a highlander, anthology of stories in stone. Scott
by cavalry and fifteen people died; was its first vice president. even storified the origins of Waverley,
it is now memorialised as the Scott is a towering figure in his first novel. He claimed the first
Peterloo massacre. Scottish history and culture, but his few chapters had been composed
Two events in Scotland in 1820 attitude towards political radicals around 1805 but were put away
underpinned the 1822 royal visit. does not commend him to modern in a drawer. He only rediscovered
Scotland had seen outraged protests tastes. He raised a volunteer regiment the manuscript in 1813 when
about Peterloo and in 1820 the during the Radical War and even rummaging in the drawer for fish-
‘Radical War’ erupted. 60,000 designed their uniforms. The borders hooks.
workers went on strike and there remained quiet, so they had little This resembles another Scott
was widespread agitation across to do but dress up. Scott supported story, concerning his ‘discovery’ of
the industrialising central belt. a royal visit as a way of uniting the the Honours of Scotland, Scotland’s
At the battle of Bonnymuir near people and quelling radical protest. crown jewels. When Scott had been
Bonnybridge, radicals were subdued In the event he was given the job, asked to dinner by the Prince Regent
by the Stirlingshire yeomanry. alongside Stewart of Garth, of (the future George IV) at Carlton
Several leaders of the insurrection stage-managing the whole visit. The House in 1815, he had suggested
were executed and many others were decision to allow the visit was a late forming a ‘commission’ of notables
transported. The brutality of the one; Scott and Garth had little more to investigate the whereabouts of the
government response shocked many, than two weeks to organise things. regalia. The Honours had been put in
though loyalists approved. storage in 1707 in Edinburgh Castle,
In the same year, in a very CREATING A SHOWSTOPPER awkward reminders of a nationhood
different Scotland, Captain William Scott was a storyteller, a creator of surrendered. In 1818 Scott and the
Mackenzie of Gruinard and Colonel fictions. His novels are a magnificent other ‘commissioners’ found them
David Stewart of Garth formed the achievement but his verse epics, exactly where they were expected to

GEORGE IV IN EDINBURGH: 200TH ANNIVERSARY
be; but Scott made the most of their voluntarily had been Charles I, and Scott expressed the hope that ‘the
stage-managed unearthing. even he must have travelled north presence of our King may be the
Scott and George IV clearly in trepidation in 1633. George IV’s signal for burying in oblivion that
got on. Scott was awarded his visit was of major significance. It which is past, and the pledge of better
baronetcy in 1818 through the dominated life in Edinburgh for things in the time to come’, perhaps
influence of the prince regent more than two weeks. hinting that it was time for political
(though he did not formally receive Scotland had no recent experience radicals, especially from the lower
it until 1820). George IV became of welcoming a monarch, so Scott orders, to be content with their lot.
king in 1820 but his coronation, published a guide for how the
a lavish affair, did not take place people of Edinburgh should behave. THE CELEBRATIONS BEGIN
until 1821. Scott was there. Hints Addressed to the Inhabitants of The festivities began on the king’s
The 1822 visit (or ‘jaunt’ as it Edinburgh, and others, in Prospect of birthday (12 August) with the
was widely called) was not only His Majesty’s Visit was attributed ceremonial transfer of the Honours of
an attempt to head off radical to ‘An Old Citizen’ but, as with all Scotland from Edinburgh Castle to
unrest, it was also designed to Scott’s anonymised works, everyone Holyrood Palace; Scott had ‘found’
provide positive PR to a king who was in on the secret. It set out the them and could milk them still. The
was widely unpopular given his programme and gave suggestions on king disembarked from the steam
callous treatment of his late wife, how the more prominent citizens of yacht Royal George at Leith harbour on
Caroline of Brunswick. Scott, Edinburgh should dress and comport the 15th and travelled in procession
with Stewart of Garth’s help, themselves during the visit. Scott up Leith Walk to a temporary arch at
grasped his opportunity to create wasted no time in highlandising the Picardy Place where he was handed
nation-changing stories. The last affair: ‘In short, we are THE CLAN, the keys of the city.
reigning monarch to visit Scotland and our King is THE CHIEF.’ The king faced an extensive
programme of balls, levees, reviews
and even a ‘drawing-room’ where
he was introduced to many of
The 1822 visit was not only an Edinburgh’s ladies at Holyrood
attempt to head off radical unrest, House. In Hints, Scott gave the
ladies detailed instructions on how
it was also designed to provide to manage a long-trained gown
positive PR to a king who was widely when ‘retiring’ (backing away) from
the king’s presence, something he
unpopular given his callous treatment A tableau at Edinburgh can hardly have done himself. He
of his late wife Caroline of Brunswick Castle depicting Scott
‘discovering’ the
also advised ladies that ‘At least nine
feathers must be in each head-dress’.
Honours of Scotland A massive banquet at the Parliament
Hall on 24 August included 47
toasts. While the visit breathed new
life into the moribund Holyrood
Palace, George actually stayed
outside the city at Dalkeith House.
The king’s appearance in highland
dress is perhaps the best-known
aspect of the visit; ‘everyone who has
ever seen the King, must be anxious
to contemplate his fine person in
this noblest of all British costumes’
Scott wrote in Hints, bending the
truth rather. In fact, George only
wore the outfit once, at a levee held
at Holyrood on 17 August. Some
were surprised by the shortness of
his kilt; a waggish lady is said to
have remarked, ‘As he is to be here
for so short a time, the more we see
of him the better’. While Wilkie’s
famous portrait did its best to make
him look noble and romantic, the
caricaturists were merciless.
Hints had encouraged highland
gentlemen to wear their full regalia at

with poverty and the brutality of

Scott’s anonymous Hints Addressed to the Citizens of Edinburgh advised the clearances. The redemption of
inhabitants of the city how to prepare for, and behave during, the king’s visit the Jacobites also saw surviving
‘rebel’ figures supported by
pensions granted by George IV or
his father. One of them, Patrick
Grant, had fought for the Stuarts
during the ’45 and was introduced
to George during the visit as
‘the King’s oldest enemy’. Scott
viewed any insurrection, whether
by the Jacobites he admired or the
working-class radicals that he did
not, with horror; but the Jacobites
themselves were now being safely
gathered in.
The Hints did make a few
concessions to ordinary folk. Scott
encouraged everyone who turned
out to cheer the king to sport a
saltire cockade, and advised how
to make one; ‘it is hoped every
loyal person, of whatever station,
will sport the St Andrew upon this
There is something distasteful about the happy occasion’, he wrote.

The king’s last major engagement
promotion of highland dress and culture for the was a play at the Theatre Royal in
Princes Street. Inevitably, he saw
upper classes at a time when ordinary highland Rob Roy, an adaptation of one of
people were afflicted with poverty and the his host’s highland novels. On 29
August, the king left the city for
brutality of the Clearances Hopetoun House. After spending
some time at a gathering organised
by the earl of Hopetoun, he
the various events and to bring their had tried to persuade the then embarked from nearby Port Edgar,
‘tail’ – an entourage of appropriately- prince regent that he was, morally, again on the Royal George.
dressed retainers. Some people the heir to the Jacobite tradition. It is impossible to underestimate
were disturbed that Edinburgh and There is something distasteful the effects of this visit. Scottish
Scotland were being portrayed as about the promotion of highland culture had effectively been
highland. There were also spats Dalkeith House, where dress and culture for the upper highlandised and Jacobitised. The
about fashion among the highland King George stayed classes at a time when ordinary monarchy had made its peace
chiefs themselves. The Celtic Society during his ‘jaunt’ highland people were afflicted with Scotland, a relationship
was one of several such that would be even more
organisations, and reinforced by Queen
there was rivalry and Victoria some decades
squabbling between later. Radical protest had
them. MacDonell of been quelled for now.
Glengarry – subject of a Scotland embraced, and
famous Raeburn painting was embraced by, the
– had formed a Society union – yet the event, and
of True Highlanders in the cultural symbols it
1815 (which does not celebrated, also emphasised
survive today) and he Scottish distinctiveness.
and Stewart clashed on The effects of that visit, a
matters of authenticity remote 200 years ago, were
during and after the contrasting and conflicting;
king’s visit, like bickering but they are with us still.
highland chiefs in a Scott
novel. David McVey is a writer and
As early as their also lectures at New College
1815 meeting, Scott Lanarkshire.

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& Leisure Club
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The 91-room Cairndale Hotel and Leisure Also in the town is the Grecian Mausoleum
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almost 40 years. body lay in state before his funeral procession
Our competition winner will receive two to St Michael’s kirkyard.
nights dinner, bed and breakfast for two in See the white gable of the tenement where Enjoy an unforgettable break in the Borders
this marvellous focal point for visitors to one Burns first lived when he came into the town
of lowland Scotland’s most beautiful regions. in November 1791, having given up the
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The Cairndale is also a great venue for Exciseman and The Lea Rig.
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spaces. The warm Gulf Stream gives the Closing date: 7 October 2022.
Explore the Scotland that Burns knew region a mild climate, facilitating outdoor
Some of the sites most closely associated activities throughout the year. TERMS & CONDITIONS
with Burns, however, are just a short stroll or Accommodation is subject to availability and
drive away. For more information on the Cairndale is subject to two sharing a room. The prize
Visit Robert Burns House where the poet Hotel and Leisure Club or to make a must be taken before 30 June 2023. Dinner
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in Dumfries and is presented in 18th-century contact VisitScotland on tel 01387 253862 Competition Terms and Conditions (www.
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lived there.

RECENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL
WORK AT SAUGHTON HALL
Stuart Wilson takes us through the discoveries made during excavations at
17th-century Saughton Hall in Edinburgh, with finds providing vital clues about the
mansion’s time as a manor house, asylum and Women’s Land Army base
T
he remains of Saughton
Hall, a once-grand manor
house (Figure 1), rest
within the southern part
of Saughton Park in
Edinburgh, bounded by Balgreen
Road to the east, the Water of Leith
to the south, and Stevenson Drive to
the north. The original 17th-century
mansion was likely a three-storey
house with a stair turret tower,
approached through an avenue of
yew trees (the three surviving trees
are over 500 years old). Like so
many major houses of its kind, it
slowly fell into disrepair over the
centuries and was demolished in
1952. The site was archaeologically
investigated recently by AOC
Archaeology, with community
involvement, as part of a Parks
for People Heritage Lottery Fund
Application to restore Saughton Figure 1: View of Saughton to determine the potential extent of attorney Bartholomew Somervell
Park (Figure 2). Hall around 1900 the hall. The final phase of works, in of Saugtonhall. By the 1660s, the
The works were undertaken on 2017, took the form of a monitored site was in the hands of Robert
behalf of and guided by the City of archaeological strip, map and record Baird, who is credited with the
Edinburgh Council Archaeology exercise, which confirmed the construction of the older parts of
Service and commissioned by earlier community-led fieldwork’s the mansion, which survived until
the City of Edinburgh Council identification of foundations of demolition in 1952. Maps drawn
and Ironside Farrar. These works the hall. As written records for the by Joan Blaeu in 1652 and by John
included a volunteer-focused earliest construction and subsequent Adair in 1682 show the settlement
community archaeological dig in Figure 3: Community additions to Saughton Hall are of ‘Saughtonhall’, the latter forming
2014 within the putative location volunteers cleaning scant, archaeological excavation was an estate and mansion house of
of the hall, which was succeeded by foundations during the crucial in unlocking the history and some significance.
archaeological test pits and trenches 2014 works evolution of this historic manor- The mansion house and
turned-asylum. The following draws gardens appear on various historic
on research by Joe McGuigan of the maps through the 19th century.
Friends of Saughton Park. According to James Knox’s Map of
the Shire of Edinburgh of 1816, the
HISTORY OF SAUGHTON HALL estate belonged to Sir James Baird,
The extent of the existing park and having remained in the hands of the
gardens were part of the ancient Baird family since the 17th century.
Saughton Estate, with its own In 1824, the house was leased to
historic mansion house referred the Institute of the Recovery of the
to as ‘Sauch’ (the name meaning Insane, a ‘private’ lunatic asylum
‘willow’ in Scots). The estate is for those of higher ranks, admitting
thought to date back to at least the over 100 patients between 1824
early 17th century and the year and 1840. First edition Ordnance
1639, when King Charles I hired Survey mapping of 1855 details the

ARCHAEOLOGY NEWS
mansion house and estate, depicting

its outbuildings and a sundial in the
garden. The grounds were extensive,
with pathed walkways bounded by
rows of mature trees and with an
open expanse of land to the south,
where the estate bordered the Water
of Leith. Two large mill complexes
had sprung up to the north-east
(Gorgie Mills) and the south-west
(Saughton Mills).
By the end of the 19th century,
90 acres of the estate lands were
considered for the establishment
of a public park, following a report
in 1899 by the town clerk of
Edinburgh. The owner of the estate
at the time, Sir William Gardiner
Baird, sold the land to the council
in 1900 for £52,900. To the north,
a golf course was laid out on the
lands, sparking controversy that
the new park was not as ‘public’ as
the residents had hoped. By 1905,
however, the seven-acre walled
garden, together with a further
22 acres of land were acquired
and opened in June 1905 as the
city’s new public park. In 1907,
the mansion house, together with
the remainder of the land in its
immediate estate, also came into
public ownership (Figure 1). It
instantly became extremely popular,
hosting the Scottish National
Exhibition for six months in May
1908. To encourage city residents
to attend, a new railway station –
Exhibition Station – was erected at
Balgreen Halt.
The house and grounds that
remained were still heavily used into
the 1930s, becoming a venue for Figure 2: The excavation at Saughton Hall
the Royal Highland Show in 1931
and for George VI’s coronation
celebrations in 1937. The latter
included a 40-foot bonfire and
attracted over 12,000 people.
The onset of the Second World
War, however, saw Saughtonhall
and its grounds – like so many
country and estate houses at this
time – converted for use to aid
the war effort. Onion beds were
planted in support of the ‘dig for
victory’ campaign. The house
accommodated Land Girls as well
as serving as a convalescence home
for members of the Women’s Land
Army. Once the war ended, though,
Figure 5: South facing view of west the future of the house remained
Figure 4: Recording of a sandstone cellar by a community volunteer in 2014 excavation area

uncertain. Due to the age of the Figure 6: 17th-century

building and the unoccupied nature foundations within the
of those parts of it that remained, central excavation area
it was clear that the building
would fall into decay if it was not
maintained. The dereliction of the
house, which included an extensive
dry rot problem, together with the
high cost of its maintenance, proved
too much for the corporation, who
sadly instructed its demolition in
1952. The stables and outhouses
remained, probably because they
were still in use by the gardeners and
maintainers of the park.
ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE HALL

Archaeological investigations of
Saughton Hall were completed in
three different phases between 2014 were therefore instrumental in predominantly later in design
and 2017. The first phase of works understanding the former layout of (likely 19th century) and possibly
took place in 2014 and took the Saughton Hall, revealing the western related to the asylum established
form of a community archaeological side of the house in later periods of in 1824 (Figure 5). The building
dig with hand-dug trenches, the building’s development. These foundations reached a depth of
excavated by members of the remains included the discovery up to 0.5m and foundations of at
local community. This was a great of a sandstone cellar (Figure 4) least five rooms made of sandstone
success in engaging the public, with complete with a flagstone floor and blocks were identified once the
approximately 200 members of the associated drainage. A local resident site had been cleaned. The rooms
local community volunteering for recalled that this structure had been vary in size, from 1.70m x 3.10m
the works across a five-week period; used previously as a boiler room to 3.5m x 2.5m, with walls which,
those involved ranged in age from during the 20th-century occupation for the most part, ran north-east
five to 70 years and worked with of the house. Earlier 18th- and to south-west and north-west to
great enthusiasm. The works in 2015 19th-century features included south-east.
and 2016 built on the community’s a fragmentary survival of fine A brick feature found between
efforts with the opening of machine- chequerboard pattern tiled floors, rooms running north-west to south-
excavated trenches and hand-dug and various drainage features. A east was discovered to contain
test pits. large assemblage of small finds was a lead pipe probably carrying
The six trenches excavated in recovered, including ceramics, metal water or gas to various parts of
2014 by the local community objects and building materials. The the house. In the southernmost
volunteers were highly successful, small finds represented all stages of extent of the excavation area,
and all except one (located north the building’s occupation. a square structure built from
of the hall) revealed remains of the The works undertaken in 2015 roughly-hewn sandstone blocks
house (Figure 3) in the form of and 2016 confirmed findings of the was uncovered, likely representing
numerous load-bearing and partition 2014 community-led works, with an old coal shed, based on the
walls, drainage features and floor Figure 7: Tiled flooring the main external wall of the house, abundance of compacted ash.
surfaces. The trenches excavated by under what was probably some internal walls and drainage Several other sandstone buildings
members of the local community the kitchen area features being identified. The final were also uncovered, though poorly
stage of fieldwork in 2017 comprised preserved, having been disturbed
a monitored topsoil strip of a 50m by later centuries of construction.
x 50m area, incorporating the hall The main, eastern, or centre area of
and the majority of the area covered the excavation (Figure 6) focused
by the 2014 community excavation. on the original 17th-century house.
As soon as the topsoil was stripped Extensive foundations were found
away, the majority of the Saughton to the north-west of this area and
Hall house foundations could be the continuation of the 19th-
identified, comprising around 20 century walls were observed, along
individual rooms. with the remains of a remarkably
well-preserved shower room,
EXPLORING THE ROOMS perhaps part of the last phase of
First to be excavated was the development of the house.
western area of the site, which What was once a significant tiled
revealed foundations that were floor (Figure 7) was discovered

ARCHAEOLOGY NEWS
lining a large rectangular concrete Figure 8: Fragments

area, likely part of a kitchen, with of transfer printed
the concrete slab having possibly Standard White
supported a large range or other earthenware (SF 007)
cooking equipment. Similar tiling
was laid in the corridor, running
north-west to south-east through
the centre of the house and at the
frontage of the building. Potential
17th-century building foundations
were also observed in this area.
The external components of the
sandstone wall and its foundation
may have formed part of the
outside of the original 17th-
century structure, based on its
location and overall size. A now-
empty area consisting mainly of a once served as an external wall. 50 clay tobacco pipe fragments and
‘flooring deposit’ was found to the other ceramic objects, over 1,200
south-east of the site. According ARTEFACTS glass fragments, and finds of metal,
to historic maps there were once In all, over 2,400 artefacts were industrial residues, stone and wood,
more rooms in this area, though recovered during the excavations. as well as rare worked bone and
it is likely they had been removed The vast majority of these objects shell were recovered.
entirely during landscaping works relate to the latest phases of The archaeological investigations
for the park. occupation of the house, including were successful in determining the
The final southern area of Victorian and early 20th-century extent of the surviving foundations
excavation focused almost entirely fixtures and furnishings, building of the final design of the house
on the frontage of the building. materials and personal objects, and the original 17th-century
As with the previous, central area, including many materials affected foundations, rubble-filled walls
a mixture of 19th-century and by fire, indicating that they were within the central and south-east
possible 17th-century foundations still been within the house during sections of excavation. An accurate
were discovered. The majority of a fire that swept the interior in the plan of Saughton Hall has now been
the building frontage was formed mid-20th century. Amongst the produced in an attempt to represent
of 19th-century foundations. The mostly 19th- and 20th-century finds, the main phases of the structure
walls were constructed using large however, are smaller numbers of from its 17th-century construction
rectangular blocks running almost earlier objects which relate to the up until its demolition in the 1950s.
entirely north-west to south-east house’s occupation, stretching back The number and range of artefacts
and north-east to south-west. to the 16th to 17th centuries. recovered during the works can
Further tiled flooring was revealed, There are over 600 sherds of be traced to a period spanning the
possibly forming part of another pottery, dominated by sherds of 16th to 20th centuries. As a whole,
handmade brick-lined corridor. domestic tableware, including the assemblage provides a glimpse
The 17th-century foundations various dinner services and food at the former splendours of the
within this area took the form of storage containers of Victorian and house and an insight into its later
an extensive sandstone block wall, Figure 9: Sherd of later date. This includes Standard furnishings and occupants.
orientated north-west to south-east possible 17th-18th White earthenware, sometimes
and constructed in a similar method century Dutch tin- decorated with transfer-printed
to the other wall foundations. Its glazed earthenware pot designs (Figure 8), and many of FURTHER READING
thickness suggests it too may have (SF 042, Room E) these likely derived from Scottish
potteries such as those in Glasgow Tenth report with inventory of
and Edinburgh. Also present were monuments and constructions
a few post-medieval English and in the counties of Midlothian
European imports (Figure 9). and West Lothian, The Royal
Unfortunately, the majority of the Commission on the Ancient
16th- and 17th-century pottery and Historical Monuments
finds were small, shattered sherds. and Constructions of Scotland
These include fragments of Scottish (Edinburgh, 1929)
post-medieval pots, platters and
jugs, including a 16th- to 18th- Historic mapping available
century base sherd from a drug pot at the National Library of
or similar. Scotland website: https://
In addition, over 200 fragments maps.nls.uk/
of ceramic building material, over

WOMEN AND
WORK IN
MEDIEVAL TOWNS
While the importance of male labour to Scottish towns has
long been recognised, the work performed by women is often
forgotten. But, as Professor Elizabeth Ewan shows, women
worked in a wide array of roles, and their labour was just as
crucial to the smooth functioning of the medieval town.
I
n August 1507 James Wardlaw the circumstances of women’s lives, unless it was headed by a widow.
reached an agreement with his how their labour was organised, Husbands could represent their wives
neighbour about the building and the ways their activities were in court, and a woman’s actions were
works on his Edinburgh recorded meant that women appear often hidden behind her husband’s
house. He promised that the less often than men in documentary name in matters that concerned her.
corbel stone supporting the roof of evidence. Their paid work was usually Despite this, women and their
the passageway beside the house organised to fit around their unpaid work do appear in the records, both
should be as high as ‘any servant household responsibilities and in incidental references and in more
maid of Alexander Mauchane therefore tended to be more part- official sources. Women worked
may bear a middle-sized tub with time than men’s. It was more likely both in partnership with family
water on her head, without any to be temporary, changing as their members and independently. One
stop or impediment caused by the marital status changed over their Canongate merchant on his deathbed
said corbel’. The critical task of A medieval market could life-cycle. Women rarely appeared stated that ‘the goods that I have
provisioning a household with water, include a wide range in the guild records of merchants and the debts that are owed me, the
carried out by un-named women, was of stalls, as well as and craftsmen, nor could they serve said Margaret my spouse knows’,
implicitly acknowledged. merchant booths, all of in local government offices. In tax highlighting the cooperative nature of
Women’s work was integral to the which could be run records, a household was represented spouses’ work in the family business.
life of medieval towns. However, by women by the male head of the household Moreover, certain economic activities
dominated by women were heavily
regulated, resulting in frequent
appearances in court.
One factor greatly affecting
women and their work was their
marital status, which had legal
implications for their ability to
participate in the commercial world
of credit. Single women and widows
had more legal independence than
wives; on marriage, a woman’s
property came under her husband’s
administration, and he had legal
responsibility for the household.
Strictly speaking, a wife could
not contract debts for purchases
without his permission, apart from
small necessary provisions for the
household. However, in practice
such restrictions were largely
ignored, as the large number of debt
records involving women as creditors
and debtors demonstrates.
Marital status shaped women’s
work in practical ways. Young girls
learned domestic skills from their

WOMEN AND WORK
mothers. Most girls left their families complained about the loud noise
in their early to mid-teens and from the piercing calls of the market
entered employment as domestic sellers advertising their wares, how
servants in other households, the smell from fish-selling stalls
although a very few might stank up the town, and how disputes
apprentice in crafts such as bonnet- between retailers and their customers
making. During these years, they frequently dissolved into flyting,
learned more skills necessary for or reciprocal insult-flinging. Many
running a household of their own, of these market-sellers and their
and also accumulated money for a customers were women, anonymous
dowry when they left service in their but impossible to ignore. Fishwives
late teens or early twenties. and fruitwives had a particular
On marriage, a woman moved to reputation as disruptive participants
a new household where she applied in the hubbub of the market.
the skills she had learned. Most Somewhat removed in status
marriages were economic as well as from the noisy marketplace were
domestic partnerships, with the wife the merchant booths that lined the
working with her husband in his medieval high streets. Here the
occupation in some capacity, either wealthiest urban families ran their
in production or in selling. She businesses, offering goods, including
might also carry on other activities those imported from abroad if the
contributing to the household town engaged in overseas trade,
income. A second marriage could or retailing the products of their
see her entering yet another trade. craft workshops. Merchants’ wives,
Widows sometimes continued their especially in Edinburgh which Girls learnt domestic skills from their mother and in turn passed the skills to
husband’s trades, suggesting their dominated overseas trade in the their own daughters
earlier active involvement, or they late Middle Ages, were actively
might turn to other occupations. involved in trade. Margaret Hogg was away, managing the business
The minority of women who of Edinburgh accompanied her and acting on her husband’s behalf.
remained single could carry on in merchant husband on at least one Such daughters also brought the
domestic service or form households overseas trip in the 1360s, although status of burgess, and its economic
with other women, but their work, she seems to have been an exception. and political privileges, to non-
critical though it was, often brought Most merchant women used factors burgess husbands. Occasionally
them little status. The authorities to conduct their affairs overseas, women themselves were admitted
often voiced suspicion of single being more actively engaged in to burgess status, for example in
women. In 1530, the Edinburgh selling the imported products in Peebles in 1456 and 1459, but this
authorities ordered that any landlord Scotland. Some widows continued was not common.
who had rented a room to a single their husband’s business. Margaret, Merchant and craft women
woman was to expel her; many other widow of William Rynd, had her belonged to the upper reaches
towns in the late medieval period son Robert carry out her affairs of urban society, but women at
tried to ensure that single women in Bruges in 1499, exchanging all social levels were involved in
lived in a household rather than the wool she exported for finished retailing. From an early age, girls
independently. woven cloth, velvet, silk, canvas and learned the skills of buying and
As a result of this life-cycle a wide variety of spices, which she selling. Accompanying their mothers
pattern, most women’s work lives then imported to Scotland. Isobel to booths and markets, they learned
tended to be varied, temporary, part- Williamson of Edinburgh was so how to assess the qualities of goods,
time and fitted around domestic successful in providing luxurious to decide what was needed to
responsibilities, with no formal trade goods to the royal court in the 1470s provision the household and how
organisation. But it was also critical that although she was first recorded to bargain for the best prices. If
to the survival of the townspeople. as ‘Thomas Williamson’s widow’, their parents produced goods, they
This article will discuss women’s she was soon trading as ‘Isobel learned to sell them to customers.
work under the categories of Williamson,’ with no reference to her Retailing skills could be applied
retailing, production and service. widowed status. widely, so it was often women who
However, many women worked in Merchant and craft daughters sold the products of their husband’s
at least two, and often all three, of often married men of similar status, workshops, as well as the produce
these areas during their lifetimes. bringing a dowry, as well as skills in of the countryside, sea and rivers.
selling goods, handling employees, Urban women could pay for
Retailing contracting loans and generally ‘stallanger’ status, granting them the
Around 1500, the poet William carrying out business connected right to set up stalls to sell goods.
Dunbar penned a lively description with their husband’s enterprise. A Countrywomen paid a toll to bring
of the bustling, rambunctious merchant wife sometimes appeared their grain, cheese, eggs, poultry,
Edinburgh marketplace. He in the records when her husband fish, fruits and vegetables to the

town on market days, while other

women sold goods in the streets or
from door to door. Such women
were not averse to sharp practices.
One town had to pass a law against
those who evaded tolls on their way
into town by hiding poultry under
their cloaks and gowns.
Local authorities tried to regulate
the town market to ensure that all
townspeople had an equal chance to
purchase necessary supplies, and that
prices were fair and the quality good.
These regulations tended to favour
the better-off inhabitants who could
afford to purchase items wholesale,
especially foodstuffs. Poorer
inhabitants relied on the hucksters
and regrators, predominantly women,
who purchased supplies in bulk
at the market, and resold them in
smaller amounts. Through their
domestic lives and interaction with
neighbouring families, gathering
together at wells or laundering,
aiding in childbirth, and socialising
in alehouses, they knew who their
potential customers were and what
prices could be fetched. These
women were usually grudgingly
tolerated by the authorities, being
allowed to purchase after all regular Artistic representation of a medieval Scottish female brewster
customers had been served. They
provided a useful way to dispose of replaced it with her own. providing hospitality and a place
poorer quality goods and to ensure Brewing suited the circumstances to socialise for their customers.
that the majority of the urban of women’s lives. Adult women Alehouses provided a convivial place
population was fed. were trained to brew ale for their in which to do business, to exchange
household. By producing more the latest news, and to welcome
Production than was required, they could sell travellers – a good cup of ale was a
Women also sold goods they had the surplus to others. Because ale crucial lubricant in the commercial
produced. Ale, along with bread, was spoiled quickly, brewing was usually world. Women also produced other
a staple of the urban diet and closely a part-time occupation, with women drinks including, by the 16th century,
regulated. Towns regularly set prices taking turns brewing, supplying whisky. In 1505, the barbour surgeon
for both. Official ‘ale conners’ tasted their own household and others, craft in Edinburgh banned women
the ale for quality, determining if and then purchasing ale between and men who were not members of
it was worth the maximum price. brewings. This part-time nature of the craft from making or selling ‘aqua
Much more is known about brewing brewing sometimes caused problem vite’. In Inverness, both men and
than many other commercial with quality. In 1507, the Aberdeen women were making whisky from at
activities, as brewsters appeared in authorities ordered that the wives of least the 1550s when the first town
the official records for breaking the dyers and cordiners (shoemakers) records begin, and probably earlier
rules. Brewing was dominated by were to use different cauldrons for as well.
women. In places such as Edinburgh brewing than the ones used for their Baking bread, particularly expensive
and Aberdeen, hundreds of women husband’s crafts. wheat bread, was more commonly
appear as brewsters at some point Ale could be sold to customers carried out by men, although some
in their lives, but they were an active in their own vessels either from the towns had women baxters as well.
presence in even the smallest of door, or sometimes in the street by Mid-15th century regulations
towns. Brewsters were not backward women known as tapsters. Some for baxters in Peebles, Perth and
about reacting to what they perceived women brewed more professionally. Montrose were directed to both
as unfair treatment. In Aberdeen in Widow Fallowside in St Andrews men and women. In many towns,
1509, Bessy Layng rubbed out the provided the castle of Cardinal women were more prominent in the
price that the ale conner had written Beaton with ale in the 1540s. Some production of oatcakes, which could
up for her ale as soon as he left and women ran alehouses in their homes, be made over the household hearth

WOMEN AND WORK
– lists of ‘cake baxters’ are usually in great demand – people from

dominated by women. Oatcakes, easily Selkirk, for example, travelled to
made and cheap to produce, were the Edinburgh hiring fairs to find
a staple food of the poor who could servants. Town courts frequently
not afford the more expensive loaves heard cases where servants had
produced by male baxters. been enticed to leave their current
Women were heavily involved in employer for another one. Servants
the making of cloth and clothing were usually hired for periods of six
from local wool. Combing and months or a year, although many
carding to separate the fibres, could remain with an employer
spinning to make thread for weaving, for many years. Most were paid a
and sewing were all activities fee and a ‘bounteth’, goods such
associated with women. Dyers, as shoes or cloth to make clothing.
weavers and tailors were usually Generally, servants lived with their
organised into craft guilds and the employer, so bed and board were
records dominated by men, but it is provided. Wages were generally paid
likely that women were also involved in a lump sum twice a year or at the
in their workshops, as they sometimes end of a contract.
appear with their husbands in court Domestic servants could
cases about spoiled or unfinished supplement their income by
cloth. Many women made clothing performing additional services.
for the members of their own Some women entered into
household. The more specialised agreements with their employers to
activity of bonnet-making did sell ale, buying up a large quantity Female brewsters involved in taking and giving loans,
include women. Women were also and then repaying the debt once played an often small, sometimes in return for pledges of
active in the second-hand clothes they had sold it to individual but significant, role in household and personal articles such
market, again providing a vital customers. Others added work into town life as clothing, rings, spoons, belts and
product for the poor. tasks they were doing already such as pots. Some continued to lend money
Candle-making was another laundering. In 1530, the Edinburgh after leaving service. Wedwives, who
occupation involving women, authorities forbade servants from lent out money in return for pawned
although their participation was laundering any clothing other than items, were found in many towns.
restricted in some towns in the late that belonging to their employer’s The provision of lodging, and
Middle Ages. In 1517, the Edinburgh household. Some women worked often food as well, was a common
candlemakers decided to expel all full-time as laundresses, providing occupation for women. When
women from the craft unless they service for wealthier households or important visitors came to the town,
were married to freemen, but in other for those who had few or no servants the royal court or town authorities
towns such as Aberdeen and Inverness of their own. Mauchane’s servant often turned to women to provide
women continued in the occupation maid with her tub of water reminds accommodation. At the upper level
throughout the 16th century. us that most households had to fetch of urban society, wealthy women
water or make use of water sources with additional inherited properties
could rent them out on a more
long-term basis to other households,
Fishwives and fruitwives had but less well-off women might have
a particular reputation as extra rooms, cellars, or lofts in their

own house that could be rented to
disruptive participants in the lodgers. Some women rented out
hubbub of the market commercial premises such as booths

and workshops.
Often such rental agreements
included the provision of bedding,
Service elsewhere. Laundry was usually lighting, food and drink, and
James Wardlaw’s agreement with done by women in nearby streams or additional services such as laundering
Alexander Mauchane referred to lochs, with a flat area nearby where and even the making of clothes.
any servant maid of his, a reminder clothes could be laid to dry. Such contracts were particularly
of the ubiquity of domestic service Because servants were paid useful to men such as priests or
in medieval towns. It was common their fees only once or twice a other male ecclesiastics who lived
for young people to enter a period year, they occasionally had extra alone. In Dumfries in 1521, the
of service in their early teens; sums of money in their possession. wife of Thom McKenane rented a
for women, this usually involved One way to make use of this was lodging to a priest for three years
domestic service, although many moneylending. Small-scale loans and also promised to provide him
worked in the trade of their were common in an economy based with a garment each year. Providing
employer as well. Servants were on credit. Women were actively lodging, even to men of the Church,

had its risks, though. Helen Baty in the outmost part of towns. There Most medieval marriages top of urban society such as Agnes
spent four years pursuing not only were occasional crackdowns. In 1497, involved a woman Preston, wife of the burgess John
rent arrears against her chaplain Aberdeen dealt with an outbreak of working alongside her Turing, who was a wetnurse for
lodger, but also a silver cup which she syphilis by ordering all ‘light women’ husband in at least some the future James IV. Some women
said he had stolen. to desist from their trade and take up capacity, and often taking continued as dry nurses after the child
Temporary lodging and food another. The Reformation of 1559-60 over the business in the was weaned, providing childcare as
could be provided in alehouses or would see a much more sustained event of his death well. Others acted as fosterers, taking
stables that had rooms attached for assault on this occupation. in orphaned children or children who
overnight stays. Women, especially Women served the town itself in were sent to town by their families for
those who brewed large quantities a variety of ways. Those working an education or other purposes. And
of ale, were very active in running on town building projects were of course, women cared for their own
alehouses; some ran taverns where provided with drink by brewsters, children as well. Indeed, by ensuring
imported wine was sold. In 1560s paid for by the town. In some the health of the next generation,
Edinburgh, seventeen of the 51 towns, particularly overseas trading women ensured the long-term survival
taverns were run by women. Many centres, women worked as porters of the urban community.
people lived in lodgings without alongside men, carrying goods from
cooking facilities and purchased the quayside. In Ayr in 1537, men Elizabeth Ewan recently retired as
food from such establishments, as and women were paid for carrying professor of history and Scottish studies
well as in the market. seaweed which was to be used to at the University of Guelph. A patron
Such establishments did not always deal with the sand-strewn streets. of History Scotland, she has published
have a very good reputation. Some Cleansing of the streets was another extensively on medieval and early
were regarded with suspicion by the task that was carried out by both modern Scotland, with a particular
authorities as potential haunts for women and men. focus on gender history.
vagabonds, thieves and prostitutes. Women were expected to care for
Prostitution was tolerated in medieval the health of their households and
towns as a necessary evil, especially to offer aid to others, especially their FURTHER READING
in communities with large numbers pregnant friends and neighbours.
of apprentices, students and clergy, Childbirth took place as an exclusively Women in Scotland c.1100-c.1750 (East Linton, 1999),
all of whom were forbidden from female experience, with men excluded ed. E. Ewan and M. Meikle
marrying. There were attempts to from the birthing room. Women who
confine it to particular areas. In 1427, had recently given birth could also Women, Credit, and Debt in Early Modern Scotland
parliament decreed that the houses of find employment as wetnurses; this (Manchester, 2016), C. Spence
‘common women’ should be situated could even involve women from the

MUSIC AND MIGRATION IN

GEORGIAN EDINBURGH:
The story ofFelix Yaniewicz
An exhibition showing at The
Georgian House reveals a remarkable
chapter in Scottish musical history,
and shines a light on the vital role of
migration in shaping our
cultural heritage
T
his year the Edinburgh Exhibition image derived
International Festival from L. de Longastre’s
is celebrating its 75th 1799 portrait of Yaniewicz
anniversary, but its
historical antecedents
go back more than 200 years to a
seminal event which was hailed as
a turning point in Scottish culture
and established Edinburgh as a city c.1810 bearing the label ‘Yaniewicz account of his musical career,
of festivals. The first Edinburgh & Green’. Inside the piano, a which provided the beginnings of a
music festival took place in 1815, signature in Indian ink had been storyline for the exhibition.
and owed its success to a Polish- matched to my ancestor’s marriage
Lithuanian migrant, Felix Yaniewicz licence. This led to a crowdfunding A VIOLIN VIRTUOSO
(1762-1848). While a cornerstone campaign by The Friends of He was born Feliks Janiewicz in
marking his residence at 84 Great Felix Yaniewicz, in partnership 1762 in Vilnius, then part of the
King Street in the New Town with the Scottish Polish Cultural Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth,
records his role as co-founder of the Association, to buy the piano and and rose to prominence as a
first festival, his story has remained bring it to Edinburgh to celebrate brilliant violin virtuoso in the
untold until now. Yaniewicz’s musical legacy in Polish royal chapel. In 1785, King
The exhibition came about as Scotland. Stanislaw August Poniatowski, a
a result of a chance discovery. While restoring the piano, notable patron of the arts, paid
In the autumn of 2019, one of Douglas Hollick, an expert in for the young violinist to travel
Yaniewicz’s descendants came early keyboard instruments, to Vienna where he played for
across an advertisement for a had undertaken new research Haydn and Mozart. Mozart’s
beautifully-restored square piano on Yaniewicz and published an 19th-century biographer Otto
Jahn speculates that Mozart’s lost
Andante in A major K470 was
written for Janiewicz.
After a spell in Italy, Janiewicz
made his debut in Paris at the
Concert Spirituel in 1787 and
found a patron in the duke of
Orléans, until his French career
was interrupted by the outbreak of
revolution. He did not stay to see
his patron guillotined in 1793, and
with his native land in the Polish-
Lithuanian commonwealth on a
path to dissolution and annexation
by Russia, he fled to Britain – a
decision which would change the
Cornerstone recording Yaniewicz’s residence at 84 King Street, Edinburgh course of his life.

Within months of his arrival

in London he was hailed as ‘the
celebrated Mr Yaniewicz’, now
adopting the anglicised spelling of
his name (perhaps a signal that his
continental travels were over).
He played to great acclaim in
touring concerts in fashionable
cities all over the country, and
in Ireland. In 1799 he moved
to Liverpool, where he married
an Englishwoman, Eliza Breeze,
and soon afterwards established
a business dealing in musical
instruments, which also had
premises in London’s Leicester
Square. Yaniewicz was a founder
member of the Philharmonic
Society and also played a role in
bringing Beethoven’s music to
Britain. In 1815, he moved to
Scotland, where he had received
fulsome reviews for his first
concert appearances in 1804:
A perfect masterpiece of the art. In The Yaniewicz & Green

fire, spirit, elegance and finish, Mr square piano c.1810
Yaniewicz’s violin concerto cannot be
excelled by any performance in Europe.
It was in Edinburgh that he

undertook his boldest initiative in
the 1815 music festival, which led
to three more festivals in 1819, They include portraits of Yaniewicz which will feature in lecture-
1824 and 1843. Here he settled and his wife Eliza, letters and recitals and musical performances
for the remainder of his life, autographs of the musical stars in August and September. Also on
establishing himself as a prime of his day: the great operatic diva display is another rare survival of
mover on the city’s musical scene, Angelica Catalani, whose long and his musical instruments business:
and living at the heart of Georgian colourful partnership with Yaniewicz an elegant Apollo lyre guitar
Edinburgh’s fashionable New Town. is featured in the exhibition; and bearing the label ‘Yaniewicz &
Niccolò Paganini, who is said to Co’ and the same address in
HISTORICAL TREASURES have called him ‘maestro’. Lord Street, Liverpool, intricately
The exhibition at the Georgian Personal possessions include a worked into the gold neoclassical
House brings together a remarkable gold snuff box, and Yaniewicz’s decoration around the border.
collection of historical artefacts seal and silver cutlery bearing
illustrating Yaniewicz’s musical the motto ‘Pro Lithuania’, EDINBURGH’S FIRST MUSIC
career, along with a more intimate testifying to a lasting attachment FESTIVAL
view of his private life in a collection to his homeland in the Polish- At the heart of the exhibition is a
of heirlooms passed down the Lithuanian commonwealth. In the small volume with an important
generations of his surviving family. drawing room of the Georgian story to tell: An Account of the
Almost none of these exhibits House visitors can see the First Edinburgh Musical Festival,
have ever been seen in public. Yaniewicz & Green square piano, with a handwritten dedication on
the flyleaf ‘To Mrs Yaniewicz as a
small mark of the author’s esteem
It was in Edinburgh that Yaniewicz and friendship’.
Written by one of the festival’s
undertook his boldest initiative in the secretaries, George Farquhar
Graham, the volume contains a
1815 music festival, which led to three long list of aristocratic patrons,
more festivals in 1819, 1824 and 1843 the programmes for every concert,
and reviews of the performances,
together with ‘an essay containing

HISTORY OF MUSIC
some general observations on

music’.
Farquhar Graham’s account
gives an evocative insight into
the atmosphere and excitement
surrounding the festival, captured in
this description of the build-up to
the first concert in Parliament Hall:
The large and beautiful orchestra

filled with eminent performers; the
multitude of well-dressed persons
occupying the gallery... the novelty of
the occasion; the spaciousness of the
place whose high walls, and
massive sober ornaments were
illuminated by the bright beams of
the morning sun; together with the
expectations of the serious and
magnificent entertainment which was
about to commence powerfully
contributed to produce in every one a
state of mental elevation and
delight, rarely to be experienced.
Grand concerts in Parliament Hall speculate about the legacy of this An Account of the First and accomplished musician...
combined major oratorios – Haydn’s foundational event in the nation’s Edinburgh Musical honoured, loved and regretted.’ An
Creation and Handel’s Messiah – with musical culture, in a moment that Festival, published 1816 alternative epitaph might be taken
operatic arias, Haydn symphonies seems to court posterity: from an effusive tribute to his
and Yaniewicz’s violin concertos. place in the pantheon of Scotland’s
Evening concerts in Corri’s Rooms it has excited much temporary interest musicians, which appeared in
were scarcely less ambitious, – and it may be followed by Blackwoods Magazine in 1826:
featuring symphonies by Mozart important consequences, at a time
and Beethoven as well as another of when the hand that now attempts to Let Yaniewicz, and Finlay Dun and
Yaniewicz’s violin concertos. This describe its immediate effects, and the Murray, play solos of various kinds –
was a formidable amount of music hearts of all who participated in its divine airs of the great old masters...
for the same group of performers to pleasures, are mouldered into dust. airs that may lap the soul in Elysium.
present in the space of a few days, Let them also, at times, join their
and Yaniewicz led the orchestra If the founders of the Edinburgh eloquent violins, and harmoniously
throughout. International Festival, in the discourse in a celestial colloquy: they
Farquhar Graham’s introduction aftermath of the Second World are men of taste, feeling, and genius.
presents the 1815 festival as a War, can be seen as the successors
More details on the exhibition and
events programme can be found at
www.yaniewicz.org/exhibition
Grand concerts in Parliament Hall
combined major oratorios - Haydn’s In December 2022, the Scottish
Chamber Orchestra will revive one
‘Creation’ and Handel’s ‘Messiah’ - with of Yaniewicz’s violin concertos in
three performances in Dumfries,
operatic arias Edinburgh and Glasgow. For more
information, visit www.sco.org.uk
turning point in Scottish musical of their counterparts in 1815,

taste, moving away from national Farquhar Graham’s prediction has Josie Dixon is Yaniewicz’s 4 x great-
folk culture and towards the been more richly fulfilled than he granddaughter, and curator of the
classical, continental tradition that could ever have imagined. exhibition ‘Music and Migration
Yaniewicz represented, trailing Yaniewicz remained at the in Georgian Edinburgh: the Story
clouds of musical glory from heart of the city’s musical life of Felix Yaniewicz’, showing at The
his encounters with Haydn and until his retirement in 1829. His Georgian House in Charlotte Square,
Mozart in Vienna. At the end of the gravestone in Warriston cemetery Edinburgh, EH2 4DR, until
preface, Farquhar Graham dared to commemorates ‘a most eminent 22 October.

AVERTING PLAGUE IN
MEDIEVAL SCOTLAND:
SAINTS, RELICS
AND PROCESSIONS
Medieval Scots lived in fear of disease, especially the dreaded plague, but lacked
the medical knowledge to keep themselves safe. Instead, as Professor Richard
Oram explains, they turned to religious rites and rituals for protection
I
that in heill wes and gladness The Triumph of Death memory to understanding the day- separation in illness and in dying
Am trublit now with gret by Pieter Bruegel the to-day preoccupation with life and from those who were dearest to them
seiknes Elder (1562), a terrifying death that gripped our medieval were terrifying experiences for which
And feblit with infermite: vision of the chaos that ancestors. All were linked through they sought answers through their
Timor mortis conturbat me. plague left in its wake as the medieval Christian association of faith. We have microbiology, virology
it ravaged communities disease with sin, so that disease was and epidemiology to explain what
The first stanza of William and nations seen as the physical consequence and it was that assailed us; mass-media
Dunbar’s Lament for the Makaris, punishment for sinful behaviour. For to broadcast how best to protect
composed c.1500, reveals three them, just like us in the first days of ourselves; bureaucratic governments
pressing concerns of Scotland’s the Covid-19 pandemic, the unseen and health-care professions to
people in the Middle Ages: illness, presence of an illness that could kill, organise support and care for
death and the uncertainty of regardless of age and health, the fear those affected; and access to global
the afterlife. Living through the of infection by people around them expertise to find protection against
pandemic since March 2020 has and even from the everyday items Covid-19. Without that knowledge
brought us the closest in living they touched, and painful, frightening of disease’s natural origins, they

AVERTING PLAGUE IN MEDIEVAL SCOTLAND
could only explain it in terms of the St Roch Interceding

supernatural or the satanic. before the Holy Trinity for
Understandably, the plague plague victims. Laurent
epidemics that ravaged Europe from de la Hyre (17th century)
the middle of the 14th century were
the most terrifying of all for them.
In them, they saw God unleashing
a disease either directly or through
the works of the devil and his agents
to punish humanity for what their
spiritual leaders said was their moral
degeneracy and spiritual laxity. It
was, for them, the unmistakable proof
that death was unquestionably the
wage of sin and that sudden, painful
and disfiguring disease was God’s
chosen means to rescue humanity
from its sinful ways.
Such strong belief in disease’s
spiritual origin caused profound
distrust of medicine amongst the
medieval clergy. They taught that
illness had only one remedy: a pure
and unquestioning Christian life.
Priests scornfully dismissed the
effectiveness of professional medical
practitioners and encouraged the
persecution as witches of non-
professional suppliers of herbal or
folk medicine. But the differences
between priestly sneering and what
ordinary people chose to believe were
stark. Medieval Scottish evidence
shows how both lay folk and clergy
pursued every option available
– medical and religious – to find
physical and spiritual protections
against disease, and plague in
particular, to build defences against of a new virus that could kill horribly, caused by the Yersina pestis bacterium,
infection in this world and win so too did Scots in the 1340s watch was by no means our ancestors’ first
salvation in the next. as the disease later labelled the ‘black experience of epidemic disease, but it
death’ crept west from central Asia. was by far their worst encounter for
SEEKING A GOOD DEATH ‘The foul dethe of Engelond’, as centuries. Nor was it just a simple fear
Just as we followed the news in the St Roque’s Chapel, Scots gleefully named what we now of such diseases that troubled them,
early months of 2020 of the spread Edinburgh know to have been bubonic plague for more horrible to contemplate was
sudden death without the comfort
of confession and absolution of your
life’s sins, then burial in an unmarked
grave without the protecting rituals to
speed your soul heavenwards, indeed
where all memory of your existence
would be lost forever. Hell-bound
oblivion: that was the most terrifying
fear of all, that a ‘bad’ death would be
followed by an eternity of hellfire and
damnation, without even recollection
in the prayers of the devout to redeem
your soul.
Dying amidst family and friends,
comforted by a priest, absolved by
him from your sins and assured of
your soul’s salvation through your

good works in life and bequests to The terror of the plague

support other good works after your was intensified by fears
passing, was the type of ‘good death’ of dying without warning,
for which the medieval faithful strove. without the support and
Manuals of behaviour for the dying solace of religious rites
– the Ars moriendi or Art of Dying –
helped the better-off and literate to
prepare. For those who died a ‘bad
death’, unconfessed and unprepared
after a life of bad deeds and sinful
behaviour, Hell’s jaws gaped. Such
an end is expressed vividly in the
Pardoner’s Tale by the late 14th-century
English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, and
the even more horrific fates of various
classes of sinner were described in
graphic detail in John Gower’s Vox
Clamantis. Their writing influenced
Scottish poets like Robert Henryson
and William Dunbar throughout
the 15th century. We can sense
Henryson’s fear of damnation within
his prayer for release from the sudden
and foul death brought by plague:
[…] that we sowld thus be haistely put

doun, Before the Reformation, saints, in a reliquary shrine, but he also
And dye as beistis without confessioun whom the faithful believed could toured his diocese with those relics
intercede on your behalf with God to give the people spiritual protection
For Henryson, famine or even some to turn aside plague, were engaged against infection. Brown’s biographer
lingering illness which at least allowed through prayers and masses offered observed with smug satisfaction that
preparation for the end was better at altars dedicated to them and those who spurned this opportunity
than a bad, plague-delivered death. through devotional images and perished in the pestilence.
minor relics that could be located Although ‘traditional’ saints like
SAINTLY INTERCESSION in homes or even carried on your Columba and Mary were turned to
Seeking spiritual protection was person. No specific devotional for protection against plague, new
regarded by the Church as the only focus – no recommended saint, cults won popularity as word of
effective remedy and remained the shrine or relic – was stipulated in the miraculous interventions or cures
primary prescribed response even 1456 enactments, so priests looked was brought back from mainland
in secular legal measures for plague- to their local patron saints and Europe by Scottish merchants,
control. From the first formalised the cults of national or ‘universal’ pilgrims and clerics. Those who
enactments issued in 1456 through to saints, like Mary, Andrew, Ninian could afford it paid for altars and
the post-Reformation ordinances that or Columba. During an epidemic in chaplainries dedicated to these new
continued into the mid-17th century, the diocese of Dunkeld, for example, saints in their local parish church,
hoping to win their protection against
future plagues or as thanksgiving for
what they believed was that saint’s
For those who died a ‘bad death’, unconfessed and intercession on their behalf in current
epidemics. Although founded for
unprepared after a life of bad deeds and sinful personal reasons by those with the
behaviour, Hell’s jaws gaped wealth to do so, to avoid accusations
of self-interest and lack of charity, the
priests at those altars were paid to say
masses for everyone, a ‘good work’
religious processions, masses, prayer Bishop George Brown called for the which earned the altar’s founder
and fasting (the two latter being the intercession of St Columba, whose spiritual capital.
post-Reformation prescription) were relics were kept in his cathedral.
given greater prominence than medical Brown paid for a daily mass to be ST SEBASTIAN AND ST ROCH
remedies and public control measures. said on behalf of all the Christian Despite the repeated and devastating
One key action was to seek saintly faithful throughout the epidemic impact of epidemics in Scotland’s
intercession against the seemingly at the cathedral’s high altar, over urban centres from the mid-14th
indiscriminate touch of disease. which Columba’s bones were kept century onwards, little evidence

remains within Scottish burgh Detail from St Sebastian

churches for devotional activity relating figure at Dryburgh Abbey,
to ‘plague saints’ before the second a powerful visual depiction
half of the 15th century, and especially of the saint’s martyrdom
for the cults of the most prominent
of those saints, Sebastian and Roch.
The popularity of those saints in
north-western Europe peaked in the
early 1500s, when altars to both were
established in some important, mainly
east-coast, burghs. Chapels under
their patronage were also founded on
the moors outside the biggest towns,
to which the suspected infected were
banished in times of epidemic. The
prominence of domestic cults like
that of Columba as defences against
plague, alongside their cheapness –
long established saints did not need
new and expensive altars and chapels
– might account for the failure of either
Sebastian or Roch to become known
more generally outside the towns or
win popularity amongst the poor.
Trade connections, religious fashion
and disposable income meant that both
saints enjoyed their greatest popularity
in the close circles of wealthy families
in burghs like Aberdeen, Perth,
Edinburgh or Glasgow.
St Sebastian’s cult was established
in Scotland earlier than St Roch’s.
His first identifiable dedication
was an altar founded in 1457 in
Perth. In no surviving record of class and the Sebastian altars in identify their founders and the close
this or any of the other ten or east-coast ports could have been family circles who continued as
eleven known Scottish locations of patronised by soldiers travelling their patrons until the Reformation.
Sebastian altars is his ‘anti-plague’ to fight as mercenaries abroad. At St Giles’ in Edinburgh, for
role explicit. Sebastian was also But his presence amongst those example, a 1523 royal confirmation
a patron of soldiers, especially saints to whom burgesses in towns charter recorded that St Sebastian’s
archers, in reference to his supposed often afflicted with epidemics were altar in the nave’s north aisle was
membership of the Roman directing their prayers is more likely founded shortly before 2 September
emperor’s praetorian guard and his related to his plague-aversion role. 1494 by James Paterson, burgess,
first – unsuccessful – martyrdom, Medieval understanding of plague and Janet Paterson, his daughter.
when he was tied to a tree and shot as darts or arrows showered on The foundation was made for the
full of arrows, from which he was humanity by God as punishment for salvation of the souls of the king
miraculously nursed back to health. their sins explains the appeal of an and royal family and Paterson’s own
His reputation as a protector against arrow-riddled saint who survived his family. James appointed Andrew
plague was established before the 8th wounds. Graphic depictions of his White as chaplain at the altar,
century, when the Italian chronicler first attempted martyrdom, such as provided him and his successors
Paul the Deacon recorded how the carved stone torso with holes into with a substantial annual income
a plague in 680 had been ended which wooden or metal arrows were of 20 merks from property rents
through Sebastian’s intercession. once inserted found at Dryburgh in Edinburgh, and reserved the
His cult’s spread into Scotland Abbey, gave the story a powerful patronage of the chaplaincy to his
came much later, probably through visual appeal to illiterate worshippers, heirs. Possession of the patronage
inclusion of his hagiography in the to whom the symbolism would have passed through Janet Paterson to her
mid-13th-century Golden Legend been explained by the chaplain second husband, John Carkettill, and
of James of Varagine, which enjoyed serving at the altar on which the from him to their son. For nearly 70
wide circulation following its printing image was displayed. years until the Reformation, Paterson
in the 1450s. It is possible that his Extensive records of Sebastian and his heirs placed themselves –
military associations made him altars survive from Aberdeen, Perth and all other Christians – under the
popular among Scotland’s warrior and Edinburgh, allowing us to protection of Sebastian against plague

in life and, through this ‘good work’, like Mainz, Cologne and Leuven, Scottish parish churches. Roch’s cult
believed that they were guaranteed then into the Netherlands and was instead most often represented
salvation in the hereafter. northern France. By the 1490s, the in chapels at the ‘foul muirs’, those
In the second half of the 15th Roch cult was established in all the areas of open ground outside the
century the cult of Roch, who was main Flemish and Netherlandish town where those suspected of
associated closely with protection cities. From there, Scottish merchants infection were removed for quarantine
against, or, more importantly, brought it into the principal east- purposes, like those on the burgh muir
recovery from, the plague, began to coast trading ports around 1500. of Edinburgh and outside the gates
emerge in northern Italy. The original The earliest known Scottish of Dundee, Stirling and Glasgow.
Roch, supposedly from Montpellier evidence for a Roch dedication Their extramural location arose from
in southern France, was said to have within a burgh’s parish church is for Roch being the saint to whom those
ministered to the plague-ridden in a chaplainry focused on an image already afflicted with plague prayed
the second half of the 14th century. of the saint established at St Blaise’s for recovery, whilst Sebastian was
He was a pilgrim who, reputedly, had altar in Perth in 1501 by Cristine favoured by those seeking to avoid
entered a plague-stricken village and Brown. In 1543 it was relocated to infection; the former were forced out
prayed that the epidemic would enter an altar of its own. Why Cristine of town and excluded from communal
him rather than afflict the populace, made this foundation is unknown worship in the burgh churches
and so took it with him when he left. but Roch’s reputation as a carer while their ‘clean’ fellow burgesses
He was usually depicted as a pilgrim for plague-victims suggests that prayed for deliverance from personal
displaying plague buboes on his it was possibly a thanksgiving for visitation in the parish church. Roch’s
thigh, which a protective angel was recovery – perhaps her own or of a status as patron of the plague-
lancing to purge him of the disease. loved one – from infection during stricken rather than as a more general
What were identified as his relics the then-current Scottish plague protector against plague explains why
were discovered in 1469 in Voghera, epidemic. The earliest altar dedicated his main cult presence was in these
between Milan and Genoa, and later specifically to Roch, however, extramural chapels rather than in
moved to a shrine in what became was founded in 1502 in St Giles’, the burghs’ parish churches, as from
the church of San Rocco. In the Edinburgh. On 18 January 1503, the 1450s the infected were being
removed from the community into the
‘foul muir’ encampments.
Possibly the earliest of these
The earliest known Scottish evidence for a Roch foundations was founded by King
dedicaton within a burgh’s parish church is for James IV on 4 December 1502 at
the south end of the bridge over
a chaplainry focused on an image of the saint the Forth at Stirling. At Glasgow,
a chaplainry in the chapel of St
established at St Blaise’s altar in Perth in 1501 Roch, later styled as ‘in the muir
of Glasgow’ outside the city, was
founded in October 1508 by
same year as the discovery of these King James IV confirmed a charter Thomas Muirhead, rector of Stobo
relics, a chapel dedicated to him was of the Edinburgh burgess Richard (a canon of Glasgow Cathedral).
founded in Brescia, where his name Hoppar, dated 17 January 1502, The chapel’s general location is
was invoked for protection in the in which Hoppar assigned various preserved in the modern area name
epidemic then raging there. A second property rents to support a chaplain St Rollox. No certain date is known
epidemic in Brescia in 1478 drew at the altar of the ‘Blessed Virgin for the foundation of the chapel of St
greater attention to the developing Mary and her Visitation’, and of St Roch on the Burghmuir outside the
cult, with the Venetian governor of Roch, which he erected in the newly- southern edge of Edinburgh. It was
the city writing a biography which built St Thomas the Martyr’s aisle already long established when it is
led to an explosion of interest in in the choir. The chaplain was to say first identified in the burgh’s council
his protective potential throughout masses for all time on the anniversary records on 24 November 1532,
Venetian territory. By the early 1480s, of Hoppar’s death and distribute food when the councillors paid for masses
representations of the saint, often for 40 poor people. In 1505 we learn for ‘the saullis that lyis in the said
paired with St Sebastian, were being that Richard had presented his son, kirk and kirkyaird’ – the otherwise
produced in northern Italy and, Robert Hoppar, to serve as chaplain uncommemorated plague-dead – and
following the relocation of his relics at the altar: this was very much a to ensure that future chaplains kept
to Venice in 1484 amidst another family-focused affair. Like Brown’s the buildings in sound repair. At
epidemic there, his reputation spread foundation at Perth, too, the date of Dundee, all records are lost relating
throughout the city’s international Hoppar’s foundation of this altar is to the foundation of the chapel
trade network. North of the Alps, its also revealing, as it occurred during located outside the west gate of the
popularity was aided by the powerful the same severe national epidemic in burgh, where plague victims were
Imhoff family, whose devotion to the years around 1500. housed in temporary booths until
Roch saw his cult extend from their The Perth and Edinburgh Roch they either recovered or succumbed
base in Nuremberg to major cities altars are the only two known from to the disease.

PROCESSIONS AND RELICS

These chapels, however, were but one
aspect of medieval Scots’ response
to plague, and the 1456 legislation
for plague prevention measures
placed far more importance on
other religious arrangements. Public
gatherings were banned during
epidemics, but the act gave royal
protection to priests who breached
quarantine rules to lead processions
and conduct services to secure divine
release from plague. Public religious
demonstrations remained a feature of
plague-control measures in Scotland
until the mid-17th century, with
every outbreak being accompanied
by instructions from the king’s
councillors for a re-application of
the 1456 act and the enforcement
of a strict regime of prayer, fasting
and abstinence from sexual activity,
group festivities and general excess.
The recent regulation of social
distancing and the clamping down
on group association to slow the
spread of Covid-19 was simply the
enforcement of a centuries-old policy
that was known to work.
All across Europe from at least
the 6th century onwards, religious
processions and the carrying of
saints’ relics around plague-afflicted
communities had been one of the
most common responses. Apart
from the reference within the 1456
legislation, little is known of such
activities in Scotland before the
early 16th century. Perhaps the
best example, mentioned earlier,
again dates from that same great
epidemic in the early 1500s that
triggered the Roch foundations. It them in water, which he then gave Location of the St Roch power to hear the prayers of the
details how the bishop of Dunkeld to the people of his diocese to drink. altar at St John’s Kirk faithful and intercede with God on
used the relics of St Columba to It was said that at Caputh most of in Perth their behalf, and where there was
protect the people of his diocese. the parishioners drank the water, no knowledge of viruses or bacilli,
His biographer recounts how the but some refused. When the plague praying to a saint was probably as
bishop took practical measures arrived, those who had drunk the effective as some of the quack cures
first, prohibiting public gatherings water were spared, while those who offered by the doctors of the day.
at Dunkeld for religious festivals. had scorned the opportunity died What is perhaps more remarkable is
Because the parish of Dunkeld horribly. The purpose and moral in that despite the repeated failure of
was huge, lying on both sides of his story is obvious. the saints to intercede – other than
the River Tay, and parishioners in stories such as that reported at
from its outlying districts had to CONCLUSION Caputh – faith in their protective
pass the cathedral to get to their In a world where medical science power continued right to the eve of
parish church which lay on the leads the fight against disease, the the Reformation.
Tay’s west bank in Little Dunkeld, faith which led victims and those
he split it in three and built new fearful of infection alike to seek Richard Oram is professor of history at
churches for the two new parishes. saintly protection against plague the University of Stirling, as well a patron
But he employed other faith-based might seem alien. But in the Middle of History Scotland. He has published
measures, taking Columba’s bones Ages, where saints were still reputed extensively on various aspects of Scottish
from their reliquary and dipping to work miracles and to have the medieval and environmental history.

ESTABLISHING PATERNITY IN
17TH-CENTURY SCOTLAND:
A CASE STUDY OF ROTHESAY, 1660
Ashlyn Cudney presents the story of Nance Throw,
a woman accused of fornication with five men in
17th-century Rothesay, and the torrent of testimony, gossip
and heresay that this case – and others like it – unleashed
I
n 17th-century Scotland, A midwife could methods to ascertain
pregnancy provided status threaten to withhold paternity from even the
and authority to married her services if the most reluctant of women.
women, demonstrating their expectant mother did Pregnant women
capability and respectability not cooperate with the were brought to the
as wives. Women who conceived authorities in naming attention of kirk
outside of marriage, however, were the father of her baby sessions through several
perceived as threats to neighborhood avenues. Firstly, women
stability and a stain on the moral sometimes confessed to
community. Following the creation the elders voluntarily,
of the kirk session, a male religious either motivated by
body functioning as a church sincere religious guilt
court, by the Scottish Reformation or an attempt to pressure the given birth. Most often, bodily
parliament in 1560, early modern father into taking responsibility for inspections were not completed
Scots had a formal mechanism to an illegitimate baby; this was an – the threat of this humiliation
investigate the sinful sexual lives of effective method of controlling the was enough to convince pregnant
their neighbors. The 17th century narrative and using the mechanisms women to confess. The Rothesay
saw an unforeseen number of young of the kirk when a partner was not records indicate that Nance was
women dragged before kirk sessions, compliant. Most often, news of not brought forward of her own
bodies and behaviors inspected, illegitimate pregnancy reached the volition nor through the threat
to determine the existence of kirk session through community of inspection. From the constant
illegitimate pregnancy. Marriage gossip. Morning sickness or a reference to the ‘scandal’ which
was the only way a man could woman’s changing figure would be surrounded her, it is evident that
be confident in the paternity of quickly noticed by her community. gossip alerted the elders to her
his children; therefore, paternal Similarly, local gossip regarding a condition.
parentage of an illegitimate child was woman’s ‘inappropriate’ behavior The kirk session first ordered
difficult to ascertain with certainty. with a man, termed ‘scandalous Nance to divulge her sexual history
In October 1660, Nance Throw carriage’, also prompted suspicion. in painstaking detail in order to
stood before the kirk session of calculate the conception date.
Rothesay, accused of fornication GATHERING EVIDENCE Having had several sexual partners,
with five men. Being five months If a woman refused to admit she Nance’s ability to accurately recount
pregnant, Nance posed a significant was pregnant, and the kirk session the exact dates of sexual intercourse
problem to the kirk session – not had ample evidence to assume she was vital in correctly identifying
only was she stubborn in concealing was being dishonest, they could the father. Amidst this suspicion,
the father, but her assumed sexual order an inspection of her breasts. Nance maintained that there was
history made them suspicious of her This inspection, completed by a only one potential father, Alexander
honesty. Kirk session elders were local midwife, indicated if a woman Bannatyne, a servant to the laird of
well equipped with the tools and was pregnant or had recently Kames. Nance promised to prove
that he was the father by recounting
It was not uncommon for early modern men to the dates of their several sexual
encounters. Nance noted that they
confess to fornication but deny paternity until the had sex on four occasions, with 6
June 1660 being the conception
birth of the child, to ensure it corresponded with date of their illegitimate baby.
the occasion of their fornication The kirk session ordered Nance to
describe in humiliatingly intimate

EARLY MODERN SCOTLAND
detail the occasions of their locations where Nance had failed

sexual encounters – the dates, to mention – the local mill, moor,
locations, time of day, and even and even her father’s house.
the clothing she was wearing. Despite these numerous sexual
The session, suspicious of encounters, Alexander denied
Nance’s sincerity, asked if confidence in his paternity. It was
Alexander ‘had her without not uncommon for early modern
house’ (hose), to which she men to confess to fornication
replied that he had only once, but deny paternity until the
while they had sex in the birth of the child, to ensure it
cowhouse at Drumachloy. corresponded with the occasion of
The next step of establishing their fornication. Once a baby was
paternity was to examine born, kirk sessions felt confident
Alexander, the potential in calculating conception based on
father. It was crucial that the typical nine-month period of
their testimonies matched gestation. This caused significant
exactly, or the session would issues for women when babies were
be suspicious that one of the born prematurely. Nance’s baby
other four identified men were was born on 5 February 1661,
the true father. Interestingly, therefore the session concluded Once the baby was last menstrual cycle, leading to
Alexander deviated slightly that the baby was conceived on born, a midwife was difficulties accurately calculating
from Nance’s memory of the 5 May 1660, assuming gestation called to assess the conception dates.
events, eliciting the skepticism was exactly nine months with no maturity of the infant
of the session. Like Nance, leeway for untimely birth. This was A MIDWIFE’S TESTIMONY
Alexander recounted sex a common misconception amongst When babies were born early or late,
on four occasions, but the early modern people who assumed midwives were called to assess the
locations and dates of these a rigid understanding of gestation maturity of the infant upon birth. A
encounters differed substantially. – failing to account for months midwife’s testimony on the timeliness
Alexander confessed to fornication which vary in length. 17th-century of a newborn was the most powerful
a month earlier than Nance’s Scots believed that pregnancy evidence in cases where the dates of
proposed conception date and began at the time of intercourse conception were contested. Midwives
described their sexual relations in rather than from the date of the were not only convincing witnesses
to the maturity of newborns, but also
played a vital role as inquisitor during
labour. Midwives were tasked with
questioning the labouring mother,
even threatening to withhold their
services, if she did not confess the
name of the father. The extreme
pain experienced during childbirth
was assumed to illicit the same
truth as judicial torture. The kirk
sessions believed that a labouring
woman was always honest in
her identification of the father
and in the most stubborn cases,
Morning sickness or such as Nance’s, this method of
a woman’s changing interrogation could be vital to
figure could be quickly ensuring the sessions’ confidence
picked up in a close- in paternity.
knit community If paternity could not be
Establishing paternity in the

early modern period was tenuous
– without modern medical
technology, Scots had to rely on
testimony, gossip and hearsay

established by the mother, outside slander, indicating the power of ‘greatumly in love’ with Nance that
testimony, often in the form of gossip to even those of high status. when she accepted his proposal,
gossip and rumour, entered the In June 1660, Jonet McNeill alerted he was blissfully unaware of her
session minutes as evidence. In this the session to a rumour that Robert pregnancy. After learning of her
case, friends, family and neighbors Stewart of Scarrell, a wealthy, married, condition, he was ‘so far engaged in
would be questioned to establish the local minister and schoolmaster, was love’ that he was willing to take the
behavior of the pregnant woman. the father of the baby. Less than a child for himself just to be with her.
Elizabeth Campbell, Nance’s friend month after the ‘flagrant scandall’ of He denied that Robert promised him
and confidante, informed the kirk Robert and Nance’s affair came to anything, but that Nance’s romantic
session that they were investigating light, their carefully-orchestrated story attention and persuasion convinced
the wrong man entirely; she affirmed fell apart. Nance confessed that Robert him to maintain the charade.
that Nance told her that Gustavus was the father, telling the session that After refusing to attend the kirk
Browne, a man from Edinburgh, she feared death if the truth came out. session for four months, Robert
was the father of her baby. She Robert convinced her that the kirk finally confessed his guilt to the
recounted a conversation between session would drown her for having elders. Robert admitted to adultery
herself and Nance where Nance an affair with a minister. This was a with Nance while she was his
confessed that Gustavus was a fabrication, as Robert was a clerk on domestic servant, having sex for
former sexual partner and most the kirk session and would have known the first time while his wife was
likely the father. The powerful that the consequence for adultery away in December 1659, then
testimony of gossip was not reserved was not drowning. Nance told the consistently for six months after.
only for close confidants. Jeane session that she never had sexual Despite this, Robert denied that the
Boyd, an acquaintance of Nance’s relations with Alexander but used baby was his – the baby was born
father, Robert, also supplied the his desire to marry her to convince 20 days too early to align with his
session with doubt. Jeane informed him to take responsibility for the rigid understanding of conceptions
them that Alexander was conspiring baby. Robert promised Alexander and gestation. Robert shamefully
for better employment by taking 40 merks, various foodstuffs, and admitted to instructing Nance to
responsibility for Nance’s baby. a plot of land if he would take marry Alexander, arguing that the
She shared that Nance’s father had responsibility for their child. devil ‘induced him to sinn.’ Robert,
implied to her that Alexander would Alexander Bannatyne came then, tried to convince the session to
receive a well-paying job from the forward ‘with heavy sorrow question his paternity by providing
laird of Kames if he deceived the and teares’ confessing his ‘great several other potential suspects. The
session in accepting paternity. The A woman and man guiltynes’ for lying to the session. session appeared unfazed, noting
laird of Kames was horrified by this could be called upon to The session, flabbergasted that he that Robert’s previous dishonesty
rumour, complaining to the session give separate evidence would take responsibility for another undermined his testimony.
that the mere accusation that he on the times and places man’s baby, questioned his motives. Establishing paternity in
was involved with this collusion was of their sexual liasons Alexander shared that he was so the early modern period was
tenuous. Without modern medical
technology, Scots had to rely on
testimony, gossip and hearsay.
Following the final confession
from Robert and Nance, they
disappeared from the records
entirely. An unfortunate gap in
both the Rothesay kirk session
and Dunoon presbytery records
prohibits us from following their
lives any further. This absence is
a visceral representation of the
thousands of bastard-bearing
women in 17th-century Scotland
who, following humiliating public
repentance, ceased to exist in
the record with only their most
shameful moments and intimate
details documented for eternity.
Ashlyn Cudney is a PhD candidate at

the University of Edinburgh specialising
in early modern Scottish history. Her
research focuses on crime, discipline, and
ecclesiastical and secular bias on Bute in
the latter half of the 17th century.

‘All the smale folk and pitall’:

ORDINARY SCOTS IN
BARBOUR’S BRUCE
Although focused on the deeds of ‘great men’, John Barbour’s epic 14th-century poem
The Bruce is unusual among medieval chivalric literature in lavishing approving attention
on ordinary Scots. Dr Callum Watson explores what the poem can tell us
D
etails of the lives of
ordinary Scots in the
medieval period are
notoriously difficult
to reconstruct. The
fragmentary nature of the surviving
records from the period presents
a wide range of problems for our
understanding of the day-to-
day life of non-noble Scots and
the roles they played in the key
events that shaped the course of
Scotland’s medieval history. Most
narrative sources tend to celebrate
the achievements of kings, earls
and lords, largely ignoring the
contributions of the Scottish
commons in all but the most
general sense.
One striking exception to this
rule is The Bruce, a long narrative
poem written in the 1370s by John
Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen.
The poet’s primary aim is to
celebrate the chivalric adventures
of the lordly heroes of the First War
of Scottish Independence – chiefly
King Robert I and ‘the Good’ Sir
James Douglas, but also the king’s
nephew Thomas Randolph, earl of
Moray, the king’s brother Edward
Bruce, earl of Carrick, and various
other early-14th-century Scottish
war leaders. However, Barbour
repeatedly acknowledges the part
that ordinary Scots played in the
events he recounts. On occasion, he
is even willing to ascribe some of the
knightly characteristics shared by his
noble heroes to non-noble Scots.
We can be sure that ordinary
Scots actively participated in the
early-14th-century warfare that Image from the Holkham Bible showing noble soldiers
Barbour seeks to celebrate. The and common soldiers engaged in an apocalyptic battle
only surviving ordinance detailing
the raising of an army from

Robert I’s reign was produced at a The capture of noble elements of Bruce’s armies in retake his father’s castle as being
parliament at Scone in December Linlithgow Peel was a far more positive light. arrived at in council with this group
1318. The document describes the achieved with the aid (‘amang thaim prevely/Thai ordanyt
lowest-ranked soldiers as men with of non-noble Scots TAKING CASTLES AND WINNING [the plan]’.
‘the value of one cow in goods’ BATTLES Douglas Castle is not the only
(valorem unius vacce in bonis). Such In The Bruce, ordinary Scots play a stronghold recovered as much
men were expected to serve with a major role in shaping key episodes thanks to the effort of ordinary
‘good lance’ (bonam lanceam) or a within the text. Such is the case Scots as to that of their noble
‘good bow’ (bonum arcum) with 24 with the ‘Douglas Larder’, an leaders. Douglas is able to stealthily
arrows, and were not apparently episode many readers may recognise gain access to Roxburgh Castle
required to equip themselves with from the film Outlaw King. While in February 1314 thanks to rope
any armour at all. this incident – in which Douglas ladders devised for him by one
Further clues to the mixture of ambushes the English garrison Simon of Ledhouse. Simon, who
noble and non-noble individuals occupying his family’s castle while if he was real was probably one of
in Scottish armies in the early 14th they are hearing mass on Palm Douglas’s tenants from Ledhouse
century can be found in the account Sunday, drags them back to the near Lesmahagow, is also the
of Jean le Bel, a cleric from Hainault castle, and slaughters them all in the first to reach the top of the wall,
who accompanied an English army cellar – seems devoid of any heroic where he holds off the defenders
on campaign into Weardale against merit to modern eyes, Barbour single-handedly until his comrades
the Bruce Scots in 1327. He reports reserves no criticism for either are able to join him. Barbour
that Scottish raiding parties of the Douglas or the ordinary Scots who claims that when King Robert’s
period were composed of knights help him accomplish this ruthless nephew, Thomas Randolph, earl
and men at arms who travelled feat. It is through a man named of Moray, learned how Douglas
on runcins and also ‘other folk’ Thom Dicson that Douglas is able had seized Roxburgh, he sought to
who rode smaller, less expensive to swell his following on arriving find a similarly cunning method
hackneys. Moreover, Le Bel also in Douglasdale and from whom he of capturing Edinburgh Castle.
notes that these raiding parties receives intelligence of the situation Such competition among knights
would usually be followed by a there. Though described by Barbour was a common theme in chivalric
‘rabble’ (ribaudaille) whose main aim as ‘ryche off mobleis and off cateill’ literature. Yet in The Bruce,
was apparently to pick through the (‘rich in goods and in cattle’), the Randolph’s desire for a suitable ruse
devastation left by the fighting men poet gives Dicson no title, strongly is provided by another ordinary Scot
and loot anything valuable they may suggesting he is not a nobleman. The named William Francis. Francis used
have left behind. Le Bel’s purpose in following Douglas gathers from ‘all to sneak in and out of the castle to
including this observation was likely the lele (loyal) men off that land’ are visit his sweetheart in the town and
to denigrate the character of the identified as his late father’s tenants, he offers to show Randolph and his
Scots, but Barbour casts the non- and Barbour presents the plan to men this secret route.

ORDINARY SCOTS IN BARBOUR ’S BRUCE
The capture of the peel at from the very beginning of his poem is a particularly striking sentiment
Linlithgow is not only achieved as being the most praiseworthy from an author whose stated aim
with the help of non-noble Scots, characteristic a knight can possess. is to praise the ‘gret price off
it is initiated by them as well. The Barbour is even more explicit in his chevalry’ earned by the foremost war
plan to seize the peel is devised by association of knightly characteristics leaders of the First War of Scottish
William Bunnock, whom Barbour with the Scottish commons towards Independence and demonstrates the
describes as a husbandman. Barbour the end of the poem, when Edward high regard in which Barbour viewed
models this episode on a later II and Sir Ingram Umfraville – a ordinary Scots.
real-life incident that occurred at recently-defected Scottish knight
Edinburgh Castle in 1341, which – are discussing the strategic THE ‘SMALE FOLK’ AT THE
was masterminded by a cleric named predicament facing the English BATTLE OF BANNOCKBURN
William Bullock and a merchant crown in the 1320s. Umfraville The most famous episode in The
named Walter Curry. In The Bruce, summarises Edward’s problem thus: Bruce in which ordinary Scots play
Bunnock proposes to lead a cart a pivotal role is found in Barbour’s
loaded with hay into the peel, with [Bruce’s] men all worthyn ar sa wicht account of the battle of Bannockburn.
eight men lying hidden beneath the For lang usage of fechting The poet acknowledges the presence
hay. A ‘yuman’ walks alongside the That has bene nuryst in swilk thing of common Scots on the battlefield
cart carrying a concealed axe, and That ilk yowman is sa wicht throughout the confrontation, and
once the cart is halfway through Off his that he is worth a knycht. even goes so far as to credit the
the gate this yeoman is to cut the poorest Scots with ultimately causing
traces (though in the event Bunnock In other words, the Scots have the English army to break and flee.
himself ends up fulfilling this role), grown so bold and skilful through On the first day of the battle, as the
leaving the cart immobile and the the experience of prolonged warfare, English army is approaching from
gate obstructed. Bunnock and his Scottish yeomen have become as the south, Barbour notes that Bruce
eight companions then keep the valuable in combat as knights. This sends ‘the smale folk and pitall’ a safe
garrison occupied while more of
Bunnock’s ‘freyndis’ emerge from
hiding places nearby and rush inside
the peel to overwhelm the defenders.
Bernice Kliman has compared
Barbour’s account of the capture of
Linlithgow with his contemporary
Jean Froissart’s account of the
capture of Edinburgh in 1341,
the event the Linlithgow episode
is based on, and she notes that
Froissart ascribes the Scottish
success in 1341 exclusively to
their noble leaders. Froissart also
positively delights in recounting the
slaughter of French peasants during
the suppression of the Jacquerie at
Meaux in 1358. These incidents
from Froissart’s chronicle offer a
striking illustration of more ‘typical’
attitudes towards the commons in
works of chivalric literature and
contrasts sharply with Barbour’s
attitudes in The Bruce.
The terms that Barbour uses to
describe Bunnock and his yeoman
companion draw on characteristics
that the poet typically applies to his
knightly heroes. Bunnock is ‘a stout
carle and a sture (stalwart)/And Barbour acknowledges
off himselff dour and hardy’. His the role of non-noble
accomplice meanwhile is ‘ane yuman women several times in
wycht (strong) and hardy’. William The Bruce, including an
Francis, too, is introduced as ‘wycht episode in 1317 when
and apert (bold)’, while Thom Bruce halted his entire
Dicson is praised for his loyalty, army for a day to allow a
a virtue that Barbour emphasises laundress to give birth

The earliest struggle. Barbour claims there were

surviving depiction 15,000 of them (having given their
of Bannockburn, number as 30,000 on the first day
from a copy of Walter of the battle), though Barbour is
Bower’s Scotichronicon prone to wildly exaggerate the size
c.1440s, housed at of armies in his poem (he numbers
Corpus Christi College the English army at Bannockburn
in Cambridge at 100,000 men, around five times
the number Edward II actually
sought to recruit in 1314). While
Barbour states that the English were
already giving ground at the time
King Robert personally joined the
fighting, he adds that the ‘smale
folk’ were mistaken for the arrival of
yet more Scottish reinforcements,
causing even ‘the best and the mast
hardy’ Englishmen to lose heart and
begin to flee.
Barbour’s account of the ‘smale
folk’ and their contribution at
Bannockburn has become one of the
most oft-repeated stories relating to
the battle. Its popularity proceeds
largely from the fact it appears to
attribute a significant part of the
Scottish victory to a genuinely
‘popular’ and spontaneous upswelling
of patriotic fervour on the part of
ordinary Scots. Strikingly, there may
be a kernel of truth to Barbour’s
claims about the ‘smale folk’,
although in reality they may have had
more cynical intentions than the poet
suggests. The late Archibald Duncan
has identified the appointment by
the ‘smale folk’ of a ‘Capitane’ as the
crucial clue for reconstructing what
was actually going on, as this was a
possible means for them to claim a
distance away from where he intends the presence of ordinary Scots among share of any loot recovered from the
to confront the enemy, having them the fighting men. battlefield. Alistair Macdonald has
guard the armour and provisions. The following morning, the convincingly argued that one of the
The ‘smale folk’ here are essentially ‘smale folk’ are apparently once main incentives for ordinary Scots to
the ancillary staff accompanying the again dismissed to their ‘vale’ while serve in Scottish armies in the 14th
army – cooks, carters, servants and so the main body of the Scottish army century was the promise of booty.
on. Earlier in the poem, ahead of the engages the larger English army on The rules governing the taking of
battle of Loudoun Hill, Barbour also a narrow stretch of land between booty in Scottish armies was fairly
claims that the king sent the ‘cariage the Bannock Burn and the nearby simple, particularly compared to the
and the povyrall’ (‘the carriage-men Pelstream. However, as the violence complex and ungenerous practices
and poor folk’) away from the fighting reaches its crescendo and the king in English armies in the same period.
men before the engagement began. himself personally commits his An individual appears to have had a
At Loudoun Hill, Barbour makes it reserve force to the melee, the ‘smale right to two-thirds of whatever they
clear that this is because this group folk’ – now described in more detail could loot, with the remaining third
was judged to be ‘nocht worth in the by Barbour as ‘Yomen and swanys due to their immediate commander
bataill’ (‘no use in the battle’). The (young boys) and pitaill’ – decide (and the Scottish crown claiming
‘smale folk’ remain out of the way to disobey the king’s orders and nothing for itself).
in ‘a vale’ throughout the first day assist ‘thar lordis’ in the fighting. In this context, it may be then
at Bannockburn, but in the evening, Having elected a ‘Capitane’ from that the ‘smale folk’, sensing that
Barbour states that Bruce addresses among their number, the ‘smale the battle was already going in
the soldiers ‘Bath mar and les folk’ tie sheets to poles to serve the Scots’ direction, selected from
commonaly’, explicitly acknowledging as banners and rush to join the among their number a captain and

ORDINARY SCOTS IN BARBOUR ’S BRUCE
made their way onto the battlefield Macdougall of Argyll – the fugitive chroniclers like Le Bel and Froissart.
to enthusiastically engage in the King Robert is sheltered by ordinary For example, he complains of the
looting of the dead and of the women. In both instances, the fickleness of the Scottish commons
nearby English camp. The near- women give their two sons into the when they abandon King Robert
contemporary Vita Edwardi Secundi king’s service, which Barbour uses as following his defeat at the battle of
(Life of Edward II) values the English an opportunity to present Bruce as Methven in June 1306:
losses at a whopping £200,000, essentially embodying the medieval
and Barbour himself notes the ideal of reciprocal lordship between Sa fayris it ay commounly,
astonishing amount of booty that a king and his subjects. As the first In commounys may nane affy (trust)
was seized, observing: of these women puts it: Bot he that may thar warand
(protector) be.
So gret a riches thair thai fand My twa sonnys with you sall I
That mony man mychty wes maid Send to tak part of your travaill, Barbour also critically notes that
Off the riches that thai thar haid. For I wate weill thai sall nocht faill the men of Carrick were ‘Enclynyt
To be rewardyt weill at rycht till him in party’ (‘partly inclined
This reading of the ‘smale folk’ Quhen ye are heyit to your mycht. to [support] him’) when Bruce
certainly resonates with Le Bel’s returned to the mainland in
description of the ‘ribaudaille’ that Between these two episodes, Bruce spring 1307 but would not openly
followed Scottish raiding parties of is also warned of assassination plot support him for fear of English
the period (Le Bel’s French term against him by ‘wemen that he wyth recriminations. He shows no sorrow
‘ribaudaille’ and the Scots terms ‘pitall/ wald play’. In this context, ‘play’ is over the ‘Archeris burges and
povyrall’ used by Barbour to describe a coy euphemism, indicating that yhumanry/Preystis clerkys monkis
the ‘smale folk’ all roughly translate as these were women with whom Bruce and freris/Husbandis and men of all
‘rabble’).Yet even if their aims were was sleeping. The poet’s inclusion of maneris’ who the Scots wantonly
not as high-minded as Barbour would this detail may have been meant to slaughter at Myton in 1319 and he
have his readers believe, the fact that appeal to Bruce’s grandson Robert makes a cruel joke of the fact that
he sought to present their actions II, who was king of Scots at the the engagement became known as
in such a respectable light – when time Barbour was writing and who the ‘chaptur’ of Myton because of
he might easily have ignored them may even have been patronising all of the clergymen who died there.
altogether, as other sources do – is Barbour’s work. In the words of In this case, of course, it may be the
reflective of the poet’s willingness Sonja Cameron, Robert II had case that Barbour’s willingness to
to ascribe the Scottish commons an enough children ‘to field an entire celebrate this is related to the fact
active and positive role in what he football team, including substitutes’, that these are English commoners
saw as the defining struggle in the barely half of whom were with being killed. Nevertheless,
kingdom’s history. either of his two wives. Barbour Barbour’s generally positive
also notes that, while campaigning attitude towards ordinary Scots is
ORDINARY WOMEN IN BRUCE in Ireland in 1317, Bruce halted remarkable. It would appear that,
Barbour’s interest in the his entire army for a full day to despite the tendency of many of
contribution of ordinary Scots give a ‘laynder’ (laundress) time to his contemporaries to either be
to the war does not only extend give birth. Rhiannon Purdie has disinterested or openly hostile
to yeomen and ‘swanys’. The suggested that ‘laynder’ would be towards the commons, Barbour
poet also acknowledges the role broadly synonymous in the minds of believed that ordinary Scots made
played by ordinary women in his Barbour’s audience with ‘prostitute’, a significant contribution to the
narrative. Indeed, Barbour gives a another bit of bawdy humour First War of Scottish Independence,
more active role to some common to appeal to the cruder tastes of and that this was worthy of note
women in his poem than he does his late-14th-century aristocratic and even celebration. It is not
to the noble women who played a readers, and perhaps to Robert II always easy to confirm whether
part in Bruce’s life. For instance, in particular. Nevertheless, in the the ordinary Scots in The Bruce
Barbour does not even name Bruce’s case of the women who betrayed were real people or Barbour’s own
queen, Elizabeth de Burgh, who is the plot to kill the king earlier in the creations, but his poem nevertheless
merely described as the ‘queyn(e)’ poem, this also serves as another offers an invaluable insight into the
in her rare appearances in the text. illustration of Barbour’s willingness kinds of roles ordinary Scots played
Barbour does not deign to name any to allow ordinary Scots to influence in one of the pivotal moments in
of the common women in his poem his narrative in a positive manner. Scotland’s history.
either, but they are at least allowed
to contribute positively to the CONCLUSION Dr CallumWatson completed a PhD at
episodes in which they appear. On We should not overstate Barbour’s the University of Edinburgh on attitudes
two separate occasions in The Bruce positive outlook on the Scottish towards chivalry in Barbour’s Bruce and
– once while on the isle of Arran in commons in The Bruce. He does on Blind Hary’sWallace. He runs the ‘Knight
early 1307 and again shortly after occasion display the type of high- of the Two Ls’ blog, where he writes about
escaping from the tracker dog set handed attitude towards lower- aspects of medieval Scotland: http://
on him by his bitter enemy John order Scots that is more typical of drcallumwatson.blogspot.com

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TO VIEW GALLERY
Pre-Reformation
Scottish churches:
EVERYDAY EXPERIENCES OF
EXTRAORDINARY THINGS
For ordinary Scots, the parish church was not simply a place to worship on Sundays; it was
a space crammed with dazzling art intended to awe worshippers and bring them closer to
the wonders of heaven. Dr Lizzie Swarbrick explains
T
he lives of everyday A richly-detailed section delicate ivories, wooden sculptures did not have the same sort of art and
people in the 15th and of the Fetternear Banner, and items which included precious furnishings that you can see in places
16th centuries were created c.1520 metals and gems (they could be easily like England or Belgium. There have
very plain and dull melted down or repurposed). In 1559, also been many arguments in Scottish
compared to our lives John Knox wrote about watching history about whether churches
in the 21st-century. That said, people the faces of doctors at the University before the Reformation were even that
in pre-Reformation Scotland still of St Andrews as he burned their popular or cared-for. These two things
experienced extraordinary things which paintings in front of them. There is are linked, because if we do not have
inspired, uplifted and emotionally also a powerful day-by-day account much evidence for fancy churches,
affected them. The main place where of townsfolk trying to protect St then it is easier to imagine them as
people encountered such wonders was Nicholas’ church in Aberdeen, hiding dull and unloved. However, we have
in their local church. ornaments like chalices and reliquaries some amazing surviving works of art
It can be difficult to imagine what until the ‘uproar and tumult was put from pre-Reformation Scotland and
medieval Scottish churches looked like, to tranquillity by the ancient and wise documents describing the sorts of
because so many works of art were counsel of the realm’. These items were things we have lost. Using this evidence
destroyed during the waves of popular never recovered. of Scottish art, we can begin to paint
iconoclasm which swept the country This lack of evidence for quite a different picture of what it
during the Reformation around 1560. brilliant church interiors has been would have been like to step inside a
This is especially true for easily- misinterpreted by some scholars who church in Scotland before 1560.
breakable things like stained glass, have suggested that Scotland just A popular misconception about

RELIGIOUS HISTORY
A chilling vision of hell, literally framed by an image which

from the Guthrie Ceiling, confronted the people in the nave with
c.1464-79 the suffering and sacrifice of Christ
which made this possible.
The rood was about far more than
stage-setting for the altar, though;
it created an intimate connection
between the humanity of Jesus’
painful sacrifice and the everyday
people worshipping at Fowlis. Part
of the painting gives us further clues
about this. The group of people below
Christ include the Virgin Mary and
Mary Magdalene. The Virgin looks
down and sways, as if she is about
to collapse in horror, empathising
with her son’s pain, and all of the
women are weeping. These women
give viewers in the nave a model of
how they are meant to feel when they
look at this image and reflect on the
crucifixion. The art made for people
worshipping in the nave of the pre-
Reformation church at Fowlis Easter
was designed to move them to tears.
The rood painting at Fowlis Easter
also has a broader message about the
consequences of actions on earth. To
the far left and right of the painting
are the good and bad thieves. If you
look carefully, you can see that both of
them are on the point of death, with
medieval religious art is that it was rood at Fowlis Easter (Angus), made their souls just leaving their bodies. The
educational, for illiterate people to in 1450. A rood screen separated the soul of the good thief is caught by a
learn their bible stories. But really nave (in the west) from the chancel tiny angel, whereas the bad thief’s
all people in 15th and 16th century (in the east, where the main altar was). soul is grasped by a spiky dragon-
Scotland knew their scripture far better They were mostly made of wood with like demon. So, the folk in the nave
than the vast majority of folks do today. intricately-cut gaps to look through. at Fowlis were forced to reflect on
They did not need pointing out who A rood screen was a bit like a lacy their choices in life, and confront the
the Virgin Mary was, or what happened bra: yes, it is a barrier, but really it is eternal consequences of their actions.
during the passion of Christ. The designed to heighten the experience of The church of Guthrie (Angus)
Church was intimately part of their peeking through. Most ordinary people once held an image which carried
lives, not just something to sit through would have sat or stood in the nave, a stark message to viewers: the last
on a Sunday morning. Stories in the and watched the rituals of the mass judgement. All that remains of the pre-
bible and about the saints gave shape through these decorative gaps. Reformation building at Guthrie is a
to their year through various feast days On top of the rood screen at Fowlis small side aisle off the nave. This could
and fasts, and holy people were called is a painting of the rood, a depiction have been a space for quieter reflection
upon as friends and helpers during of the crucifixion. This was a work than the main nave, somewhere you
times of need. Pre-Reformation church of art especially for the people in could pay for a candle to be lit in
art was about wonderment, inspiration, the nave. It is a powerful and lively memory of someone, and where people
communicating deep messages, depiction, with bustling onlookers were buried. The ceiling of this space,
provoking emotion and contemplation. dressed in their finery. Christ’s frail part of which is now on display in the
body is stretched upon the cross, with National Museum of Scotland, is one
Art for the people blood flowing from the wounds in his of the most arresting artworks to have
We are lucky enough to have hands, feet, head and side. In this way, survived the Reformation. This is an
some brilliant things, surviving or the painted rood at Fowlis provides image of the apocalypse. In it, Christ
documented, which were specifically the context to the actions of the priest sits on a rainbow flanked by Mary
made for the ordinary folk who would who celebrated at the high altar. As he and St John the Baptist. To the left is a
have worshipped in the naves of parish would lift up the bread and wine to be city floating in the clouds with angels
churches and cathedrals. One such miraculously transformed into Christ’s trumpeting as those who have led
artwork is the rood screen and painted real body and blood, this would be good lives are carried up to heaven. On

right is a fiery pit, where demons drag the three nails and the hammer, used of St Eloi. They had a professional
down the dammed to be tortured for to brutally attach Christ to the cross. entertainer dress up with a silver crown
all eternity. Though the painting lost This might all seem a bit grisly for and hammer, they had painted and
its colours when it was whitewashed a thing which was essentially meant embroidered banners to carry, and they
to hide these images, it is still vivid and for children, but the resurrection of played drums and rung bells as they
frightening. The demon who raises his Christ (also depicted on the font) is the processed. Edinburgh had many guilds,
club to strike a human whilst trampling central miracle of Christianity. Christ’s and the sight of all of them involved in
bodies to get more people into the heat suffering and death made the eternal the procession to honour Christ (and
of the flames is truly horrifying. salvation of all humans possible, and so advertise themselves in the process)
In the lower centre of the ceiling, artworks depicting it, like the Meigle would have been the kind of pageant to
you can see the dead rising from font, should be seen as works of hope rival the Edinburgh Fringe.
their graves, ready to be divided. and thanks. By baptising a child, you An exceptionally rare survival comes
This kind of image must have been were allowing them into this select from just this ritual: the Fetternear
especially poignant and powerful on group of the faithful who could benefit Banner (now cared for by the National
quite a low ceiling in a small aisle from Christ’s sacrifice. Museum of Scotland). This cloth is
of a church because it would have Another important event for embroidered with an extremely bloody
been almost all-encompassing for children in medieval Scotland was depiction of Christ, the cross and
the viewer. The hills full of graves the feast of the Holy Innocents. This other instruments of the passion (like
would have seemed almost a part celebration, on 28 December, honours those on the font at Meigle). It was
of the walls of the church: the real the children murdered by King Herod made to be carried in processions by
landscape of the world. The aisle at in his attempt to kill the baby Jesus. It members of the Confraternity of the
Guthrie would also have been full of recognises the special place children Holy Blood, which had an altar in St
burials, making the scene seem all the have within Christ’s teaching, and Giles. The imagery here, particularly
more immediate. As a viewer looked children had a very active part to play all the individual drops of blood picked
up at this painted ceiling, they would in the celebrations. On St Nicholas’ out in rich vermillion red, would have
have been prompted to imagine the Day (the precursor to Santa Claus) on reminded everyone about the solemn
gravestones below their feet creaking 6 December, a child would be elected focus of the Corpus Christi rituals.
open, and dead members of their to serve as the boy bishop, and on 28 Nowadays, we often think of religious
own community rising to be judged. December he would dress up with a and public life as being quite separate,
So, the ceiling at Guthrie invites its mitre and a crozier to parade around but in the Middle Ages it would have
viewers not just to consider the last town with other children dressed up, been commonplace to see sights like
judgement as some far-off threat, but receiving gifts. We know this tradition the gory image of Christ the saviour on
to imagine the apocalypse happening happened at St Salvator’s in St the Fetternear Banner being carried
around them right at that moment. Andrews (Fife) because an inventory of alongside the hammermen’s minstrel
Viewers would have been encouraged the church includes a mitre for the boy holding his silver hammer. Such feast
to pray as if the words might be their bishop and vestments (the elaborate days were boisterous and spiritual
last breaths. The Guthrie ceiling was clothing worn by clergy during mass) at the same time, and they involved
created to whip faith into a fervour. for children made of fancy striped silk. people from all walks of life.
It is delightful to imagine a little lad,
Special occasions bishop for the day, fabulously dressed Getting close to heaven
The Church shaped almost every and sat on a pony, being led around the We have all come to recognise how
aspect of medieval life, but, like today, streets of this venerable town. much closeness matters during this
it was particularly important on special Church processions around global pandemic, and medieval people
occasions either in a person’s life, or in villages, towns and cities were a big were very aware of the power of being
the annual schedule of festivities and part of public life. On the feast of near to important artefacts, or even
fasts. One of the definitive roles of a Corpus Christi (meaning the body of being allowed to touch them. There
parish church was to baptise infants, Christ) the parish church of St Giles were several places in Scotland which
ritually washing away their original (Edinburgh) put on an especially were centres of pilgrimage. People
sin and welcoming them into good show. This was a really of all sorts travelled to Whithorn,
the Christian family. Quite big and busy urban church Glasgow, St Andrews, Tain and Iona
a few fonts survive from with as many as 44 individual in order to be closer to the saints
medieval Scotland, including altars inside, all founded by who had lived, and who sometimes
a wonderful example from different individuals or guilds. were buried, in these places. There
Meigle (Perth and Kinross). The guilds especially made sure were also many miraculous objects or
This font is carved with that they were well represented images which drew pilgrims, often in
symbols – known as arma in the procession to show off order to be healed. These things were
Christi or heraldry of Christ – their importance and piety to the the particular targets of iconoclasts,
and scenes from the passion. On many onlookers and participants. We who thought of them as idols, so
one side are the whips used in the The Meigle font, with its have particularly good records for the there are very few left, but we still
flagellation, and the column to which vivid representation of guild of hammermen (metalworkers) have evidence for the legends and
Christ was bound. Another shows Christ’s resurrection who were the patrons for the altar devotions which drew so many people

RELIGIOUS HISTORY
in medieval Scotland to them. rich textiles and reliquaries. Paintings

David Lyndsay’s 1553 poem did not need to teach illiterate
Ane Dialogue Betwixt a Courtier and people the simple stories of the bible,
Experience includes a whole section but they were there to encourage
about the many images in Scotland worshippers to deeply contemplate
that decorated churches, of which the central miracles of Christianity.
some were thought to have miraculous People passionately cared about
powers. At one point, Lyndsay names these things, sometimes travelling
a specific church, writing: ‘And sum, great distances to be near a special
in hope to get thare haill, Rynnis to image or relic of a particular saint.
the auld rude of Kerrail’ (‘and some Scottish church interiors were
in hope to get their health, run to the theatre-like places with dramatic
old rude of Crail’). So, from this we rituals and evocative stage-sets meant
know that the medieval church of to engage and emotionally move
Crail (Fife) once had an old image their audiences. This spilled out of
of the rood (the crucifixion) which like, but in other cases we have some The Guthrie Aisle in Angus churches, in processions when sacred
was thought to have healing powers intriguing details about the objects images were carried along with trade
for those who went on pilgrimage which focused people’s devotions. emblems, blurring what we now think
to view it. Perhaps people went to In 1454-55, William Preston gave of as a divide between the secular and
Crail en route to the more important to the church of St Giles (Edinburgh) sacred worlds. Whole communities
religious centre of St Andrews, but it a relic of the arm bone of St Giles were involved in these ceremonies,
was definitely popular in its own right. that he had acquired in France. At and everyone had access to these
We do not have records of everyday the Reformation, all of St Giles’ artworks. It is hard to imagine in our
donations to the rood at Crail, but ornaments and furnishings were modern world, which is full of images,
we do know that James IV bought a sold off, including a reliquary for but for an ordinary person living in
silk and crimson cloth to cover it in this arm, which was shaped like a medieval Scotland the colour, wealth
1501, and it is more than likely he forearm and hand and is described and power of these images would have
was following a much older and more as having a diamond ring on one been stunning. Each object mentioned
ordinary tradition. finger. This would have been a within this article was created to
Another scrap of evidence comes stunning object and a focal point transport people away, away from the
from Whitekirk (East Lothian), where for people worshipping at the parish streets of Edinburgh, or the little lane
there was a miraculous image of the church of St Giles, especially so on leading to Guthrie church, to a realm
Virgin Mary. The statue of the Virgin 1 September, the feast of St Giles, which was altogether more fantastic,
had been dressed up with gold rings, when the reliquary would have been vibrant and wonderful; towards heaven.
necklaces and other ornaments by processed around the congregation.
people visiting on pilgrimage before It was probably sculpted to have two A historian of medieval art and
English sailors stripped it in 1356 fingers pointing outwards, the sign architecture, Dr Lizzie Swarbrick
(and were reputedly drowned for their of blessing, so that it could be used completed a PhD at the University of
meddling). In 1435, Aeneas Sylvius by the priest who carried it to bless St Andrews on Scotland’s collegiate
Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius II, people. St Giles is the patron saint of churches. She is now a Leverhulme
walked barefoot from his landing place disabled people and devotion to him Early Career Fellow at the University of
in Dunbar to Whitekirk. He wanted was particularly popular in the Middle Edinburgh working on a project about
to show his devotion to the Virgin Ages as a way to ward off the Black the art, architecture, and experience
Mary who he believed saved him from Death. Sick parishioners and pilgrims of Rosslyn Chapel and late medieval
shipwreck in the Forth. We have a would have come to St Giles in Scotland.the art of Rosslyn Chapel.
record of his pilgrimage because he Edinburgh in the hope of being freed
was such an internationally-important from their illness by a blessing from
person, but he was just following in this relic. In this way, the visual beauty RICHLY DETAILED
the footsteps of the countless ordinary
people who had made the journey
and richness of artworks in Scottish
churches reflected the way they were
AND UTTERLY
to Whitekirk and offered gifts to the practically used by an audience who ABSORBING
Virgin Mary at her statue there. believed deeply in the miraculous Set in disputed territory around
These are just glimpses into the power of places and things. Berwick-upon-Tweed, three
fascinating and common practice years after Bannockburn. A
9
of seeking out places, objects and Conclusion £8.9 young Squire races against time
images which were associated with These are just a few of the very many Pbk to solve a brutal murder
holiness in the hope of a miracle artworks from medieval Scottish
or in thanks for a benefit already churches which still exist or appear in
received. We do not have a clear written records. Contrary to popular
www.birlinn.co.uk
picture of what the rood at Crail or belief, Scotland’s religious buildings
Price correct at time of going to press
the sculpture at Whitekirk looked were once full of paintings, sculptures,
2524-History Scotland - Dark Hunter 1-4 F-C Ad.indd 1 25/03/2022

DIARY DATES
EVENTS AROUND THE COUNTRY,
PLUS SELECTED ONLINE EVENTS
TO ENJOY FROM ANYWHERE IN
THE WORLD
Scots Overseas month The Book of Deer, until 2 October

Join us at www.historyscotland.com throughout September The 10th-century Book of Deer is one of Scotland’s greatest
as we showcase and celebrate the Scottish diaspora. We’ll treasures. For the first time in a millennium, this remarkable
be sharing lots of themed free content, including blogs, travel illuminated manuscript is returning to the north-east of Scotland, on
guides and videos, as well as three ticketed talks on 7, 14 and loan from Cambridge University Library. This is a rare opportunity
21 September. For talk details, visit www.historyscotland. to see what is widely regarded as being the earliest manuscript
com/virtual-events/online-lectures produced in Scotland. Free entry. For the associated events
programme, visit http://bookofdeer.co.uk/book-of-deer-2022
Aberdeen Art Gallery, Schoolhill, Aberdeen AB10 1FQ; website:
ONLINE EVENTS https://scot.sh/aberdeenart
Could the Book of Kells

have been made at
Portmahomack?,
15 September
This online talk by Dr
Victoria Thompson
Whitworth examines the
world that produced the
Book of Kells and makes
a compelling case for it
having produced in an
eastern Scottish monastery.
Starts 6pm. Book your
place at https://scot.sh/ Anatomy: a matter of life and death, until 30 October
kells This exhibition looks at the social and medical history surrounding
the practice of dissection, tracing the relationship between
Connections and the Church in Late Norse Scotland, anatomy, its teaching and cultural context, and the bodies that
17 September were dissected. Looking at Edinburgh’s role as an international
Hosted online by the Centre for the Study of the Viking Age, centre for medical study, the exhibition will offer insight into the
University of Nottingham, this conference commemorates the links between science and crime in the early 19th century. For
800th anniversary of the murder of Bishop Adam of Caithness. more, see our feature on page 40.
In September 1222, Bishop Adam was murdered by a group of Exhibition Gallery 1, Level 3, National Museum of Scotland,
resentful Caithness landholders. During his lifetime, Adam travelled Chambers Street, Edinburgh EH1 1JF; website: https://scot.
from northern England to Melrose, Caithness, and to the papal curia sh/anatomyhs.
on behalf of the Scottish kings. News of Adam’s his death spread
across Europe, and accounts of Adam’s murder can be found in Celtic autumn, 8-9 October
texts from Iceland, Scotland, England, Ireland and Rome. Celebrate one of the most abundant times of the year as the Scottish
The event will explore the Late Norse world in which Adam lived Crannog Centre looks to the harvest and the foods of the Iron Age.
and died, from literary, historical and archaeological perspectives. Taste a variety of ancient dishes inspired by archaeological finds in
In doing so, it will demonstrate the range of influences in northern the centre’s collection and across the UK. Tickets £7-£35.
Scotland at this time, placing it at the centre of a dynamic and Scottish Crannog Centre, Kenmore PH15 2HY; website: https://
interconnected political, cultural and ecclesiastical milieu. Runs crannog.co.uk
10am to 4pm.
Find out more and book your place at https://scot.sh/adam Food: recipe or remedy, until 27 January 2023
The illustrations, books and objects displayed in this exhibition tell
the story of the changing role of food in medicine over the last 600
ONSITE EVENTS
years. This is a history of the relationship between food and health,
Brodie Castle dig, 19-25 September as told through society, folklore, deprivation and dieting. Free entry
Excavations in the grounds of Brodie Castle, organised by National For more, see our feature on page 58.
Trust for Scotland. If you are interested in taking part, e-mail Dr 11 Queen Street, Edinburgh EH2 1JQ; website: www.rcpe.ac.uk/
Daniel Rhodes at drhodes@nts.org.uk heritage/food-recipe-or-remedy

BOOK REVIEWS Explore a selection of digital history
guides in the History Scotland store:
https://scot.sh/hsdownload
New reviews editor

This issue, we say a fond farewell to Dr Martha McGill Scottish history was too strong. She has now graduated
and welcome our new reviews editor, Dr Louise for the second time from St Andrews with a doctorate
Heren. Since graduating with a history degree from examining male sexual violence in interwar Scotland
her alma mater, the University of St Andrews, some and is expanding her research to explore wider aspects
years ago, Louise Heren enjoyed a career as a television of Scottish male interpersonal crime in the late 19th
documentary producer and director, but the call of and early 20th centuries.
Victorian style scandal

Louise Heren relishes the political scandals of the Victorian ‘Souls’
Tangled Souls: love around whom this story revolves: Henry ‘Harry’ Cust, handsome,
and scandal among the clever, MP, lover; and the arguably unfortunate accomplished
Victorian aristocracy artist who fell in love with him and fell pregnant by him, Emmeline
Jane Dismore ‘Nina’ Mary Elizabeth Cust, daughter of Sir William and Lady
The History Press, 2022 Victoria Welby-Gregory.
pp. 326 Nina loved Harry from afar, and as Dismore clearly describes,
Hardback, £20.00; paperback, endured several years witnessing his indiscretions with other
N/A; (Kindle £12.99) ladies in their circle. His amours were married titled ladies
ISBN: 978-0750996624; and young ladies awaiting marriage into a title, such as Violet
0750996625 Granby, later duchess of Rutland. At a time when marriages
Imagine: a bright young were agreed for dynastic reasons rather than enduring love, the
dashing politician, who thinks
himself a writer and provocative
The cast reads like pages ripped

journalist, and is tipped for the
top job of prime minister, gets
a young woman pregnant out of
from Hansard and shufﬂed to
combine with Debrett’s
wedlock. His social life is a whirl
of house parties; some of them he should be at, others he probably
shouldn’t. Ring any bells? Yes, this is Victorian upper-class society.
In terms of what the Victorians ever did for us – well, they prove
once again that history may not repeat itself exactly, but when
today’s journalists cry ‘scandal’ it is rarely original news. Souls’ experiences provide a poignant example of Victorian social
Jane Dismore’s detailed visit to the world of the late-19th- mores constraining even an opinionated group of adults to suffer
century famed and privileged group known as ‘the Souls’ proves respectable public relationships while conducting numerous
two things: our endless fascination with the lives of celebrities affairs behind the scenes, often displaying true and long-lasting
and the multiple mirror images provided to us by Victorian affection. For ladies such as Violet Granby, having Harry’s
society, our not-too-distant ancestors. For starters, Dismore has child within wedlock required the collusion of her husband to
probably unearthed in the archives the precursor to today’s Desert remain silent and support the child as his own; that daughter
Island Discs in a game played by the Souls to assuage the grief was later acknowledged as Lady Diana Cooper. Yet when Nina
experienced by the death of Margot Tennant’s (later Asquith) sister fell pregnant by Harry, the free-love-debating Souls closed ranks
Laura. Among discussion and debate on such hot topics as blood in self-protection. Having the greatest influence over him of all
sports, votes for women and the justifiability of suicide, the Souls his friends, Arthur Balfour explained to Harry that if he did not
picked their six best friends, six books and six pictures they would marry Nina, they would become social outcasts; Harry’s love
choose if exiled to a desert island (p.30). affair with Pamela Wyndham (later Lady Glenconner and Margot
Dismore paints a vivid picture of upper-class ennui concealed Tennant’s sister-in-law) would have to cease.
beneath a public layer of self-promoted industriousness and good At this time, Scots-born Margot Tennant was the only remaining
deeds. The landscape takes in London’s clubs and salons in all the unmarried Tennant sister and was herself not shy of pre-marital
right postcodes and a scattering of estates and castles from Ireland escapades, carrying on love affairs with Evan Charteris and
to England, as well as Scotland – the Tennant family’s ‘Glen’ in Herbert Asquith, and hosting parties at her father’s estate in
Peebleshire features as the venue for several illicit assignations and Tweeddale (Peebleshire) while enjoying his extended generosity to
shooting parties. The cast reads like pages ripped from Hansard her social life in London.
and shuffled to combine with Debrett’s: Lord and Lady Mary Margot’s own story of courtship and eventual marriage to
Elcho, Lord and Lady Ribbesdale, Arthur Balfour, George Curzon Herbert Henry Asquith weaves around Harry’s and Nina’s as a
viceroy of India, among many others. And of course, the key couple fellow Soul and political influencer, but for all her aspirations

towards friendship trumping political differences, she thought Once described as ‘a select group’ displaying ‘a high degree of
Harry’s behaviour had damaged the friends’ trust. And so, intelligence’ allied with ‘aristocratic birth’ (p.184), eventually as
Harry did the decent thing while Nina protested that she had they matured into parliamentary roles and marriages, the Souls
not wished to destroy Harry’s political career, which in the gave way to ‘the Coterie’, the next generation of parlour-dwelling
short-term seemed unlikely. Nina appears to have suffered a intelligentsia with their own club rules governing sexual licence.
miscarriage while the couple visited France on honeymoon and, Despite the number of family and large estate names involved,
on their return, despite uncertainties about their social future, Dismore’s story moves slickly and with pace from character to
Harry concentrated on his political career. But his attempts to character. Rather than creating a narrative knitting pattern of
be named as the Conservative candidate for Manchester were Victorian titled personages, she handles their tangled stories so
thwarted because of his pre-marital misconduct; the famous carefully that the reader never drops a stitch. She deftly balances
suffragist Millicent Garrett Fawcett campaigned relentlessly to the vacuity of the Souls’ daily lives, their self-contested cliquey
prevent a man of dubious morals from standing for public office. behaviour and their gossip-fuelled lives against their forward
The ensuing moral, political and legal manoeuvrings clearly thinking, political endeavours and achievements. She combines
illustrate the conflicted standards of late Victorian society. In depth with lightness of touch.
private, Cust’s circle all indulged in pre- and extra-marital affairs, Dismore’s history of the Souls is an excellent micro study in
in public they were forced to adhere to the standards of the day, Victorian infidelity, an aspect of their contribution to social history
including Fawcett’s early Mary-Whitehouse attempts to remove that Arthur Balfour may have been reluctant to acknowledge.
Harry from power. Fawcett’s moral crusade was subsequently Writing to Margot Asquith, now countess of Oxford, in the 1920s,
hijacked by Cust’s political enemies, who manoeuvred to remove Balfour wished to recognise the Souls’ influence in the late 19th
him from the competition for the Manchester constituency. What century on the social and political life of the country, suggesting
had begun as a personal affair had become a matter of national that before their existence London’s Tories and Liberals never met
political debate. This was the heady days of female suffrage and (p.251). The Souls provided both political parties with common
Fawcett appears to have used the Cust case to ‘level up’ the issue ground, and shared beds.
of female equality with men so that women no longer suffered the Evidently, the Souls were indeed a special group of privileged,
greater measure of public opprobrium for pre-marital pregnancy. highly talented politicians and artists, whose golden fin de siècle
Fawcett’s campaign for female suffrage bore fruit 40 years later, yet moment has set them apart in the political history of the nation.
Arthur Balfour’s insight that public duties and a candidate’s ability It is difficult to compile a list of names that might form a current
to perform them should be the sole grounds for selection is an similar coherent clique tipped for cabinet positions. Perhaps that
electoral standard for which we continue to strive. difficulty happily reflects the democratisation of British politics
Ultimately, Harry’s and Nina’s marriage continued childless in the 21st century, no longer only the preserve of the privileged,
and over the years developed into a companionable partnership, landed and Oxbridge-educated.
with Nina’s considerable artistic talents gaining some recognition. However, there is one question this book poses. Asked to review
However, Harry’s predicted stellar future had descended to the Nina Cust’s medieval history book Gentleman Errant, published
earthly sphere, although fame lingered on in the coined verb ‘to in 1909, Virginia Woolf declined to discuss the book’s evident
cust’, employed when other notables were caught playing the field. merits, preferring to allude tangentially to illicit passions and their
Edith Wharton described Cust as ‘radio-active’ (sic, p.168), which penitence (p.220). This reviewer is no Virginia Woolf passing moral
accounts for his number of female conquests and radiant charm judgement, but simply asks: has politicians’ behaviour changed so
among male political colleagues. much in the intervening century?
Elizabethan espionage
Mary McGonigal investigates a family history of espionage
Elizabethan Secret Agent: country down turgid alleyways of lies and deceptions. Some of
The Untold Story of William these lies and deceptions are the focus of the book under review.
Ashby 1536-1593 In Elizabethan Secret Agent Timothy Ashby has set himself the
Timothy Ashby task of relating the previously untold story of a relative, William
Scotland Street Press, 2022 Ashby (1536-1593), who was ambassador to Scotland at the
429 pages time of the Spanish Armada’s attempt on the English coast in
Hardback, £24.99 1588. The author is professionally suited to tell such a story,
ISBN: 9781910895597 having enjoyed a career in Washington DC, held top secret
Spying on one’s neighbour, by security clearance, and acted as a counter-terrorism consultant.
any standard, is an unfriendly act, In his book he has achieved what many family historians dream
though now taken as necessary of: discovering his ancestor William Ashby, born in the reign of
in modern statecraft. Spying Henry VIII of England, as a footnote in early editions of Burke’s
was part of diplomatic common Landed Gentry, where he was described as ‘Queen Elizabeth’s
practice in Elizabethan England and justified by contemporary ambassador to James VI in 1589’ (p. 1, Introduction).
circumstances, namely survival. In late 16th-century England, His distant forebears having arrived in England with the
a sense of desperation to survive on a national level led the Conqueror in 1066, William Ashby grew up in Leicestershire,

RECENTLY
was educated at Cambridge, and became a trusted protégé of Francis
Walsingham, (1532-1590), a vehemently anti-Catholic privy councillor
whose political position became crystallised while witnessing the appalling
St Bartholomew’s Day massacre in 1572. Walsingham, later known as Queen
Elizabeth’s spymaster, despatched William to Paris, Germany and the Low
PUBLISHED
Countries on diplomatic and intelligence missions, and in 1583 William
accompanied him to Scotland as part of the English delegation. Black Oot Here: Black
Maintaining a friendly relationship with its neighbour on its northern border Lives in Scotland
was considered vital to the security of England. The violent confessional politics By Francesca Sobande
of the counter-Reformation had made English leaders fearful of any potential and Layla-Roxanne Hill
Scottish alliance with Roman Catholic powers. Were Scotland to adopt even a Published by Bloomsbury
passive, rather than an active, part in such a conflict, Protestant England would Academic at £17.99
face the possibility of enemy invasion on two fronts: along its lengthy coastline (paperback)
and through its land border with Scotland. For James VI to position Scotland as ISBN 9781913441340
a neutral country was politically unacceptable. William’s mission, as ambassador Why is it important to
to the royal court at Edinburgh in the late 1580s, was to attempt to manipulate archive and understand
James for the protection of England. Black Scottish history?
In a world where being anti-Catholic brought material rewards, William Reflecting on the past
was a committed Protestant. During his exile in the killing times of to make sense of the present, Francesca
Elizabeth’s half-sister Mary’s short reign, he became entangled in Francis Sobande and Layla-Rxanne Hill explore
Walsingham’s net. Ideologically driven and ambitious, Walsingham hoped the history and contemporary lives of Black
to exploit William’s own ambition in the existential crisis presented by the people in Scotland.
approach of the Catholic Spanish Armada.
Homecoming: The
In a world where being anti-Catholic

Scottish years of
Mary Queen of Scots
brought material rewards, William was

By Rosemary Goring
Published by Birlinn
a committed Protestant Limited at £22

(paperback)
ISBN
Spying and diplomacy were interchangeable crafts in Elizabethan England. No 9781780277233
one was exempt: spies were spied on, and double, even triple, agents were a reality. Rosemary Goring
Financial inducements operated at every level extending up to the monarch, tells the story of
without any guarantee that what was promised would be delivered. William, Mary’s Scottish years
despite his best efforts including a black operation involving the Spanish vessel through the often dramatic and atmospheric
San Juan on the island of Mull, realised he was a ‘peripheral player in great affairs locations and settings where the events that
of State’ (p.230), and was ultimately virtually disowned by a vacillating Queen shaped her life took place and also examines
Elizabeth whose motto, paradoxically, was Semper Eadem (Always the Same). the part Scotland, and its tumultuous court
The author’s research is abundantly visible throughout the book, though that and culture, played in her downfall.
can sometimes become a problem. At times, the research lacks editorial control;
frequent verbatim quoting of partisan correspondence tends to tip the narrative St Andrews: City by
away from a fair-minded factual commentary. Scots and Scotland, even poor old the northern sea
Edinburgh, are seen frequently through a hostile lens. The authorial voice is often By Raymond Lamont-
lost amid a multiplicity of quotations, embedded in each paragraph, so that a Brown
partial viewpoint dominates which, when left uncorrected, tires the reader. Published by Origin at
Similarly, there is an imbalanced treatment of historical religious perspectives. £12.99 (paperback)
The Scottish Catholic aristocracy are repeatedly referred to as ‘papist lairds’ ISBN 9781912476916
(pp.127-262). The Ridolfi plot in 1571 and the subsequent execution of Mary This comprehensive
Queen of Scots in 1587 are little touched on, though English annoyance that account of St Andrews
James VI did not share Elizabeth’s grief at the earl of Leicester, Robert Dudley’s traces its history from
death is certainly noted. Pictish times to the
These matters, along with the story of William’s nephew Robert Naunton’s present day. It is based
political rise, which is explained among the appendices, remind the reader that on both original research and an intimate
the previously untold story of William Ashby is a personal one – it started out as knowledge of the town which author
family history. Transforming such research into a balanced work of international Raymond Lamont-Brown accumulated in
political history is a demanding task. Despite a valiant effort on this author’s part, over twenty years’ residence there.
that particular transformation has not quite been achieved.
Mary McGonigal is a retired teacher and counsellor, now engaged in researching Scots
and Irish family history.
HI STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 43

the human body. Artists also played

an important role in recording and
communicating new anatomical
information, presented in expensive,
lavishly-illustrated books.
The first recorded public
dissection in Edinburgh was that
of David Myles, hanged for incest
in 1702. Bodies dissected in these
public performances were those
of executed people. Other bodies
acquired in ways that were less
acceptable to public opinion, such
as being taken out of their graves or
from hospitals, were dissected more
privately. For centuries anatomists
relied on the dead bodies of poor
people, taken without consent.
Medicine and anatomy flourished
in Enlightenment Edinburgh, a city
vibrant with new ideas in many
areas, from philosophy, education
and science to law, literature, the
arts and architecture. Many
ANATOMY: organisations in the city were
involved in medical education and
A MATTER OF DEATH AND LIFE in controlling who could undertake

which sorts of medical practice. The
town council was keen to enable
Dr Tacye Phillipson explores what was behind the demand
students to study medicine and
for a supply of dead bodies in19th-century Edinburgh anatomy in Scotland rather than
– and how and why this grisly practice came to an end continental Europe, and in 1726
they established the medical school
I
at the University of Edinburgh.
n late 1828 and early 1829 The Anatomy Lesson DISSECTION AND Over the 18th and early 19th
a news story originated in of Dr Willem Röell by ANATOMICAL STUDY centuries, developing approaches
Edinburgh which horrified Cornelis Troost, 1728 Our knowledge of anatomy is to teaching led to an ever-greater
and outraged those who extensively based on studies of dead demand for bodies. Students
heard it. Sixteen people people. From the 16th century increasingly carried out their own
had been murdered in and around onwards, scholars in western Europe dissections and practised surgery,
Edinburgh’s West Port district and were rethinking their understanding rather than just observing their
their bodies bought by a respected of the human body and challenging teachers. As well as bodies acquired
anatomist, Robert Knox, as subjects earlier theories. They emphasised through official channels, some
for dissection. These murders, now observation and ‘seeing for yourself’ students and apprentices sought out
commonly known as the Burke instead of relying on classical texts, bodies themselves, mostly stolen
and Hare murders, continue to and dissection was central to this from graveyards. In 1752, execution
be notorious. But was there any new approach. followed by anatomical dissection
explanation behind them – why was A few universities such as became the legal punishment for
it in Edinburgh that these murders Padua in Italy and Leiden in the murder. However, it was common
took place? Netherlands developed into leading knowledge that many more bodies
A new exhibition at the centres for the study of anatomy than those of murderers were taken
National Museum of Scotland and attracted students from across for dissection, resulting in outrage
examines the social and medical Europe, including from Scotland. and, occasionally, riots.
history surrounding the practice Specially-built anatomy theatres From 1826, the most successful
of dissection of human bodies. were used for public dissections, anatomy teacher in Edinburgh
Anatomy: A Matter of Death and performed to large audiences. was Robert Knox, who took over
Life looks at Edinburgh’s role as Outside universities, surgeons, artists the anatomy school of his former
an international centre for medical and scholars with a general interest teacher, the pioneering comparative
study and offers insight into the were among those who carried out anatomist John Barclay. Barclay
links between science, crime and dissections for their own research, and Knox were two of the several
deprivation. or to teach their apprentices about anatomy teachers who offered

HISTORY OF SCIENCE
teaching independent of the could be locked up or secured by Etching of the anatomy prosecution. Helen McDougal and
University of Edinburgh and relied heavy mortsafes or a cheaper option theatre, University of Margaret Hare refused to talk,
on student fees for their income. was to keep watch over fresh graves Leiden, by Willem van so the offer was made to William
Knox’s lecturing attracted and and be prepared to fight off any Swanenburg, 1610 Hare, who agreed. Both he and
enthused a large number of loyal grave robbers. Margaret Hare escaped trial,
students, thanks in part to his use of as a man could not legally give
the largest number of bodies of any THE WEST PORT MURDERS evidence against his wife. Only
teacher in Edinburgh. On 1 November 1828, the body Burke and McDougal were tried.
Edinburgh had a comparatively of Mary Docherty was discovered The jury found William Burke
small population for the high under straw bedding in the lodgings guilty of murder but gave a verdict
number of anatomy students, of William Burke and his partner of not proven against Helen
making it even harder to source the Helen McDougal. By the time the McDougal. Burke was hanged in the
desired numbers of bodies. Some police arrived, only bloodstains Lawnmarket on 28 January 1829.
were shipped to Edinburgh from remained. The next day the body His body was dissected and put on
London and Ireland, leading to a was recovered from the anatomy public show for a day, visited by
higher price being paid for bodies rooms of Dr Robert Knox. many thousands of people. Robert
in Edinburgh than elsewhere. These William Burke and Helen Knox, who bought Mary Docherty’s
prices were also attractive to those McDougal were arrested, along with body, was exonerated by a panel
who made money as grave robbers their suspected accomplices William of other doctors but his reputation
or ‘resurrectionists’. and Margaret Hare, but there was never recovered.
Friends and relatives were too little evidence of their guilt. William Hare disappeared from
desperate to protect their dead. Medical experts could not prove reliable record after being hounded
The idea that a body, laid to rest Mary Docherty had been murdered out of Dumfries. Margaret Hare
in consecrated ground, might be rather than died accidentally. It was fled back to Ireland, and Helen
dug up and dissected was deeply not even clear at this point how McDougal tried to return home but
was driven away by public anger.
Edinburgh had a comparatively small AN END TO GRAVE ROBBING

population for the high number of anatomy Public outrage and campaigns to
provide a legal, regular supply of
students, making it even harder to source the bodies resulted in the Anatomy Act
of 1832. It introduced regulations
desired numbers of bodies for dissection and inspectors who
had oversight of anatomy schools.
distressing. As grave robbing became many murders had been committed. The act gave licensed anatomists
more common, people adopted To secure a conviction, someone had access to bodies that were unclaimed
more measures against the practice. to turn king’s evidence – confessing after death in public institutions
For those who could afford it, coffins in return for immunity from such as workhouses, prisons,
asylums and hospitals. Critics of the
act said that it made dissection a
punishment for being poor.
From the early 20th century,
universities encouraged people to
donate their bodies to anatomy
schools and today anatomists and
anatomy students in the United
Kingdom only dissect donated
bodies, given with consent.
Anatomy: A Matter of Death and

Life is sponsored by Baillie Gifford
Investment Managers and runs at
the National Museum of Scotland
until 30 October. The exhibition
is accompanied by a book and
programme of events. Find out more
at https://scot.sh/anatomyHS
Dr Tacye Phillipson is Senior Curator

of Science at National Museums
Scotland.

Alexander Garioch of Mergie, was

enthusiastic and extremely active
during the height of Jacobite power
in Scotland. He owned a modest
estate just west of Fetteresso
worth about £50 per year in
1745, escaping forfeiture after the
1715 rising despite fighting in the
Jacobite army and being captured at
Sheriffmuir. Unfettered by censure,
30 years later he once again took up
arms to fortify the Stuart challenge,
this time only travelling six miles to
nearby Stonehaven due to a severe
case of gout in his feet.
Garioch was commissioned by
Charles Edward Stuart to uplift
rents on local estates and gather
as many recruits as possible
to reinforce the Jacobite army.
According to witnesses on both
sides of the conflict, the laird
of Mergie was decidedly heavy-
handed in dealing with both
common tenants and the landed
elite in Kincardineshire, quickly
establishing an unflattering
PAYBACK AT PITARROW
reputation for himself through a
short temper and indiscriminate
abuse of power.
Amongst the activities Garioch
In this edition of Spotlight: Jacobites, Dr Darren S. Layne recounts a was accused of carrying out at
tale of wrongful imprisonment and the civil action brought against a the harbour, witnesses alleged
that he had seized and burned
notorious Jacobite governor in the north-east of Scotland in 1745-46
the local excise officer’s account
T
books, had stolen horses and other
he prosecution of The Pitarrow estate in personal cruelty during the Jacobite goods from the residents, and had
alleged and suspected Fordoun parish (from occupation of Scotland could sent out numerous parties to the
Jacobites continued William Garden’s 1774 be prosecuted by those who felt surrounding estates seeking money
for many years after survey via NLS Maps) victimised. and recruits of stature to join the
the last rising was In the winter of 1745-46, while Jacobite army. While these were
emphatically crushed at Culloden. the bulk of the Jacobite army was standard administrative objectives
Mortal combat on the field of marching to and from its invasion of for provisional Jacobite governors,
battle gave way to legal clashes in England, provisional administration his imperious temperament and
the courtroom as the machinery continued in north-eastern counties ‘violent passion’ combined to
of justice spun up to prepare for like Aberdeen, Banff, Moray and instigate resentment amongst the
thousands of potential criminal Kincardine. These regions were citizens of Stonehaven. During
cases. Published and archival overseen by one or more Jacobite the autumn and winter months
sources recount both the British officers who were nominally in in which he was in charge of the
government’s official and unofficial charge of advancing Stuart interests town, Garioch caused more than
efforts to punish those accused in their respective departments, a few disobedient locals to be
of explicit acts of treason, but interests that largely consisted of held within the fetid walls of the
very rarely do we learn about civil two identifiable elements: men and tolbooth – especially those who
litigation brought by loyal British money. It was the job of the lords insisted on remaining openly loyal
citizens against their Jacobite lieutenant to secure both of these to the British government and
kindred and communities. Yet in through martial recruitment and King George II in the face of his
the years directly after the rising, collection of cess and levy money authority.
an unusual legal drama played out to keep Jacobite hopes alive and its One of these loyal citizens
in and around the north-eastern logistical goals met. suffered an especially dramatic
harbour town of Stonehaven that The rebel deputy lord lieutenant imprisonment, and the case is
demonstrates how accounts of of Kincardine in 1745-46, notable for its poignancy and

SPOTLIGHT: JACOBITES
complexity. James Grant was the – for which he offered to pay six of session, who found that Garioch
primary factor at Pitarrow in the guards up to 6d for each day he was was liable for the full amount of
parish of Fordoun, which made held captive. Garioch refused to cess and levy money at over £766
up part of the lands of Sir James allow it. Scots and for £2,000 Scots in
Carnegie, 3rd baronet of that Grant had no other choice but damages plus process fees. The
estate. During a routine excursion to implore seven friends to come only problem was that the laird of
to Carnegie’s property at Arnhall up with a suitable bond to secure Mergie was still in hiding near his
in early October 1745, James his release. On 8 October Garioch estate, and getting a hold of him in
Grant was confronted by a party agreed to trade his prisoner for this person proved impossible.
of Jacobite soldiers under Garioch bail, but only with the assurances Garioch communicated through
of Mergie’s command. According that Grant would no longer uplift his counsel that it was out of his
to his testimony, he was ‘offered’ any rents at Arnhall and that by power to satisfy such monetary
the opportunity to accept a factory mid-January he would pay forward demands, and challenged Grant
much like the one in which he any required levy money ‘owed’ that ‘you might do your best’ trying
already served, but in the name by its tenants. That money, upon to secure it. In the ensuing months,
of Charles Edward Stuart. After which the Jacobite army desperately Garioch’s daughter Jean attempted
vehemently refusing to work for relied, was not delivered on time, to reduce the ruling partially on the
the rebels, on Garioch’s orders which led Garioch to send out grounds that Grant had actually
he was taken prisoner, brought to another party to seize Grant and colluded with the Jacobites, and
Stonehaven, and thrown in jail. threaten the Pitarrow tenants with also that the prison cell was not
The insult and discomfort Grant burning of their ‘houses, barns, all that terrible. Grant’s solicitor
was subjected to over the next four and plantings’. Shortly thereafter, advised him that apprehending his
days made a powerful impression Grant found himself back in that former captor would be the only
upon him, and one that he would horrid ‘thief ’s hole’, and it took viable way to collect the debts
not soon forget. When he arrived at direct payment of the levy money appointed to him by the court, and
that he was still on the hook for
dues related to bringing the charges
Amongst the activities Garioch was accused of in the first place, plainly telling his
carrying out at the harbour, witnesses alleged that client that ‘law is expensive’.
By late June of 1749, Garioch
he had seized and burned the local excise officer’s had not yet been found, and James
account books, and had stolen horses and other Grant apparently had received
no money from him despite the
goods from the residents ruling and the legal fees he had
accrued. Ironically, Grant, an
the harbour, the two small prison by some of the tenants to secure his accused smuggler, himself ran
cells in the tolbooth were already permanent release. afoul of numerous debts and by
occupied by both the living and the With Grant’s ordeal seemingly 1751 was imprisoned once again,
dead. One of the rooms was holding over, Alexander Garioch of Mergie this time under the government’s
a woman who had been accused eventually left Stonehaven with the jurisdiction. His case is perhaps
of birthing two children from her main body of the Jacobite army on a cautionary tale that even
own father, and the other cell had its retreat northward to Inverness- well-supported civil litigation
kept her father until he had ‘dyed shire. Garioch was at Culloden with against notorious Jacobites did
of vermine’ eight days before. Due the rest of Bannerman’s company not necessarily provide a clear
to the confusion occasioned by the and went into hiding when it all path to either emotional or fiscal
Jacobite occupation, it took six days went to pot, evading government remuneration.
for the authorities to discover the patrols with warrants seeking his
corpse and remove it for burial. Just arrest. But this did not prevent For further reading, archival links and
two days later, James Grant was Grant from taking matters into a version with footnotes, visit https://
placed in that same noxious room his own hands by bringing civil scot.sh/pitarrow
as punishment for refusing to serve litigation against Garioch for his
the Jacobite governor. behaviour during the rising. Darren Scott Layne received his PhD
Grant later recounted his Seeking damages for ‘oppression from the University of St Andrews and
miserable sentence and described and wrongeous imprisonment’, is creator and curator of the Jacobite
his prison cell as bare and freezing, Grant put together a sprawling Database of 1745 (www.jdb1745.
as ‘there was neither fireplace nor case with the help of Edinburgh net), a wide-ranging prosopographical
days light but crawling wt Vermine writer John Watson in the summer study of people who were involved in the
in midst of a great Storm’ of snow of 1747. He refused a settlement last rising. His historical interests are
that day. The smell was unbearable offer from Garioch’s lawyer for 100 focused on the protean nature of popular
and he begged the jailer to move guineas (£1,260 Scots), holding on Jacobitism and how the movement was
him to a different place – any place for an official ruling from the court expressed through its plebeian adherents.

‘THIS BE TROUTH OF THAR VOIS’:

WRITING AND SPEAKING IN MEDIEVAL ABERDEEN
The voices of medieval people are usually lost to us. Careful reading of the sources, however,
does sometimes allow us to recover fragments of both written and oral communication. Drawing
on the unusually rich records of medieval Aberdeen, Dr Jackson Armstrong explains
I
t would be easy to assume We can discern the in this article is to explore some ways In this context, the Aberdeen
that the voices of the people voices of medieval in which the voices, written and Registers Online: 1398-1511 (ARO) is
of medieval Scotland are people with a careful spoken, of individual people may be a rich resource in which to search for
long lost. The vagaries of reading of Aberdeen’s detected in late medieval Scotland, in voices. The ARO is a digital edition
source survival mean that medieval records more everyday interactions. of the burgh’s earliest surviving
although a healthy collection of The ‘big picture’ to observe is the council registers, freely available as
governmental records and estate longer-term relationship between a file collection, and also searchable
papers survives, this tends to consist orality and written culture, or the via Search Aberdeen Registers (SAR),
of highly formulaic administrative ‘literate mind and the oral past’, as for which see the links in the further
documents. It is not until the 16th Walter Ong has put it. Earlier centuries reading. Handwritten on paper and
century that substantial collections had seen the expansion of writing as bound into volumes, the registers
of correspondence become available a tool of Church administration and contain a mixture of material in Latin
to illuminate the lives and affairs governmental practice. In Scotland it and Middle Scots and comprise some
of people outside of royal and was in the years around 1100 that the 1.5 million words. Much is official
diplomatic contexts. For the Middle oldest surviving charters appear. But in nature, consisting primarily of
Ages, it is difficult to detect the voices it was not until the later 15th century the records of civic administration,
of individual people in Scotland, that the production and survival of including information on elections,
and even harder to locate recorded handwritten documents in Scotland leasing of properties, ordinances
utterances of speech. Although was to expand dramatically, part of a for public health and economic
important work in recent years on wider European trend (of which the regulations, law court proceedings
medieval European politics has paid printing press was more a symptom and more. Although broadly
attention to the role of ‘popular than cause) towards extensive use of comparable with the administrative,
voices’ and political protest, the goal written records. legal and financial records which

survive from Scottish noble, alsmekill as we wrote to yow our as evidence that Jacop, not Adam,
ecclesiastical and royal archives, it is lettres of befor’. This letter notes that was responsible for the goods.
unusually rich among burgh records the order was made by the king’s Adam wrote:
from the period and the ARO offers council and so we probably read
an exceptional level of insight into words dictated by an officer of state Jacop Damer it is to yhou to Remembre
everyday life. or council member, rather than the that I Adam of Kynnore deliuerit you
voice of the king himself. half a last of hamburgh barellis of salt
Written words Non-royal examples of salmound With a papir the quhilk was
Some of the clearest examples of correspondence also appear in directit to John of Scrogs and becaus he
the voices of individual people in the registers. Duplicates or drafts was noght present I deliuerit yhou that
the council registers take the form of letters written on behalf of gude in kepyng on the gudewifis behalf
of written documents expressed in the burgh government, or by And yhe promyst me befor thir witnes
the first person. There are a number the alderman, are included (for thom of Kyntor thom of Culane and
of letters of correspondence which instance, entry ARO-1-0216-02 John bullok with othir sindri that yhe
are included in the registers, many from about the year 1401, and suld keip that gude […] and at yhe suld
of them commands from the king ARO-5-0485-03 from 1463). deliuer thar gudes til hir or hir deputis
to the burgh authorities. These royal Copies of letters received from quham euir scho send to you
letters are typically identified with the external parties were often headed
Latin heading ‘Copia littere Regis’ ‘Copia littere’, and spaced out on Economic transactions also featured,
and spaced out on the page. Such the page. Following a bailie court unsurprisingly, as subject matter
is the letter of August 1465 from entry in 1455, one such letter was in other letters, such as one from
the teenage James III, demanding included from Adam of Kynnore. 1452 about freight sent by coast.
that his previous direction to make a It recorded that he had delivered International trade also created
payment should be obeyed. He began barrels of salmon to Jacop Damer, complex relationships. In 1494, the
‘Jamys be the grace of god king of who promised to keep the goods executors of the deceased Arnald
scottis to the aldirman and bailyeis for the intended recipient. This was Wanstakinburghe had a bill dated
of our burgh of abirdene greting for transcribed onto the register page two years earlier at Veere in the
Low Countries (‘the fer’) copied
out after the entry for their action
against Arnald’s debtors. The bill
was identified with a marginal note
as ‘Copia cedule Johanni thomsone
spectan[s]’, and it reads as follows,
explaining the sale of goods to
recover costs and the amount he was
still owed:
Worschipfule ser I recommand my to yow

with ale my hert and wit ye that in the
Aberdeen City & last bill thar war ye awin me the Some
Aberdeenshire of alevin li’ xiij s’ s’ j g’ j 3 g’ tharapone
Archives: Aberdeen haue I salde your pok of woll for xiiij
Council Register, marke weit iiijor waw iiij naile the Some
vol. 15 (CA/1/1/15, is sex li’ viij s’ and vii g’ say ar ye avin
covering 1535–1538), me the some of fiwe li’ iiijor s’ vj g’ nocht
p.467. Reproduced ellis as now the haly gast haue you in
with permission. kepin writin in the fer the xij day of
Junij anno lxxxxij your frend
Arnalde Wanstakinburghe
Tile a worthie man Jonhne
thomsone burges of Abirdene
Setting correspondence aside,

there are various other ways
in which the council registers
record first person voices.
Official legal instruments
offer good examples. In 1462,
James Meigyes [Menzies]
set down on the register
page with his own hand the
following undertaking. He

pledged to ensure that his ‘gud brudir’ Cases of ‘strublance’ hand Duncan of straloch seriand that bailie courts dealt with accusations
(brother-in-law) would swear an oath make it clear that Thom litstar bocht fra me ane pype of of ‘strublance’, which was a misdeed
over a disputed payment: wrong could be done waid of vj bollis and gif it wantit I suld that encompassing a wide range
through words as well mak him samekil and gif it was mare it of possible scenarios. Cases of
I James meigyes oblys me be fatht of as deeds. ‘The Month wes myne and he suld haf cumin on the strublance make it clear that it could
body’, he wrote, ‘that gyff androw of June’ (Netherlandish, morn eftir at ix houris and resauit his be done with words as well as actions,
ruthyrfurd my gud brudir rafysys to swer about 1535) wad and pait me xj li’ and wrangis that just as in the entry from 1444 noting
the athe in the kynd and maner a bwff he dois it nocht et cetera. a fine levied against John Ymlach
wrytyn at I sell pay or ger be payit to the ‘for the wrangwiss distrubelance of
balye Jon Kymdy with in acht dayis eftir It is unknown whether Chepman John of spens in word’. Similarly, in
quhysson day next to cum xxiiij s wrytyn actually spoke these words in the 1485 it was provided that ‘gif it be
with awyn hand the x day off may. court, but the clerk’s choice to fundin in tym cuming that Thom
render some of them in Scots (up symson iniuris Johne colison or his
In another case in 1479, the common to the Latin ‘et cetera’ abbreviation) brethir in blasfemacion in word or
clerk who kept the registers switched does suggest that he had a written deid’, then Symson was to face a
his writing from Latin to Scots to document to transcribe, even if it was fine. More specific details are not
record the voice of a litigant. The also read aloud. usually forthcoming, but some cases
clerk wrote that Thomas Litstar’s do reveal more about what sort of
adversary, Thom Chepman, ‘struck a SPOKEN WORDS offensive words were spoken: in
borgh’ (a way to initiate legal action) So far, we have primarily considered 1470, Patrik Smitht was fined for
and made his case in the bailie court voices expressed with written words. ‘wrangwys strublance of maryone
about an unclaimed order for blue The ARO also offers insight into vokat In richt disputous wordis
dye. The clerk noted Chepman’s the significance and value placed on sayande scho was a myssale [tainted,
complaint was ‘in terminis wlgaribus’ the spoken word in town life. The or leprous] woman’. Instances like
(in everyday words), to mark out his power of wrongful speech to cause these are reminders of the power of
words with a change of language. injury was recognised in the registers voices to insult and offend.
Chepman asserted: (and ‘injurious words’ are a topic Speech was also integral to the
well explored by Elizabeth Ewan). smooth administration of law. Indirect
I thom chepman strekis a borch in your Among various other matters, the speech of litigants could be recorded

as a matter of course, for instance in I John of Tulidef ane of the seriandis

the Latin entry from 1453 in which of the burgh of Abirdene at the bidding About 1470, another example of
William Stradee was reported to say of [the burgh officials] Summondis the sworn testimony goes further. In
that (‘dicens quod’) Simon Mason John of parfyt to Comper in the tolbuth giving James Forthethson’s account
wrongfully received salmon in his of Abirdene befor the Aldirman and under oath, the clerk switched to Scots
house. In cases like these, no spoken the ballieis beforsaid […] til Answer til and also recorded direct speech:
words are given, just the relevant Adam Kymmisone or his procuratouris
substance of what was said. and to the kyngis brefe of richt purchest Jacobus forthethson of catnes primus
Speech too was noted in official be Adam Kymmison and to the contentis testis Juratus et examinatus dicit medio
capacities, figuratively and literally. in it in fourm of law. suo Juramento / dicit quod that Jamys
In 1454, for instance, a panel come in at the durr quhar coltart lay and
of arbiters chosen in a property It is of course possible that John of coltart ras vp and saide saide til him I
dispute were to reach a decision Tulidef the sergeand delivered this schraw ye hurysson quhy come you in at
by the ‘trouth of thar vois’. Here summons in writing rather than ony durr quhar ony man was slepande
the very idea of a shared voice orally to John of Parfyt but, given and the saide Jamys ansuerit and saide
associated directly with finding that the text takes the form ‘I [...] agayn that he leyt he was na hur son
truth and pronouncing remedy Summondis [...] the’, it is highly and than coltart and he yeide to giddir
can be appreciated. In a similar suggestive of direct (and formal) in to uexis and at Jamys kest him in the
way, numerous entries recorded speech, uttered in person by the chymnay and thar eftir he hurt the saide
that judgments, or the decision of sergeand to John of Parfyt. Jamys and gaf him thre strakis with a
a jury (known as an assize), were We find similar examples of knyff (direct speech underline added)
‘giffin for dome be the mouth utterances preserved directly in the
of ’ the dempster of the court, or register text in several occurrences Such a level of detail is not typical in
the assize’s fore-speaker. Like the where an appeal against a court the register entries, but it shows the
mouth, the tongue could also be judgment was made by the colourful way in which insulting words and
identified as integral to the action process of ‘doom falsing’. This physical violence could go hand in
of speaking. In 1510, the sergeands required a party to make a formal hand, and here spoken words were
of the burgh were fined as a group assertion that a decision of the essential for Forthethson to explain
for not having executed their office court was ‘false, ill and rotten’, and that Coltart had provoked him. In
correctly in an unspecified matter when these occurred it was usual another case, this one non-violent,
which they had owned up to and for words to be recorded as spoken. witness testimony reported direct
‘be thar avne toung graunt’. Official One William Scherar falsed a doom speech because it was pertinent to
speech acts were also a regular Scotland’s finest in 1444, and the text of the entry establish a lease had been agreed for
part of civic administration. In this medieval burgh records quoted his speech directed at the a shop (‘forbutht’) let to Cristiane
way a sergeand’s duties included are bound into volumes dempstar as follows: ‘And than Lilburne by her nephew. The entry
summoning parties to appear in and the first eight books the saide William in continent said from 1503 gives the depositions of
court. One litigant ensured such a together comprise some that the dome gefyne be the John’ witnesses who reported what they
summons was copied out in 1449: 1.5 million words androu crukschank agaynnis me is had heard spoken to Lilburne:
fals il and Rotyne in the self and thar
to a borch and for this resone / for The saide day patry mvske deponit be
the balye gif me leve’ (direct speech his aithe that quhen William Colp was
underline added). sittand the Inlande to James gourlay /
Witness testimony was another scho sperit at him quhen he walde sett hir
occasion for recording speech. In the forbutht quhilkis scho now Inhabitis
some instances this could also involve Ande the saide Williame saide to hir
a switch of language from Latin to Woman ye sale haue it alslang as I or
Scots. In 1442, Nicholas Thomson may Sone has It for viij s’ of maile and
was sworn as a witness and the clerk Scho oppinnit hir purs and gif to him j d’
made a point of changing languages in arlys Ande thareftir thai passit tile ane
to report what he said by his oath: vthir hous and he saide richt fray
The saide day William scrimgeour
Nicholaius thomson primus testis d deponit be his aithe that effy fyf deponit
Juratus et cetera dicit in suo Juramento be hir aithe that Scho herde William
quod Johannes that John of troup and Colp say to Cristiane lilburne avnt
he and othir diuers sat at the collacion in ye sale haue your forbutht in mailing
marioune lialis house and the sammyn alslang as j haue It (direct speech
John of troup rase vp and yeid furth underline added)
diuers tymes / allane / that sammyn
tyme quhen alexander the grahamys In cases like these direct speech
beddyng was stollin / And quhen had a particular bearing on the
grahame myssit his gudez he stekit the strength of a legal claim before the
yet and wald noght haue lattin hym In // burgh authorities. Numerous other

examples occur where what was and wordis for the quhilkis he was in in any standard way (barring some
said and heard in the course of a Amerciament of the court and av tile switches to the vernacular, or the
commercial transaction is reported, amend as law wile and forber in tym heading and spacing of a copied letter).
but typically only indirectly. to cum and that was gevin for dome Written authority had no primacy that
A final illustration comes from be the moutht of fynne dempstar of the required direct speech or quoted text
1510, at a time when the possibility said court and the said Jonhne quyt of to be identified, and only in the 16th
of recurrent outbreaks of plague were ale tribulance of the said alexander and 17th centuries would typesetting
a reason for concern: of print come to shape the use of
Here we see a number of points quotation marks of different types.
The saide day Johne andirsone burges together in one case: a slanderous Thus, in Scotland’s finest medieval
of the saide burghe complenyeit to the accusation set out in specific detail burgh records, everyday voices may be
prouest and balyeis that alexander (if not in direct speech); that the heard if we listen for them.
hay hede gretlie and heuelie tribulit ‘langagis and wordis’ spoken by
him sayand that he tuk and quarter of Hay were the cause of offence; the Dr Jackson Armstrong in senior lecturer
wole and the pestlence in It and passit importance that evidence be ‘heard, in history at the University of Aberdeen.
to fiwe or sex hous of his nychtbouris seen and understood’ by the jurors; He has published widely on the legal
and specialie to the hous of Wilyeam and two pronouncements given ‘by and political history of the later Middle
andirsone his brothir and distroit mouth’. This example, like the others Ages, taking in both Scotland and
him and his barnis throw the saide above, shows the council registers England, and is also the leader of the
Infectioun quhilk the said Johne denyit serving not just as a testament to an Aberdeen Burgh Records project.
referand him to the declaracioun of expanding documentary culture, but
ane assis […] the Richtis resonis also as an effective means of recording
allegacionis witnes and preuis of bath
the said partiis producit herde seyn
acts of speech. Alongside text, speech
retained authoritative power in this
FURTHER READING
ande vndirstandin fand and deliuerit period; the written text of Scottish
be the moutht of the saide Duncan civic administration worked with oral Aberdeen Registers Online: 1398-1511 (Aberdeen:
Colisone forspekar of the said assis practices. In this way, the registers University of Aberdeen, 2019), https://www.abdn.
that thai coud nocht acquit the said capture a variety of everyday written ac.uk/aro, ed. E. Frankot, A. Havinga, C. Hawes, W.
Alexnader of the tribulance of the and spoken voices, and it is notable Hepburn, W. Peters, J.W. Armstrong, P. Astley, A.
said Johne sayand the said langagis that these voices are not marked out Mackillop, A. Simpson, A. Wyner
R. B. Cunninghame Graham
Search Aberdeen Registers (https://sar.abdn.ac.uk)
and Scotland
‘Introduction: Investigating cultures of law in urban
northern Europe’, in Cultures of Law in Urban Northern
Europe: Scotland and its Neighbours c.1350-c.1650
by Lachlan Munro (London, 2020), ed. J.W. Armstrong and E. Frankot,
Explores the complex life of the most controversial and enigmatic 1-19, J.W. Armstrong and E. Frankot
Scot of his generation, and his contribution to Scottish life and letters.
From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066-1307
• Includes accounts of Graham’s extraordinary political career. (1979), M.T. Clanchy
• Examines Graham’s role in the founding of both the Labour party
and the SNP. The Voices of the People in Late Medieval Europe:
• Examines Graham’s Anti-Imperialism, and fight for Women’s Rights. Communication and Popular Politics (2014), ed. J.
• Discusses Graham’s unique political journalism and evocations of Dumolyn, J. Haemers, H.R. Oliva Herrer, V. Challet
Scottish life and character.
• Analyses Graham's relationships with literary figures such as Oscar ‘Yes, the Earliest Scottish Charters’, Scottish Historical
Wilde, John Galsworthy, G. B. Shaw, and Joseph Conrad. Review, 78:205 (1999), 1-38, A.A.M. Duncan
‘This is a great achievement, a very full and “Many Injurious Words’: Defamation and Gender
thoroughly documented account: the research is
in Late Medieval Scotland’ in History, Literature, and
exemplary.’ Cedric Watts, University of Sussex
Music in Scotland, 700-1560 (2002), e. R.A. McDonald,
‘I love the book; it should be on sale in every 163–86, E. Ewan
historical, political, literary, and Scottish section of
every bookshop in the land’. Dr. Elspeth King. ‘Common Books in Aberdeen, c.1398-c.1511’ in
Published by: Edinburgh University Press. £85 Cultures of Law in Urban Northern Europe: Scotland and its
hardback: ISBN 978 1 4744 9826 5 Neighbours c.1350-c.1650 (2020), ed. J.W. Armstrong and
e-book: ISBN 978 1 4744 9829 6 E. Frankot, 41–57, W. Hepburn and G. Small
https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/book-r-b-cunning- Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (1982,

hame-graham-and-scotland.html 2012 edn), W.J. Ong

Lachlan Munro.indd 1 18/05/2022 11:07
17-CENTURY RE-CREATION
Unique replica
17th-century turf and
creel house opened
at Glencoe
Visitors can experience the sounds of a 17th-century highland

community, with specially commissioned Gaelic voice recordings
A National Trust for Scotland re-creation has opened to the public after an experimental project
to keep heritage building skills alive and share the story of the lost homes of Glencoe
he building’s turf, wattle and thatch structure was up and down the glen, which would have been home to the
erected by a team of skilled craftspeople using traditional MacDonalds of Glencoe – they were a close-knit but disparate
materials, tools and techniques. It has the same footprint community stretching from Loch Leven up towards the craggy
as one of the late 17th-century dwellings excavated by slopes of the Aonach Eagach. While we are not quite ready to
the National Trust for Scotland’s archaeologists and build another house (still learning how to look after our first!), we
volunteers at the former township of Achtriachtan, near the do intend to add other authentic landscape features to the creel
famous ‘Three Sisters’ of Glencoe. house’s surroundings, like a grain-drying kiln, a kale-yard garden,
While stepping inside to discover the workmanship that has and perhaps a half constructed cruck frame’.
gone into the building, visitors will be immersed in the sounds Developed with the involvement of historians, musicians, local
of history, thanks to an installation that conjures up the sounds, Gaelic speakers and schoolchildren, the soundscape comprises
speech and songs of life in the glen 300 years ago. over 200 different sound elements that were chosen to give
Emily Bryce, National Trust for Scotland’s operations manager the interior an authentic and evocative atmosphere, with each
for Glencoe, spoke to History Scotland about what the township representing a different local story.
that once stood at the site would have been like: ‘Our turf and Listeners will hear the cry of wildlife and livestock; the
creel house is a replica of one of the buildings our archaeology commotion of construction and daily toil; the chatter of domestic
team uncovered at Achtriochtan – a small long-vanished life; and the sounds of socialising at a traditional evening ceilidh.
township, shown on a map of the 1740s to comprise around Together they create a backdrop of universally recognisable noises
eight houses. Achtriochtan was one of six little townships, dotted alongside overheard Gaelic voices, which Emily explained to
History Scotland, will give visitors a unique perspective, perhaps
one that challenges their perceptions of the glen’s history in
light of the Glencoe massacre of 1692. She told us: ‘We are
really keen for visitors to go away with a sense of how people
lived, as well as died here, in Glencoe in the 17th century. With
no original buildings surviving from this era, our turf and creel
house gives a unique insight into how closely connected the
clans were with their environment and the natural resources on
their doorstep. You also get a feel for how closely connected the
MacDonalds and the soldiers they gave hospitality to in that
winter of 1692 would have been: staying side by side in two-room
cottages, eating, sleeping, socialising and keeping warm together.
This makes the betrayal of trust [the massacre] all the more
abhorrent’.
Emily Bryce hopes visitors will come away with a new understanding of what life was Glencoe Visitor Centre and Turf House are open throughout the year.
like at Glencoe in the 1690s Glencoe, Lochaber PH49 4HX; website: https://scot.sh/turfhouse

INSIDE NATIONAL RECORDS OF SCOTLAND
Lady Evelyn Cobbold

THE FIRST SCOTTISH WOMAN TO
MAKE THE PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA
Veronica Schreuder uses records held at National Records of Scotland to tell the story
of an Edinburgh-born aristocrat with a thirst for adventure
Detail from Evelyn’s birth

entry. Originally registered
as ‘Nora’, information from
the Register of Corrected
Entries shows that on 11
September 1867 her name
was officially changed to
Evelyn (Crown copyright,
National Records of
Scotland, Statutory
Register of Births, 1867,
685/1 1016 page 339)
n a remote hillside enthusiastic traveller). Under the that she had experienced as a girl
in the Glencarron supervision of Muslim nannies and in the Middle East.
estate in Wester whilst playing with local children, In 1911 she travelled with
Ross lies the final she learnt to speak Arabic, visited American friend, Frances Gordon
resting place of local mosques and developed a Alexander, from Cairo to the
Lady Zainab Cobbold, where she strong interest in Islam, Arabic life Libyan desert, and met T. E.
was buried in accordance with the and its traditions. Lawrence near Petra in 1914. By
principles of Islam, in 1963. Lady the following year Evelyn had
Zainab, as she became known rejected Christianity for Islam and
later in life, was born Lady Evelyn adopted the Arabic name Zainab,
Murray on 17 July 1867 at 13 Great In Egypt she met her future meaning ‘fragrant flower’ (although
Stuart Street, Edinburgh, the eldest husband, John Depuis Cobbold, she did not formally change her
of six children (five daughters and a member of a wealthy brewing name). Whilst staying in Rome she
one son) born to Charles Adolphus family from England, and married had a chance opportunity to meet
Murray, 7th earl of Dunsmore, and him there on 23 April 1891. The the pope. When asked if she was
Lady Gertrude, a daughter of the couple set up home in Ipswich Catholic, Lady Evelyn considered
2nd earl of Leicester. and had three children: Winifred, her response and replied that she
Much of Lady Evelyn’s life Ivan and Pamela. At first, Evelyn was a Muslim. From that moment
was spent travelling in Algeria lived the life expected of a Mayfair on she studied and followed the
and Egypt (her father was an socialite but yearned for the Islamic faith.
officer in the Scots Guards and an sights, smells and environments Lady Evelyn’s husband was not
attracted to Islam in the same way,
and she did not encourage her
family to convert. Ultimately, her
marriage was an unhappy one and
the couple separated in 1922 (never
formally divorcing); Evelyn went
on to live between London and
the 12,000-acre Glencarron estate
in Scotland, where she spent time
stalking deer and fishing.
Detail from the 1925 Valuation Rolls listing Lady Evelyn Cobbold as the proprietor of the estate of Glencarron (Crown
copyright, National Records of Scotland, Valuation Rolls, 1925, VR115/70/118) In 1933, aged 65 years, Lady

In the next Vol 22.6
Evelyn became the first Scottish Muslim woman to issue of Nov/
Dec 2022
history
make the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) and was said On sale:
to be the first white woman who had ever passed 8 October
through the threshold of Mecca. She wrote a diary
Pilgrimage to Mecca (published in 1934) about her
SCO
SC OTLAND
travels, and described Islam as a tolerant, peaceful
and flexible Abrahamic faith. This was a remarkable
moment in history and was covered widely by the
press. Lady Evelyn arrived at Jeddah and travelled
to Medina. 40 miles outside Mecca – north, south,
east and west – were two tall pillars that marked the
COAL COUNTRY
location where every pilgrim had to offer a prayer.
Speaking to the Aberdeen Press and Journal (24 April
1933), she said:
I never imagined anything so stupendous or magnificent

as the great mosque at Mecca… The Kaliphs and Sultans
have dowered it with the wealth and culture of Islam.
When I was there 150,000 Mohommedans were making
the pilgrimage. (Quote reproduced with permission of
DC Thomson & Co ltd)
In negotiating her entrance, she held talks with the

King of Arabia’s ministers and with King Ibn Saud
himself. As part of the pilgrimage every person,
We use oral history to explore the nature and consequences of late-
20th-century deindustrialisation
THE BANDIT
at first, evelyn lived
KING
the life expected of a The tale of Patrick ‘Gilderoy’
mayfair socialite but MacGregor, leader of a
yearned for the sights, notorious bandit gang

during the reign of Charles I
sound, smells and
environments she had
experienced as a girl in PUTTING
the middle east CAPE WRATH
ON THE MAP
We uncover the surprisingly
difficult process of
developing an accurate map
including Lady Evelyn, had to walk around the of Scotland’s northern coast
Kaaba (a small shrine located in the centre of the
Great Mosque) seven times repeating prayers, and
cast seven stones at ‘The Great Devil’ (Gloucestershire PLUS…
Echo, 25 November 1933). For three out of her ten
weeks of travel Lady Evelyn spoke no English.
Lismore Lighthouse and its 19th-century lighthouse keepers,
Lady Evelyn Cobbold died in Inverness on 25
memorialising Mary Queen of Scots over the centuries, winter
January 1963, aged 95. At her funeral a piper played
archaeology projects and more…
against the cold winter wind as an imam recited
versus from the Holy Quran. Her headstone is
inscribed with the words ‘Allah is the light of the GUARANTEE YOUR COPY
heavens and the earth’. Join History Scotland, never miss an issue
and save money on the cover price!
Veronica Schreuder is an archivist at National Records
of Scotland. See our latest UK and overseas offers at:
www.historyscotland.com/store/subscriptions
HI STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 55
ST DIONYSIUS CHAPEL, AYTON:
NINE CENTURIES OF HISTORY
There lies within Ayton churchyard in Berwickshire a little-known ruin with a history which dates to
the 12th century. Michael Wilson take us on a journey through its story over the centuries…
T
he building’s story begins when a colony of lord of Galloway; James Douglas, lord of Dalkeith; and the provost
Benedictine monks settled in the nearby priory of St Andrews, Duncan Little. The meeting was held with the
at Coldingham, which was the most northerly intent of renewing a truce which existed between the two countries.
‘daughter’ monastic house of Durham priory, Further meetings were held to discuss the ongoing truce in 1384.
between the years 1098 and 1107. This was under Some years later, the treaty of Ayton between England and
the auspices of King Edgar of Scots who bestowed upon them Scotland was negotiated with the assistance of Don Pedro de
Eyton (Ayton) and Nether Ayton. This order of monks, also known Ayala, who was acting as the commissioner of the Scottish king.
as the black monks because of the colour of their habits, was This was signed at the church of Ayton on 30 September 1497.
named after St Benedict of Nursia. The commissioners for England included William Warham,
It is believed that the chapel at Ayton was built at this time Richard Foxe and John Cartington. The Scottish commissioners
and was dedicated to St Dionysius (St Denis, the sainted French included Bishop Elphinstone, Andrew Forman, Sir Patrick Hume
bishop). There was an altar dedicated to the Virgin Mary and the of Fastcastle, and Master Richard Lawson. A seven-year truce
church had endowments from various lands in the parish. At some between England and Scotland was agreed, from sunrise that
time over the centuries, the altar was removed, as recorded in the day until sunset on 30 September 1504. Shipping and trade
1834 Statistical Account. The earliest chaplain on record is Robertus were to be conducted according to the previous treaty of York.
Parsona Capellae de Ayton, who held office sometime between the Border wardens on either side were given new powers, especially
years of 1166 and 1232. regarding the execution of cross-border murderers after 20
Until the Reformation the chapel remained a cell or chapel days detention, and capital punishment for thieves caught
of Coldingham priory and thereafter it was disjoined from red-handed. Criminals seeking cross-border asylum would
Coldingham and became united with nearby Lamberton. be returned or banished after 20 days. Neither king should
During the Reformation the chapel would have been converted harbour the other’s rebels. Berwick, a disputed border town, was
from the Catholic to Protestant faith. After that it became a specifically included in the abstinence from war.
parish in its own name. King James gave Ayala authority to negotiate extensions and
revisions. In its final form, the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand
A historic meeting and Isabella were appointed to arbitrate future disputes and
One of the earliest recorded historical events which occurred at the unresolved issues, such as redress for damages caused by the
site was the meeting in 1380 between John of Gaunt, along with recent invasions. James IV signed a ratification of the treaty
the English commissioners John, bishop of Durham; Lord John at St Andrews on 10 February 1498 and in March 1498, Ayala
Neville; and John Waltham, the sub-dean of York. Representing negotiated an extension of the treaty of Ayton, acting as the
Robert II of Scots were John, earl of Moray; Archibald Douglas, commissioner of James IV in further discussions with William

RELIGIOUS HISTORY
Warham. Ultimately this led to the treaty of perpetual peace, which

was an extension to the treaty of Ayton and as part of this treaty,
Margaret Tudor (daughter of Henry VII of England) travelled to
Scotland in 1503 to marry James IV and was handed over to her
Scottish envoy in the nearby chapel at Lamberton.
The child princess (it has been stated that she was fourteen years
old) then travelled over the moor where she was welcomed by a
large gathering of Scots. It is possible her view took in the Cheviots
where some ten years later, at Flodden, her husband James IV
together with his knights and nobles were to die fighting ‘fearlessly
and well’ against their auld enemies the English.
Later, in the 16th century, a bell tower was constructed at the Communion goblet dated 1680; communion flagons dated 1766; below: the
church, the bell last recorded as being seen at a meeting of the Fordyce aisle, southern transcept
Berwickshire Naturalists Club in 1868, three years after the new
church in Ayton was completed. A rubbing of the inscription on for a new church was laid. This was completed and opened for
the bell is held at the British Museum, which reads Campana worship in January 1867.
Sancte Cuthberte Tommas Balrno, meaning ‘the bell of St A few artefacts survive from the days when the church was
Cuthbert’ with the name its donor or founder. still in use. There are communion cups – one originally given by
Magdallan Rule of Peelwalls to the church of Ayton in 1677, two
The Fordyce family pewter cups dated 1680, two communion jugs dated 1766, and
Sometime in the 18th century, a burial vault was built alms plates that date to the 17th century.
containing a window with a circular arch and large mullions, The National Museum of Scotland also has on display a
which represent a mixture of Saxon and Norman designs. communion plate dated 1779 and there remain within Durham
Within this vault lie the remains of the Fordyce family. They University numerous charters, some with seals, which extend back
owned Ayton estate and house which was purchased by to the reign of King Edgar, with references to Ayton. Many would
Alexander Fordyce from the dowager countess of Home have been written by the monks who lived there.
(she previously purchased the estate in 1724 from the Over the years the structure of the church has deteriorated,
commissioners of sequestrated estates following the loss by her however a charity called Ayton Heritage was formed in the village
son James in 1716 due to his support for the Jacobite cause). in 2019 with the initial objective of carrying out restoration works
It is thought a north aisle with a later gallery was added at the in order that the church may remain a visible part of the history of
same time as the burial vault of the Fordyce family, and this the parish and welcome visitors. Currently grants are being pursued
provided for a facility of 400 seats. from a number of potential funders.
Although the church was subject to alterations, it ultimately
became too small for the parish and in 1864 the foundation stone Find out more at www.aytonhistory.com
HI STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 57

CLICK HERE
FOOD:
to watch two short talks
from the Food: Recipe or
Remedy exhibition launch
RECIPE OR
REMEDY?
Dr Daisy Cunynghame takes a look at the
history of the relationship between food
and health over the centuries, exploring the
blurred lines between recipes for food and
those for curing self-diagnosed illnesses
I
n the modern day, nutrition Gentle Emetic by James GIllray. Until
and pharmacology are seen around the 1800s, it was widely
as very different subjects. believed that vomiting removed
The medicine we take is ‘bad’ humours from the body
separate and distinct from
the food we eat. In the past this
line was much more blurred. A
doctor would prescribe almonds,
garlic, bacon, turnips and cheese to
their patient. A sick person would
self-dose with the plants that grew
in their garden or rub butter or
milk on their skin to treat a rash.
Friends, neighbours, church Example page from a communities, and medical traditions to write. The recipes in these books
ministers and philanthropic recipe book. It was not were passed down from mother to were used to treat family members,
members of the landed gentry unusual for recipes for daughter through the generations. especially children, as well as friends
shared medical recipes and food to appear alongside For the wealthy, the domestic and neighbours. They existed as
ingredients with people in their those for medical remedies concoction of medicines could family heirlooms that passed medical
involve long preparation periods knowledge, usually from mother to
and complex distillation methods. daughter, through the generations.
But for those less well-off, medical
simples were the most common PRINTED CHAPBOOKS
form of treatment. Simples were Chapbook were types of publications
items which were common to the that were created using only a single
household or easily acquired locally, sheet of paper, printed on both sides,
and which were taken pure, without and folded into individual pages.
mixing them with anything else. They were popular from the mid
1700s to around 1850, with 200,000
DOMESTIC RECIPES chapbooks sold in Scotland each year
A household recipe book would during this time. Because they were
contain recipes for custard and tarts sold cheaply, they were available to
alongside treatments for syphilis most members of society.
and gout. Recipes for cleaning One such printed work, The
products and cosmetics would be Poor Man’s Physician, written by
mixed in with those for laxatives and an apothecary from Perthshire,
ointments. They were written down was designed to be used for self-
without any clear distinction made medication in the home. Many
between recipes for food, medicine of the treatments it detailed
and domestic tasks; food was often contained simple ingredients,
used as a form of medicine. which would have been widely
Recipe books were usually owned available to its readers.
by middling or upper-class women One recipe for treating strangury,
because they would have had to be a blockage in the bladder, included
completely literate – able to both fried onions, eggs, oil, pig fat,
read and write – as well as have radishes and vinegar. Other recipes
access to blank notebooks on which include cabbage, honey, milk and

FOOD: RECIPE OR REMEDY
watercress. ‘Rotten worm-eaten in his medicine at his home in GETTING IT OUT OF YOUR
Cheese mouldered with Broth Morningside. SYSTEM...
wherein a Gammon of Bacon Imported items from overseas The origins of evacuatory medicine
hath been long boiled’ is alleged were also increasingly included lie with the humoural system. The
to cure joint pain, while the text in patient medicines, including belief was that when a person’s
recommends the application sugar, chocolate and plants. humours became imbalanced
of sugar, polenta, leeks, parsley Spices also became a common this needed to be corrected by
and bread to the eyes to reduce ingredient in these medicines. removing the ‘bad humours’
inflammation. Many ingredients in curry from their body. Sometimes
powder, including turmeric this was done through
THE NEW MEDICINES and cumin, have been used bloodletting, but more often
In the 1700s, rising consumerism for medicinal purposes for through ingesting emetics,
meant that more people were able thousands of years. Originally diuretics or laxatives.
to buy pre-made medicines from from India, curry was Emetics were substances
stores. Opportunists cashed in on introduced into Britain via which caused vomiting.
the popularity of home remedies and the Silk Road trade routes, In Scotland they were
self-diagnosing to create proprietary and curry first began to often known as a puke
medicines which could be bought appear in British cookbooks (or puek). Emetics were a
for home use. At this time, far more from the 1740s. common treatment for many
medicines received royal patents than Apothecaries began complaints. Like bloodletting
any other invention. Anyone could to sell curry powder and and laxatives, they supposedly
get a royal patent for a medicine – physicians studied its removed the ‘bad’ humours
its formula had to be unique, but medicinal properties. One Gregorys Stomachic from the body that caused
there was no need to prove that Victorian publication – a piece of Power, made using disease. Mustard and salt were
it worked. Apothecary shops sold advertising disguised as a medical rhubarb from its common household emetics.
these medicines, as did booksellers, text – was Curries, their properties, creator’s garden in Sweating and blistering the skin
hairdressers and stationers. and healthful and medicinal qualities. Morningside, Edinburgh were also thought to help remove
Often the contents of these Its author claimed that curry was a toxins from the body and ‘heroic
patent medicines remained the stimulant and was anti-bilious, anti- medicine’, popular in the 1700s
same as their earlier home-made spasmodic, anti-flatulent, soothing and 1800s, was based on the idea
versions. Vegetables, liquorice and and invigorating. that the more you evacuated, and
mint were common ingredients. the closer to death you came, the
One popular patent medicine, HUMOURAL THEORY more successful the treatment
Gregory’s Stomachic Powder, From the time of the Ancient must be. When the English
was named after its creator James Greeks through to the 1800s, the physician John Woodward wrote a
Gregory. Gregory was professor majority of medical practice was medical study in 1718, he opened
of medicine at the University of based around humoural theory. with ‘the Beginnings of all Things,
Edinburgh and personal physician According to this idea, there were good or bad, to the Body, are in
to George III and George IV. four humours, or fluids, in the the Stomach’.
The medicine was pink in colour, body which needed to be kept in The stomach, then, was at the
due to the rhubarb it contained. balance. These were black bile, centre of medical treatment and
Gregory grew the rhubarb used yellow bile, blood and phlegm. The believed to be the central root
balance of these humours was tied of disease. Intestinal problems,
to a person’s diet, their age both constipation and diarrhoea,
and their gender. were frequent complaints. Lack of
Foods were access to fresh fruit and vegeetbles,
categorised according and an offal and starch-heavy diet
to the impact they had meant gastric complaints were
on the body’s humours: commonplace, especially amongst
cucumbers and pork the poor.
caused phlegm because
they were seen as cold Dr Daisy Cunynghame is heritage
and moist, while vinegar manager and librarian at the Royal
and lemons increased College of Physicians of Edinburgh
black bile because they
were seen as cold and Food: recipe or remedy runs
dry. A patient could be until 27 January 2023 at Royal
prescribed lamb or onions College of Physicians of
by their doctor to cure Edinburgh, 11 Queen Street,
their complaint as much as Curry powder first began to Edinburgh EH2 1JQ. Free entry.
they might be prescribed a appear in British cookbooks www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/food-
tincture, lotion or pill. from the 1740s recipe-or-remedy

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THE SCOTTISH HISTORY SOCIETY: VOLUME IN THE SPOTLIGHT
Everyday matters such as the quality of foodstuffs on sale to inhabitants of Aberdeen were dealt with by the burgh courts
Everyday life in the medieval town
A
Dr Kelsey Jackson Williams shares intriguing details from the Scottish History Society’s
volumes of early records of the burgh of Aberdeen
s our article on page 31 shows, we can learn a great deal more serious cases make their appearance. In 1399 Marion Fethes was
about ordinary medieval Scots from poetic texts such convicted of theft and banished from Aberdeen for two years, while
as Barbour’s Bruce. But the literary monuments of the Helen Scotcok was banished in the same year ‘for a hundred years and
Middle Ages are not our only window on to ordinary a day’. Her crime is not specified, but must have been exceptionally
life; equally, if not more, vivid snapshots can be found in serious to have incurred such a punishment. Even banishment of
far humbler documentary survivals. In the present case, those snapshots two years, cutting an individual off from their livelihood and support
are recorded in the earliest surviving records of the burgh of Aberdeen networks, was a harsh sentence.
(see alsp page 48). The Granite City is unusual in Scotland for its Such glimpses of medieval Scottish life, fragmentary though they
remarkably rich surviving archive of city records, the earliest dating back are, help clothe the bare names which are often all that survive for
to the time described in the Bruce itself. After a brief light is thrown by ordinary Scots of this period (if, indeed, they have left any mark at
a fragmentary court roll from 1317, the series begins in earnest in 1398 all in the historical record). This volume and similar publications
and from that year onwards we can watch the inhabitants of medieval by the Scottish History Society make such fragments available to a
Aberdeen go about their quotidian tasks. wider audience and provide scholars with the resources to recover
The burgh court records deal with the day-to-day maintenance of the ordinary lives of so long ago.
order in the city. One aspect of that maintenance was ensuring the
quality of the foodstuffs sold within its boundaries and to that end at William Croft Dickinson (ed.), Early Records of the Burgh of
every Michaelmas court, a series of worthy citizens were chosen to taste Aberdeen, 1317, 1398-1407, series three, vol. 49, 1957. Read at
and judge the quality of the meat, wine and ale purveyed. Whether John https://scot.sh/burgh
Rutherford and John Thomson, the two men chosen to be burgh wine
tasters in 1400, viewed their appointment as a drudgery or a pleasure, The Scottish History Society is the leading
we do not know. The end result also has its moments in these records, publisher of original sources relating to the history
as when Alan Jamison and Michael Chalmers are acquitted from being of Scotland. Founded in 1886, the Society has
falsely accused of having unlawfully raised up dung heaps (sterculinii). published over 170 volumes. Membership is
What led to this act of neighbourly incivility, however, is unfortunately open to all and benefits include a free hard copy
not recorded. of our annual volume, and invitations to our
Much of the business of the burgh court also dealt with the regulation events, including our AGM, Presidential Lecture and Publications
of trade within Aberdeen and its attempts to do so appear more comic Workshops. To join, please see: https://scottishhistorysociety.
than grave, such as its not very successful crackdown at the end of com/the-society/how-to-join/. Our entire publications list has
the 14th century on the sale of cakes which were being baked ‘against also been recently digitised in partnership with the National Library
the statutes of the burgh’ by ‘Marion, John Gilbertson’s girlfriend’ of Scotland. To access the digital edition for free, please see: https://
(Mariota amasia Johannis Gilberti) and others. Occasionally, however, digital.nls.uk/scottish-history-society-publications/.

CLICK HERE for bonus content for the Final Word interview
Volume 22, Number 5

September/October 2022
FINAL WORD
Abeer Eladany shares the findings of her recent work as part
EDITORIAL
Editor: Rachel Bellerby
of a steering group on the Empire, Slavery and Scotland’s
rachelb@warnersgroup.co.uk Museums Project, sponsored by the Scottish Government
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School of Humanities, University of
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editorial@historyscotland.com University of Aberdeen, was one of ten members global impact, particularly regarding
of a steering group which led a national repatriation of objects. Egypt has been active
Reviews Editor: Dr Louise Heren consultation through the Empire, Slavery & in addressing this issue, as I experienced
reviews@historyscotland.com Scotland’s Museum Project. while working in the Egyptian Museum in
Cairo during some high-profile repatriation
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http://scot.sh/writeforHS What are the main barriers to individual of stolen objects and mummified persons.
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ADMINISTRATION their collection that have a connection to was hard to study the history and culture
Warners Group Publications slavery, empire and colonialism? of Egypt fully while masterpieces are not
Fifth Floor, 31-32 Park Row, The consultation with the museum workforce available to view in Egypt. I think studying a
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Publisher: Matthew Hill meetings and the results show that it is not beginnings surrounded by racism, has had
Senior Designer: Nathan Ward always straightforward to identify which an impact on my experience of museums
Designers: Mary Ward, Rajneet Gill, objects in the collection have a connection and how a culture can be taken away from
Jackie Grainger to slavery, empire and colonialism without its community of origin.
doing extensive research in relation to the
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museums can only do the high priority duties. demonstrated that not all museums were able
Most of the funding available is for short- to make the connection between their work
term projects so experts are brought in to and the legacies of these histories and that
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Subscription details on page 60 leave. The work related to anti-racism, slavery Members of the museum workforce who
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Saughton Hall © Canmore/RCAHMS; p14 © Alice Johnston and The Scottish Urban Archaeological Trust; p15 © The Met, The Elisha
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label © Barbara Eva Photography, piano interior © The Friends of Felix Yaniewicz; p21 © The Friends of Felix Yaniewicz; p28 ©
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THEMED SPECIAL: MEDIEVAL SCOTLAND

Vol.22 No.5 September/October 2022

Enjoy blogs, videos, how-to research guides and a

For talk details, visit:

Get our free newsletter for themed month highlights

Richard Oram University of Stirling

Dr Callum Watson completed a PhD at the University of Edinburgh on

Join the history debate…

22 Averting plague in medieval Scotland: saints, relics 36 Pre-reformation Scottish churches

44 Anatomy: a matter of death & life 54 National Records Scotland

46 Payback at Pitarrow 61 Scottish History Society

4 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

Origins of the Black Death revealed for the first time

Prestonpans Town Hall to host Victorian

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 5

SIR WALTER SCOTT

6 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 7

with poverty and the brutality of

There is something distasteful about the happy occasion’, he wrote.

8 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

a two-night stay at the

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 9

10 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

mansion house and estate, depicting

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 11

uncertain. Due to the age of the Figure 6: 17th-century

ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE HALL

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lining a large rectangular concrete Figure 8: Fragments

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 13

14 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 15

town on market days, while other

16 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

– lists of ‘cake baxters’ are usually in great demand – people from

a particular reputation as extra rooms, cellars, or lofts in their

hubbub of the market commercial premises such as booths

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18 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

MUSIC AND MIGRATION IN

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Within months of his arrival

A perfect masterpiece of the art. In The Yaniewicz & Green

It was in Edinburgh that he

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some general observations on

The large and beautiful orchestra

turning point in Scottish musical of their counterparts in 1815,

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 21

22 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

could only explain it in terms of the St Roch Interceding

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 23

good works in life and bequests to The terror of the plague

[…] that we sowld thus be haistely put

24 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

remains within Scottish burgh Detail from St Sebastian

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26 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

PROCESSIONS AND RELICS

H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2 27

28 H I STORY S C OTL A N D - SEPT EMBER / O CTO BER 2 0 2 2

detail the occasions of their locations where Nance had failed

Establishing paternity in the