Sound: Propagation

• Sound Waves: Sound waves are longitudinal Wavefront

Source S
waves (i.e. involve oscillations parallel to the
direction of the wave travel) that propagate Ray

through a medium (e.g. air, water, iron).

Medium
oscillations
• Speed of Sound: The speed of any mechanical wave
depends on both the inertial property of the medium
(stores kinetic energy) and the elastic property (stores
potential energy).
elastic (wave speed)
v= Sound Sound
inertial Medium Speed Speed
(m/s) (mi/hr)
• Stretched String (Chapter 11): The speed of
the “transverse” wave along a stretched string is Air
343 768
(20oC)
τ
v= (string, τ = tension, μ = linear mass density)
μ Water
1,482 3,320
(20oC)
• Sound: The speed of the “longitudinal” sound wave is
B Steel 5,941 13,308
v= (sound, B = bulk modulus = -ΔP/(ΔV/V), ρ = volume mass
ρ density)

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 Sound: Speed
• Speed of Sound: In Fluids Sound Sound
Medium Speed Speed
B
v= (sound, B = bulk modulus = -ΔP/(ΔV/V), ρ = volume mass (m/s) (mi/hr)
ρ density)
Air
343 768
(20oC)
• Speed of Sound: In Air (B proportional to absolute T)
Water
1,482 3,320
T where T is measured in degrees Kelvin (20oC)
v(T ) = v0 with T0 = 273.15 oK and v0 = 331 m/s.
T0 Steel 5,941 13,308
T(in oK) = T(in oC) + 273.15

T (o F ) = (1.8o F / o C )T (o C ) + 32o F (degrees Fahrenheit)

• Speed of Sound: In Solids

Y
v=
ρ (sound, Y = young’s modulus, ρ = volume mass density)

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 Sound: Traveling Waves
• Traveling Sound Waves in Air: A
traveling sound waves consist of a moving
periodic pattern of expansions and
compressions of the air. As the wave
passes the air elements oscillate
longitudinally in simple harmonic motion.
(1000 Hz sound wave with ΔPmax at the threshold of pain!)

Longitudinal
displacement

s ( x, t ) = smax cos(kx − ωt )
Pressure
variation
ΔP( x, t ) = ΔPmax sin( kx − ωt )

ΔPmax = (νρω ) smax

(The pressure amplitude is related to the displacement amplitude!)
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 Sound: Intensity and Level
• Intensity: Traveling sound waves transport energy (kinetic and potential)
from one point to another. The intensity, I, of a sound wave at a surface is
the average energy per unit time per unit area transmitted by the wave to
the surface (i.e. average power per unit area). It is also equal to the average
energy per unit volume in the wave times the speed of propagation of the
wave.
1 dE Ppower I = dE v = 1 ρvω 2 s 2 = 1 ΔPmax (the intensity is proportional to the
2

I= = square of the amplitude!)

ρ
2 max 2
2
A dt A dV v Sphere with
Watts/m radius r
Source PS
r
• Variation with Distance: If sound is emitted isotropically
(i.e. equal intensity in all directions) from a point source with
power Ps and if the mechanical energy of the wave is conserved
then Ps
I= (intensity from isotropic point source)
4πr 2
Sound
level Intensity
(dB) (W/m2)
• The Decibel Scale: Instead of speaking about the
Hearing
intensity I of sound, it is more convenient to speak of 0 10-12
threshold
the sound level β, where
β / 10 dB Conversation 60 10-6
β = (10dB ) log10 ( I / I 0 ) I = I 0 × 10
Pain threshold 120 1
-12 2
(sound level, dB = “decibel”, I0 = 10 W/m )
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 Sound Waves: Example Problem
• At a baseball game, a spectator is 60.0 m away from the batter. How
long does it take the sound of the bat connecting with the ball to travel
to the spectator’s ears? The air temperature is 27.0 oC. Answer: 172.9 ms
The speed of sound in the air depends on the temperature as follows:

T where T is measured in degrees Kelvin with T0 = 273.15 oK and v0 = 331 m/s.

v(T ) = v0 Also, T(oK) = T(oC) + 273.15. Hence,
T0
300.15
v(27o C ) = (331m / s) ≈ 347.0m / s
273.15
Note that 27oC is about 81oF.
d 60m
t= o
= ≈ 0.173s = 172.9ms
v(27 C ) 347.0m / s

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 Sound Waves: Example Problem
• Stan and Ollie are standing next to a train track. Stan puts his ear to
the steel track to hear the train coming. He hears the sound of the train
whistle through the track 2.1 s before Ollie hears it through the air. How
far away is the train? Take the speed of sound in air and steel to be 343
m/s and 5790 m/s, respectively. Answer: 765.7 m

d d ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ v −v
Δt = tair − t steel = − = d ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ = d steel air
vair vsteel ⎝ vair vsteel ⎠ vair vsteel

vair vsteel (343m / s )(5790m / s )

d = Δt = (2.1s ) ≈ 765.7 m
vsteel − vair (5790m / s ) − (343m / s )

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 Sound Waves: Example Problem
• You drop a stone into a deep well and hear it hit the bottom 3.2 s later.
How deep is the well? Take the speed of sound to be 343 m/s.
2d d Answer: 46.05 m
ttot = t drop + t sound = +
g vsound
2
2d ⎛ d ⎞ dttot d2 ⎛ 2
2vsound ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ttot − ⎟⎟ = ttot − 2
2
+ 2 d − ⎜⎜ 2ttot vsound +
2
⎟⎟d + vsound
2 2
ttot =0
g ⎝ vsound ⎠ vsound vsound ⎝ g ⎠

⎡⎛ vsound ⎞ 2
2ttot vsound vsound ⎤
d = vsound ⎢⎜⎜ ttot + ⎟⎟ ± + 2 ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ g ⎠ g g ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 343m / s ⎞ 2(3.2s )(343m / s ) (343m / s ) 2 ⎤
= (343m / s ) ⎢⎜ 3.2s + 2 ⎟
± + 2 2 ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠
2
9 . 8m / s 9 .8m / s (9. 8m / s ) ⎥⎦
26,159m
= (343m / s )[(38.2s ) ± (38.06573s )] =
46.05m
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 Sound Waves: Example Problem
• The sound level 25 m from a loudspeaker is 71 dB. What is the rate at
which sound energy is produced by the loudspeaker, assuming it to be
an isotropic source? Answer: 98.9 mW

β = (10dB) log10 ( I / I 0 ) where I0 = 10-12 W/m2. Hence, I = I 0 × 10 β /10 dB

P = 4πr 2 I = 4πr 2 I 010 β / 10 dB = 4π ( 25m) 2 (10 −12 W / m 2 )10 7.1 ≈ 98.9mW

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