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Assignment
On
Comparative analysis between China and Bangladesh.
Course Code: PA 513.
Course Title: Comparative Public Administration.

Submitted to:

TASNIA SUMYA.

Lecturer,

Department of Public Administration

University of Barishal.

Submitted By:

Group: - “A”
MSS, 1st semester
Department of Public Administration
University of Barishal.

Date of submission: 02/02/2022.

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Group profile
Group: - “A”
MSS, 1st semester
Department of Public Administration
University of Barishal.

S.L. No. Name Roll

01 Abdul Kader 20 PAD 006

02 Md. Arifur Rahman 20 PAD 008

03 Md. Abir Hossain 20 PAD 010

04 Shobnom Mustery Khadiza 20 PAD 032

05 Md. Towfik Omor Hanif 20 PAD 034

06 Hasan-Al-Banna 20 PAD 035

07 Afroza Akter Lina 20 PAD 050

08 Sourov Roy 20 PAD 051

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Contents
SL. No. Topic Page No.

01. Introduction 4

02. Historical Background of China and Bangladesh 5-6

03. Government Mechanisms of China and Bangladesh 6-10

04. Administrative structure of China and Bangladesh 11-13

05. Local Government of China and Bangladesh 13-16

06. Administrative Culture of China and Bangladesh 17-21

07. Political system of China and Bangladesh 22-25

08. Election system of China and Bangladesh 25-28

09. Economic system of China and Bangladesh 28-31

10. Belt and Road Initiative & Bangladesh 31-37

11. Current issues of China and Bangladesh 37-39

12. Conclusion 39
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Introduction

China officially known as "People's Republic of China" is a country of Asia and it situated in
eastern Asia, bounded by the Pacific in the east. The third largest country in the world, next to
Canada and Russia, with a population of around 1.412 billion it has an area of 9.6 million square
kilometers. The People's Republic of China is a socialist state under the people's democratic
dictatorship. The president, as the head of the state, promulgates laws, appoints the premier, vice
premiers, state councilors, ministers of various ministries and state commissions, the auditor-
general, and the secretary-general of the State Council, according to decisions of the National
People's Congress and its standing committee. Bangladesh officially known as People‟s Republic
of Bangladesh is a country in south Asia. Bangladesh is the 8th most populous country with a
population of around 163 million. It shared land borders with India and Myanmar, china is
located near Bangladesh but do not share border with it. The legislature of Bangladesh is
unicameral known as Sangsad. Here president is the head of the state, a largely ceremonial head
where all the power vested prime minister who is the head of government.

Over the past 46 years, the relationship between China and Bangladesh has been developing,
with mutual cooperation and friendship on both sides. In the international arena, Bangladesh has,
to the best of its capacity, maintained unwavering support for the "One China Policy" and
China's peaceful rise. China has established itself as Bangladesh's most trusted ally in the
defence sector as well other sectors. China's valuable involvement in water resource
development and management also has enormous potential for Bangladesh. Recently, China's
cooperation in the overall development of the Teesta basin, which, if implemented, could
radically change certain sectors, including agriculture and industry, in a large area of North
Bengal.
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Historical Background of China and Bangladesh

For knowing one culture, their tradition and development process it is important to know the
historical background of this country, in this session the historical background of China and
Bangladesh are described-

History of China
China is a magic country with special culture, traditions and ancient civilization. The Chinese
civilization is one of the world‟s ancient calcinations, aged almost 5,000 years. The Chinese
civilization originated in Hwang Ho and Yangtze River basins. And it was there, where the
ancient farmers‟ settlements developed into first Chinese towns and national unions.

The Chinese history may be divided into three periods:

 Primitive Society.
 Feudal Society.
 Modern Society.

Primitive Society Phase: There are three important dynasties and two eventful periods.

 Xia dynasty - 2100 B.C -1600 B.C

 Shang dynasty - 1600 B.C - 1100 B.C
 Zhou dynasty - 1100 B.C - 256 B.C
 Spring & Autumn Period, Warring States Period - 770 B.C - 221 B.C.

Feudal Society Phase:

 Qin Dynasty - 221B.C - 206 B.C

 Han Dynasty - 202 B.C - 280 A.D
 Three Kingdoms Period - 220 A.D - 280 A.D
 Jin Dynasty - 265 A.D - 420 A.D
 Sui Dynasty - 581 A.D - 618 A.D
 Tang Dynasty - 618 A.D - 907 A.D
 Song Dynasty - 960 A.D - 1279 A.D
 Yuan Dynasty- 1271A.D - 1368 A.D
 Ming Dynasty -1368 A.D - 1644 A.D
 Qing Dynasty - 1644 A.D - 1911 A.D

Modern Society Phase:

 Modern time - 1911 A.D - 1949 1949 A.D

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 People's Republic of China - 1949 A.D - Present.

History of Bangladesh
 Civilizational history of Bangladesh previously known as East Bengal dates back over
four millennia, to the Chalcolithic. The country's early documented history featured
successions of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires, vying for regional dominance.

 Islam arrived during the 6th-7th century A.D. and became dominant gradually since the
early 13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji as well as activities of
Sunni missionaries such as Shah Jalal in the region.

 From the 14th century onward, it was ruled by the Bengal Sultanate, founded by king
Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, Afterwards, the region came under the Mughal Empire, as its
wealthiest province.

 Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semi-
independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, ultimately led by Siraj ud-Daulah.

 The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the separation of Bengal and
India in August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan. Proclamation of
Bangladeshi Independence in March 1971 led to the nine-month long Bangladesh
Liberation War, which culminated with East Pakistan emerging as the People's Republic
of Bangladesh.

Government Mechanisms of China and Bangladesh

Government Mechanism of China

The government of the People's Republic of China is collectively the state authority in the
People's Republic of China (PRC) under the exclusive political leadership of the Chinese
Communist Party (CCP). China's government is regarded as a one-party communist dictatorship,
in which the Communist Party of China has a monopoly on power. China has a Unitary
Communist Government system. China is also an oligarchy because only one group, the
Communist Party of China has control of the government.
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National People’s Congress (NPC)

Standing Committee of the NPC

President

Executive Branch Legislative Branch

State Council Central Military Supreme People‟s Supreme People‟s

Commission Court Procuratorate

Figure: Structure of Chinese Government.

The government of the People's Republic of China is consists of various branches- Legislative,
Executive, Judicial, Military, Supervisory and Procuratorial however there is no true separation
of powers in China‟s government.

Executive Branch: China's executive branch consists of the president vice president Premier,
Vice premier and the state Council. The president is the chief of state. He or she represents the
China in the international world. The president is selected by the Communist Party of China. The
premier is the head of the government. His or her role is very similar to that of a Prime Minister.
He or she is chosen by the Communist Party of China.

Legislative branch: The legislative branch is composed of members of the national people's
Congress. Members of the legislative branch choose the President and Vice President and review
laws and sent from the executive branch. The national people's congress wields the highest
power of the government and appoints the state council, president, and judges. It mediates policy
differences of the party and government, amends constitution, and supervises enforcement of
constitution. All member of the Communist Party of China and are elected by local councils. The
national people's Congress meets only for 14 days a year. Because the national people's Congress
only meet 14 days a year the Politburo runs the country the rest of the year.

State Council: The State Council is the chief authority of the People's Republic of China. It is
appointed by the National People's Congress and is chaired by the Premier of China and includes
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the heads of each governmental department and agency. There are about 50 members in the
council. In the politics of the People's Republic of China, the Central People's Government forms
one of three interlocking branches of power, the others being the Chinese Communist Party and
the People's Liberation Army. The State Council directly oversees the various subordinate
People's Governments in the provinces, and in practice maintains an interlocking membership
with the top levels of the CCP.

Central Military Commission: The Central Military Commission (CMC) exercises the
command and control of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) and is supervised by the Standing
Committee of the National People's Congress. It is nominally considered the supreme military
policy-making body and its chairman, elected by the National People's Congress. Actual
command and control of the PLA resides with the Central Military Commission of the Party
Central Committee.

National Supervisory Commission: The National Supervisory Commission (NSC) is the

highest supervisory (anti-corruption) agency of the PRC. At the same administrative ranking as
the Supreme People's Court and Supreme People's Procuratorate, it supervises all public officials
who exercise public power. Its operations are merged with the Central Commission for
Discipline Inspection of the CCP. It replaces the former Ministry of Supervision.

Supreme People's Court: The Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China is the
highest court of the People's Republic of China. It exercises appellate jurisdiction over cases that
originated from the high people's courts and original jurisdiction over cases concerning matters
of national importance. The court also has a quasi-legislative power to issue judicial
interpretations and adjudication rules on court procedure.

According to the Chinese constitution, the Supreme People's Court is accountable to the National
People's Congress, which prevents the court from functioning separately and independently of
the governmental structure. The court has about 400 judges and more than 600 administrative
personnel.

Supreme People's Procuratorate: The Supreme People's Procuratorate, also translated as the
"Prosecutor General's Office" is the highest national agency responsible for legal prosecution and
investigation in the People's Republic of China. Conceived initially in 1949 as the Supreme
People's Prosecutor's Office, the agency was renamed the Supreme People's Procuratorate in
1954.

National People’s Congress: The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China,
normally referred to as the National People's Congress (NPC), is the highest organ of state power
and the national legislature of the People's Republic of China. With 2,980 members in 2018, it is
the largest parliamentary body in the world. The National People's Congress meets in full session
for roughly two weeks each year and votes on important pieces of legislation. Members are
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considered to be part-time legislators and are not paid. Under China's Constitution, the NPC is
structured as a unicameral legislature, with the de jure power to legislate and oversee the
operations of the government, the supreme court, special committees, the supreme procuratorate,
the central military commission and elect the major officers of state.

Government Mechanism of Bangladesh

The Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh is the Central Government of
Bangladesh. The government was constituted by the Constitution of Bangladesh and consists of
three branches. The Executive branch, represented by the President, the Prime Minister and the
Cabinet of Bangladesh. The Legislature represented by the Jatiya Sangsad, and the Judiciary,
represented by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a unitary state and the central
government has the authority to govern over the entirety of the nation. The seat of the
government is located in Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh.

Bangladesh Government

Executive Branch Legislative Branch Judicial branch

Figure: Structure of Bangladesh Government.

Executive Branch: The Executive is led by the Prime Minister, who selects all the remaining
Ministers. The Prime Minister and the other most senior Ministers belong to the supreme
decision-making committee, known as the Cabinet.

Legislative Branch: The Legislature of Bangladesh is unicameral. Called the Jatiya Sangsad in
Bengali, it is the parliament of Bangladesh. The Speaker presides over meetings of the Jatiya
Sangsad and conducts its business in an orderly fashion. The current Jatiya Sangsad contains 350
seats, including 50 seats reserved exclusively for women and 300 seats for elected members,
which are apportioned on elected party position in the parliament.
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Judicial branch: The judicial branch systematically contains an apex Supreme Court, which is
composed of the Appellate Division and the High Court Division. There are various levels of the
judiciary in Bangladesh – different types of courts form a strict hierarchy of importance –
District Courts, City Criminal Courts, Specialized Courts and Tribunals are all inferior to the
Supreme Court. The Chief Justice of Bangladesh is the head of the judiciary and the Supreme
Court.

House of the Nation: The parliament of Bangladesh, called the Jatiya Sangsad (House of the
Nation), is a unicameral entity consisting of some 350 seats, most of which are filled through
direct election. The remaining seats are reserved for women; these members are elected by the
parliament itself. Legislators serve five-year terms. The parliament elects the president, who also
serves a five-year term, with a two-term limit. The president then appoints the leader of the
legislative majority party (or coalition) as prime minister.

Comparison between China and Bangladesh

The majority of the power of the NPC is exercised by the Standing Committee of the National
People's Congress (NPCSC), which consists of about 170 legislators and meets in continuous
session, when the full session of the NPC is not held. In Bangladesh the majority of the power of
the Jatiya Sangsad is exercised by the Cabinet of Bangladesh Government.

The NPC is elected for a term of five years. It holds annual sessions every spring, usually lasting
from 10 to 14 days, In Bangladesh the Members of parliament are elected for a term of five
years; they attended the National Assembly session at least two month apart.

Chinese parliament consists of presidential form of government, president exercise the supreme
power of the state. In parliamentary form of democratic system, in Bangladesh, prime minister
exercises the supreme power but he/she is not a dictator like Chinese president at all.

There are mainly four functions and powers of the NPC: To amend the Constitution and oversee
its enforcement, To enact and amend basic legislation, To elect and appoint members to the
central state organs, To determine major state issues worthy of legislative action. In Bangladesh
there are many functions and powers of the parliament: Law Making, Control over the Budget,
Amendment of constitution, Mirror of public opinion, Maintain Law and Order, Foreign
Relations, Interpretation of the Laws, protection of civil rights, Guardian of the Constitution.
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Administrative structure of China and Bangladesh

Administrative Structure of China

Central Government

22 Provinces & 5 Autonomous Regions 4 Provincial Level Municipalities

333 Municipality-level Units

2862 County-level Units

41636 Town-level Units

Figure: Administrative structure of China.

Chinese administration consists of five parts. These are-

 1.Central government: The central government of China is responsible for developing,

leading and arranging for implementation of plan.

 2.Provincial level: In China, there are 33 provinces. In which 22 provinces and 5

autonomous regions, 2 special districts such as Hong kong and Macao,and 4 large
metropolitan areas like Beijing, Shanhai,Tianjin and Chongqing. The provincial
administration is responsible for-

a.Planning for implementation and pilot operation.

b.Regulating and establishing rules and norms.

c.Distributing finance resources and infrastructure.

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 3.Municipal level: There are 333 municipalities and municipal level districts in
China.The municipal administration is responsible for enforcing county level
governments and institutions to carry out the plan, providing directions and supervisions.

 4. County level: In China, there are 2862 counties, autonomous counties and county level
cities. County looks for implementation and administrative oversight.

 5. Township level: The number of township and autonomous township level areas is
41636. Township adminiters the the tasks assigned by the higher levels and being held
accountable for consequences.

Administrative structure of Bangladesh

There are two tier of administrative system in Bangladesh such as Central administration and
Field administration.

Administrative Structure

Central Administration Field Administration

Division Divisional
Commissioner
Wing
Deputy
Branch Commissioner
UNO
Section

Figure: Administrative structure of Bangladesh

1. Central administration: Central administration consists of-

 Division: A secretary or additional secretary is posted here.
 Wing: A joint secretary is engaged here.
 Branch: A deputy secretary is posted here.
 Section: Assistant or senior assistant secretary is engaged here.
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2. Field Administration: Field administration consists of-

 Office of Divisional Commissioner: This is the highest tier in the field level
administration. The duty post of this office is joint secretary.
 Office of Deputy Commissioner: This is familiarly known as DC office. A deputy
secretary is engaged in this office.
 Upzilla Nirbahi Office: This is the lowest tier of field level administration. A senior
assistant secretary is posted for this office.

Local Government of China and Bangladesh

Local Government system of China
The system of governance in China is a combination of centralism and federalism, with a certain
degree of autonomy granted to local governments, so central leaders are often unaware of what is
really happening at the localities through normal bottom-up channels. Each province, city, town,
prefecture and county in China is overseen by a parallel group of local leaders and Communist
party officials. Village and towns may have elected chiefs and mayors but they generally have
been nominated by the Communist Party and have little power anyway. Running the show are
county governments, under the supervision of Beijing. They levy taxes, enforce one-child family
planning policies and have jurisdictions over police that are authorized to crack down on
religious and political activity.

China Central Government

Provincial Government

Municipal Government

County Government

Township Government

Village Party Government

Figure: Rural Local Government Structure of China.

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The system of rural governance in China is based on two foundations: Village Party association
and the cadre responsibility system. Each village has a communist party branch and an
administrative office, composed of five to ten local cadres. The secretary of the party branch has
much greater control than the head of the administrative office and both represent the state in
executing government policies. All local cadres are from their own village. Though grassroots
election has been widely carried out in China, its effectiveness is still questionable. In short,
village cadres have four areas of responsibility: 1) collecting taxes and levying fees 2)
implementing family planning 3) fulfilling grain procurement quotas; and 4) providing public
goods and services. Although township officials visit villages under their authoritative control
regularly, they do not live in those villages and have only a limited understanding of the village
situation. They are normally briefed by village cadres.

Urban local Governance

Government Autonomous
Organization

Municipal District Street Community Residents‟

Governments Governments office committee

Figure: Urban Local Governance Structure in China.

Local Government system of Bangladesh

Local government is a vital organization for managing local economy and development and
consolidating the democracy at the sub national and Grass root level of any country. It is an
integral part of administrative functioning and service delivery at rural and urban level in
Bangladesh. Historically, local government plays an important role for service delivery to the
citizen door to door. In Bangladesh local government institution divided into two parts urban
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local government body and rural local government body. This structure currently exists in
Bangladesh local government sector.

Local Government

Urban Government Rural Government

Zila Parishad
City
Corporation
Upazila
Pourashava Parishad

Union
Parishad

Figure: Structure of Bangladesh Local Government.

Hill District Local Government Parishad: The three Hill District (Rangamati, Khagrachhari
and Bandarban) Local Government Parishads were created in 1989 by three separate Acts. These
legislations were brought about in order to grant autonomy to the ethnic minorities living in this
region.

Under the Khagrachhari Hill District Local Government Parishad Act, 1989, the Khagrachhari
Hill District Local Government Parishad comprises a chairman, twenty-one tribal members (nine
from the Chakma, six from the Tripuri and six from the Marma) and nine non-tribal members
directly elected by the voters of the concerned hill district.

According to the Rangamati Hill District Local Government Parishad Act, 1989, Rangamati Hill
District Local Government Parishad consists of a chairman, twenty tribal members (ten from the
Chakma, four from the Marma, two from the Tanchainga, one each from the Tripuri, the Lusai,
the Pangkhu and the Khean tribes) and ten non-tribal members directly elected by the voters of
the concerned hill district.
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According to the Bandarban Hill District Local Government Parishad Act, 1989, the Bandarban
Hill District Local Government Parishad consists of a chairman, nineteen tribal members (ten
from the Marma, three from the Murang, one from the Tripuri and the Unchai, one from the
Tanchainga, one from the Bom, the Lusai and the Pangkhu, one from the Chakma, one from the
Khushi and one from the Chak tribes) and eleven non-tribal members directly elected by the
voters of the concerned hill district.

Comparison between China and Bangladesh

As to the cultural setting, rural Bangladesh is largely homogeneous whereas rural China
demonstrates a great degree of heterogeneity in terms of caste, religion and class. Those
differences in cultural settings have a significant impact on the outcome of rural governance.

China has a one party system whereas Bangladesh runs a multi-party politics. Despite the recent
grassroots democracy, the effectiveness of political participation in rural China is still limited. In
many places, village cadres are effectively appointed by township government. Even for those
elected, they tend to have a strong attachment with higher level administration. In rural
Bangladesh, village affairs are dominated by publicly elected leader of Union Parishad.

While in China the village administration is governed by the township, in Banghladesh the
Union Parishad are organized in a stream parallel to Upazila administration

Both countries now run a centralized fiscal system, where scheme-based systems of public
provision are in place. Government accountability has been a huge challenge to both countries
despite their different political natures

Lack of local government accountability is apparent in both China and Bangladesh despite
strikingly different modes of local government administration. In rural China, village cadres tend
to have a strong attachment to township governments. Many of them act as agent of the township
governments implementing policies and mandates. In Bangladesh, publicly elected leader can be
seen as „brokers‟ with a dominant control over their villages and political bargaining power with
higher level administration.
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Administrative Culture of China and Bangladesh

Administrative Culture of China
Administrative culture is a unique culture pattern which integrates the physical facilities and
institutional norms of administrative organizations and the common thoughts, values, thinking
pattern, psychological state, behavior standard and lifestyle of administration. Now, the
administrative culture of China will be discussed in this section of the assignment.

Party-Centric: The administrative culture of China is mainly party-centric.

 The Communist Party of China, commonly known as the Chinese Communist Party, is the
founding and sole governing political party of the People's Republic of China. On the
government side, all officials in the personnel departments are members of the CCP.
These government officials follow rules and regulations that are not subject to control by
the particular bodies of which they are formally a part. This system has been used to
assure higher-level CCP control over the appointments to all key positions in the
government. As a result, all public bureaucrats and government officials are party-centric.
 As all government personnel are also member of the CCP, they are also loyal to the party,
not just the government.
So, it is clear that the administrative culture of China is party-centric.

Power Distance: Power Distance scale is the extent to which the less powerful members of
institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed
unequally. According to Hofstede Insights China has a score of 80 on the Power Distance scale.
This score is significantly high.

Individualism: At a score of 20 China is a highly collectivist culture where people act in the
interests of the group and not necessarily of themselves. In-group considerations affect hiring
and promotions with closer in-groups (such as family) are getting preferential treatment.
Employee commitment to the organization (but not necessarily to the people in the organization)
is low. Whereas relationships with colleagues are cooperative for in-groups they are cold or even
hostile to out-groups. Personal relationships prevail over task and company. (Hofstede Insights,
2017) Reflection of this index can also be found in administrative culture of China.

Masculinity vs. Femininity: A high score on this dimension indicates that the society is
masculine which means it will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success
being defined by the winner / best in field – a value system that starts in school and continues
throughout organizational life. On the other hand, a low score on the dimension indicates the
society is feminine which means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and
quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing
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out from the crowd is not admirable. At 66 China is a Masculine society –success oriented and
driven. The need to ensure success can be exemplified by the fact that many Chinese will
sacrifice family and leisure priorities to work. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) This characteristic is
also available in the government personnel.

Uncertainty Avoidance: Tolerance for uncertain and ambiguous situations may vary from one
society to another. This affects the behavior of individuals in the face of uncertainty and the use
of mechanisms to cope with this. At 30 China has a low score on Uncertainty Avoidance. It
means China has a lower degree of formalization and job definitions in organizations. (Hofstede
Insights, 2017)

Long Term Orientation: This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some
links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies
prioritize these two existential goals differently. China scores 87 in this dimension, which means
that it is a very pragmatic culture. In societies with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that
truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions
easily to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest thriftiness, and perseverance
in achieving results. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) Reflection of this index can also be found in
administrative culture of China.

Administrative Culture of Bangladesh

Administrative culture in Bangladesh may be analyzed along two dimensions. The first
dimension may be classified into traditional values versus modern administrative norms and
practices; and the second dimension classifies the social bases of these administrative norms,
whether these norms are initiated or originated from the central level or from the local
community level.

A cross-classification of the dimensions produces four traditions or approaches to governance

and behavior. These are (1) „samaj‟ (2) the British colonial administration, (3) the administrative
reform measures, and (4) the community change programs. All these traditions have had
significant impact on bureaucratic attitudes, values and behavior in Bangladesh. The four
traditions with their respective norms, goals, and social origins entail distinct patterns of
behavior, emphasizing different roots of attitudes, values, and perceptions. The samaj tradition
reflects the wider societal values in which the bureaucracy operates. It has evolved for centuries,
thus affecting the social, political and economic life in Bangladesh. The British colonial
administrative system was a result of the British conquest of the world. The third pattern is a
product of the administrative reform processes initiated by successive governments in the 1970s
and 1980s. In recent years, the government has been subjected to the influences of international
 P a g e | 19

donor communities to carry out structural adjustment programs with emphasis on economic,
political, and social reforms. Finally, the fourth pattern derives from the community programs
such as the community development movement in the 1950s, the cooperative movement initiated
in the 1960s in the district of Comilla, and by the NGO movement.

Now, the administrative culture of Bangladesh will be discussed in this section of the
assignment.

Power Distance: According to Hofstede Insights Bangladesh has a score of 80 on the Power
Distance scale. This score is significantly high. It means that people accept a hierarchical order
in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an
organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates
expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat. This is also true for the
public organizations and government officials.

Uncertainty Avoidance: Bangladesh scores 60 on this dimension and thus has a high score.
Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and
are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas. In these cultures, there is an emotional need for
rules, even if the rules never seem to work. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) Reflection of this index can
also be found in administrative culture of Bangladesh.

Individualism: Bangladesh, with a score of 20 is considered a collectivistic society. This is

manifest in a close long-term commitment to the member „group‟, be that a family, extended
family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides
most other societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone
takes responsibility for fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to
shame and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a
family link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employee‟s in-group,
management is the management of groups. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) Reflection of this index can
also be found in administrative culture of Bangladesh.

Masculinity vs. Femininity: Bangladesh scores 55 on this dimension and can be considered a
Masculine society. In Masculine countries people “live in order to work”, managers are expected
to be decisive and assertive, the emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and
conflicts are resolved by fighting them out. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) This is also true for the
public organizations and government officials.

Long Term Orientation: This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some
links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies
prioritize these two existential goals differently. Bangladesh has an intermediate score at 47; this
does not indicate a strong preference in either direction. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) This is also
true for the public organizations and government officials.
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Indulgence: Bangladesh has a very low Indulgence score of 20. This makes it a restrained
country. Societies with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and
pessimism. Also, in contrast to Indulgent societies, restrained societies do not put much emphasis
on leisure time and control the gratification of their desires. People with this orientation have the
perception that their actions are restrained by social norms and feel that indulging themselves is
somewhat wrong. (Hofstede Insights, 2017) Reflection of this index can also be found in
administrative culture of Bangladesh.

Comparison between Administrative Cultures of Bangladesh and China

China is a communist country. Bangladesh is a democratic country. So, it natural the
administrative cultures of these two countries are quite different. However, there are also some
similarities. The comparison between administrative cultures of both countries has been
discussed below.

The bureaucracy in Bangladesh is characterized somewhat more by traditional than by modern

norms. It is characterized by a relatively high degree of power distance, low tolerance for
ambiguities, dependence on traditional sources of information, and preference for employees
with traditional qualities. As to external relations, bureaucrats‟ tolerance for politics is somewhat
low, indicating that bureaucrats are more classical than political. In their relationships to citizens,
the overall attitudes of bureaucrats are somewhat more elitist than egalitarian. At the same time,
bureaucrats are open to citizen participation in influencing government policy. In their
relationship to NGOs, bureaucrats have a rather positive experience in dealing with NGOs. At
the same time, they maintain that NGOs should be kept in place and not become too central in
development efforts. This task is mainly the preserve of politicians and bureaucrats.
Administrative cultural norms reflect the cultural background of bureaucrats anchored in
Bangladeshi society. However, the picture has many nuances. Internal relationships within
bureaucracy are characterized primarily by traditional norms. External relationships are also
guided by traditional norms but to a lesser extent than internal relationships. Although
bureaucrats have a somewhat limited tolerance for politics and little confidence in citizens‟
initiatives, they are quite positive towards NGOs.

On the other hand, bureaucracy of China is dominated by its founding and sole governing
political party known as Chinese Communist Party or The Communist Party of China. All
bureaucrats of China are members of this party. The leaders of this party are also the leaders of
China. As a result, all government officials, bureaucrats are loyal to the party. They emphasize
the rules, regulation of the party more than the rules, regulation of the government.
 P a g e | 21

If we compare the Hofstede dimensions of both countries, we can find some similarities and
differences in term of administrative culture.

When it comes to power distance and individualism both countries scored the same. China and
Bangladesh have obtained a high score of 80, which means an acceptance of unequal relationship
between boss and subordinates, a greater degree of hierarchism, and a top-down decision
making. China and Bangladesh have scored 20, which is a low score, in individualism index. It
means both countries bear the collectivist society tag. In indulgence index, both countries obtain
low score. This means China and Bangladesh both are characterized by restraint society. In
uncertainty avoidance index, Bangladesh has scored higher than China by a long margin. So,
Bangladesh has a high degree of uncertainty avoidance with emphasis on rules and regulations,
low flexibility, and little room for innovations. On the other hand, low score of China represents
risk taking nature of China. Because of being a progressive economic country, China takes
rational risks in decision making. In long term orientation index, it is China who has obtained a
high score than Bangladesh by a long margin. The result of this index makes China a pragmatic
society. But Bangladesh has an intermediate score at 47, which means Bangladesh is neither a
pragmatic, nor a normative society.

So, there both similarities and differences between the administrative culture of Bangladesh and
China.
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Political system of China and Bangladesh

Political System of China
Political system of China refers to the political structure, fundamental laws, rules, regulations
and practices that are implemented in China's mainland and regulate the state power,
government, and the relationships between the state and society in the People's Republic of
China since its founding in October 1949.

Major stipulations in the Constitution in regard to China’s political system

 The Communist Party of China is the country‟s sole political party in power.
 The socialist system
 All rights belong to the people
 The fundamental task and goals of the state
 The armed forces of the People‟s Republic of China belong to the people.
 To govern the country through the rule of law
 The system of ethnic regional autonomy

Political Party

China has a unique multi-party cooperation system. The country is led by the Communist Party
of China, which cooperates with eight other parties to discuss and manage state affairs. The
Chinese system differs both from the pluralist party systems common in the West, and one-party
systems in use elsewhere. In short, it‟s a political system with Chinese characteristics.

Figure - The Eight Political Parties of China

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The Party in Power

The Communist Party is the sole party in power in China. Founded in 1921, the Communist
Party of China (CPC) established the People‟s Republic of China in 1949 through years of armed
struggle. The CPC now has more than 89 million members in more than 4 million grassroots
organizations.

The CPC has established formal (through elections within the Party) and informal (appointed by
the organization of the higher level) organizations within the Chinese government and various
levels and walks of life in the country.

The System of Multi-Party Cooperation and Political Consultation

The system means that the CPC is the only party in power in the People's Republic of China
while under the precondition of accepting the leadership of the CPC; the eight other political
parties participate in the discussion and management of state affairs, in cooperation with the
CPC. In this system, the CPC consults the other eight political parties on major principles,
policies and issues, and they supervise each other. Also, the members of the eight parties hold
posts in central and local governments, as well as judicial organs. Governments at various levels
cooperate with the eight parties, allowing them to participate in and deliberate on administrative
affairs. The eight parties participate in consultation on major state issues through the Chinese
People‟s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC), a political advisory body under the
leadership of the CPC.

Collective Leadership

China has had no supreme leader since the death of Deng Xiaoping in 1997. The seven men who
sit on the country's most senior decision-making body, the Communist Party's Politburo Standing
Committee (PSC), form a collective leadership in which each man has a rank, from one to seven,
and shoulders primary responsibility for a specific portfolio. Party General Secretary Xi Jinping
is ranked first among the seven and has responsibility for convening PSC and larger Politburo
meetings. He also controls some of the most consequential portfolios, including military and
foreign affairs. Unlike his predecessor, who had to wait two years after becoming head of Party
to be named head of the military, Xi was awarded the top military post immediately upon taking
over leadership of the Party, a development that has enhanced his authority. Like all his
colleagues, however, Xi must still win consensus from the rest of the group for major decisions.
 P a g e | 24

Political System of Bangladesh

Political system of Bangladesh refers to the political structure, fundamental laws, rules,
regulations and practices that are implemented in the country and regulate the state power,
government, and the relationships between the state and society in the People's Republic of
Bangladesh since its independence in 1971.

Major Stipulations in the Constitution in regard to Bangladesh’s political system

 The democratic system

 Parliamentary system
 All rights belong to the people
 The fundamental task and goals of the state
 To govern the country through the rule of law
 Equality of opportunity in public employment

Political Party

Bangladesh has myriad of political parties. Two of those are considered as the major political
parties of the country. The center-left Awami League (AL) and center-right Bangladesh
Nationalist Party (BNP) are these major political parties who have dominated Bangladesh
politics for a long time. Currently both are heading coalitions of like-minded parties with the AL
leading the secular and liberal elements while BNP is rallying the right-of-centre parties. In the
current parliament, Awami League holds the majority of seats, though other parties hold seats
too.

Comparison between Political Systems of Bangladesh and China

China is the world‟s third largest country. It is the world's most populous country. Where
Bangladesh ranked high in the population density index, territorial area of Bangladesh is
infinitesimal compared to China. Also, the culture, language, religion etc. are quite different for
both countries. As a result, the political landscape of both countries also different. China is
basically a one-party country. But Bangladesh has a fading two-party system, which means that
there are two dominant political parties, with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral
success under the banner of another party. As a result, the People's Congress of China is always
dominated by the same one party, the Chinese Communist Party. That is not the case in
Bangladesh.
 P a g e | 25

Even though officially both countries are republic and practice democracy, China in mainly a
communist country. But Bangladesh is a democratic country.

All the government personnel of China are appointed from the members of the Chinese
Communist Party. But in Bangladesh, any citizen of Bangladesh has the equality of opportunity
in public employment.

The President of China is the official head of the country. However, the President of Bangladesh
is only the ceremonial head of the country. The Prime Minister of Bangladesh as the chief
executive officer of the country performs the duties of the head of the state. In China, the head of
the state is elected indirectly. In Bangladesh, the Prime Minister first has to be elected directly as
a member of parliament, then indirectly by being appointed by the President of Bangladesh.

Collective leadership is major part of political system of China. In case of Bangladesh, there is
no collective leadership.

As china is a gigantic state in terms of area, it has a complex local government system with
provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities. The country even has special administrative
regions. Compared to China, the local government structure of Bangladesh is simple. Also,
Bangladesh does not have any autonomous regions or special administrative provinces.

In China, under unified national leadership, self-government is exercised in areas heavily resided
with ethnic minorities. In Bangladesh, constitution of Bangladesh has article to protect and
develop the unique local culture and tradition of the tribes, minor races, ethnic sects and
communities. (Article 23A of Constitution of Bangladesh) However, there is no provision for
self-governance for the ethnic minorities.

Election system of China and Bangladesh

Election System of China
The election system of the People‟s Republic of China refers to the way citizens choose the
deputies to the people‟s congresses at various levels. The election of deputies to the people‟s
congresses includes general local election and the election of deputies from the armed forces, in
the special administrative regions and among Taiwan compatriots. The general election is
applicable to the choice of local deputies and deputies in ethnic self-government areas.

Chinese voters can elect deputies to the primary people‟s congresses, and the people‟s
congresses can elect their heads at the same level and deputies to people‟s congresses at the next
higher level, while the President of the State is elected by the NPC.
 P a g e | 26

Qualifications to participate in the Election: Any citizen of China who has reached the age of
18 shall have the right to vote and the right to stand for election, regardless of their identities,
unless he/she has been sentenced to the deprivation of political rights by the court.

Election expenditure: Expenses for the election of the NPC and local people‟s congresses at
various levels are to be provided from the national treasury.

Election Process of Central Government Leaders

Nomination: According to the article 13 of the NPC Organization Law, candidates for the
chairman, vice-chairmen, secretary-general, and members of the Standing Committee of the
NPC, candidates for the President and Vice-president of the State, candidates for the chairman of
the Central Military Commission, and candidates for the president of the Supreme People‟s
Court and the chief procurator of the Supreme People‟s Procuratorate shall be nominated by the
presidium of the NPC. After the proposed list is deliberated by the delegations, the presidium
will determine the official candidates' list based on the opinions of the majority of deputies.
(National People‟s Congress, 1982) The candidate for the Premier of the State Council shall be
nominated by the President of the State; the candidate for the heads of the internal departments
of the State Council shall be nominated by the Premier. (Article 62 of the Constitution of China)

Getting elected: Where a session of the NPC elects or decides on the appointment of leaders,
secret ballots shall be adopted, and the candidate who has obtained more than half of the votes
and obtained the most votes shall be elected. (Article 36 of the Rules of Procedure of the NPC)

Election System of Bangladesh

The Parliament of Bangladesh (Jatiya Sangsad) consists of 350 members. 300 members are
elected by plurality vote in single-member constituencies to serve 5-year terms. The remaining
50 seats are reserved for female candidates, who are technically supposed to be elected by the
new representatives on the basis of proportional representation through single transferable vote.
In practice, however, the reserved seat members are selected by party leaders and allocated in
proportion to the number of single-member constituency seats won by each party.

Qualifications to be a Voter

A person shall be entitled to be enrolled as elector or voter on the electoral roll for a constituency
delimited the purpose of election to Parliament, if he/she –

 is a citizen of Bangladesh
 is not less than eighteen years of age
 P a g e | 27

 does not stand declared by a competent court to be of unsound mind

 is or is deemed by law to be a resident of that constituency.

Qualifications and Disqualifications for Election to Members of Parliament

A person is qualified to be elected as a Member of Parliament if he is a citizen of Bangladesh

and has attained the age of twenty-five years.

A person is disqualified for election as, or for being, a Member of Parliament who-

a) declared by a competent court to be of unsound mind

b) is an un discharged insolvent
c) acquires the citizenship of, or affirms or acknowledges allegiance to, a foreign state;
d) has been, on conviction for a criminal offence involving moral turpitude, sentenced to
imprisonment for a term of not less than two years, unless a period of five years has
elapsed since his release;
e) holds any office of profit in the service of the Republic other than an office which is
declared by law not to disqualify its holders; or
f) is disqualified for such election by or under any law.

General Elections

The general election of members of Parliament is held within ninety days after Parliament is
dissolved, whether by reason of the expiration of its term or otherwise than by reason of such
expiration Article 123 (3) of the Constitution of Bangladesh.

Comparison between Election Systems of Bangladesh and China

There are many differences and similarities between the election systems of Bangladesh and
China. They are discussed below.

 The Presidential Election process of both countries is indirect.

 When it comes to the election process of head of the state, it is somewhat different. The
head of the state of China is the President, who is elected indirectly. But the head of state
of Bangladesh is Prime Minister. Though the Prime minister is also elected indirectly by
being appointed by the President, he or she must first be elected directly as a member of
parliament.
 P a g e | 28

 Voters of Bangladesh elect all the legislators and the members of parliament, except the
reserved 50 women MP, directly through general election. Voters also elect their
representatives for the various level of local government. That is not the case in China.
Higher levels representatives of people, leaders of the country are not elected directly in
China.
 To be a voter the minimum age is 18 in both countries.
 The minimum age to be nominated in the election is not same. Also, the nomination
process is different.
 All governmental elections of Bangladesh are held by the Election Commission. But in
China, different organizations are in charge for conducting different types governmental
election.
 In Bangladesh, there are two major political parties and several other political parties.
Many of these smaller parties create coalition among themselves or with a major party to
participate in the election. But that is not the case in China as the country has only major
political party.

Economic system of China and Bangladesh

Economic culture of China

China is an emerging economy that offers lot of market opportunities for foreign investment.
Although the country has a huge potential for economic growth offering access to a large market
and considerable savings in labor costs, caution must be used due to differences in the political
and cultural environment that create risk and pose uncertainty for foreign investors.

 Rapid industrial development

 Huge foreign direct investment
 Agricultural sector

Economic Factors

 Foreign Direct Investment: China has remained a primary recipient of the world‟s
destination of FDI in recent years. FDI accounts for 27% of the value added production,
4.1% of national tax revenue, and 58% of foreign trade.

 Foreign Exchange Reserve: In September 2020, the reserves totaled $1.9 trillion. It
remained at this level until the end of 2020 when trade growth slowed and FDI inflows
declined.
 P a g e | 29

 Inflation Rates: In April 2020, prices dropped 1.5% from last year, after steady falling at
the beginning of 2020. Falling prices lower the costs on goods and encourage consumers
to spend. This helps the Chinese economy recover its diminishing exports.

 Trade: The main industrial exports for China are manufactured goods, textiles, garments,
and electronics.

 Infrastructure: The liberal economic policies in the 1980s have strengthened China‟s
economy. Since the 1980s China has undertaken a major highway construction program
and is working in building a world class infrastructure.

 Currency & Exchange Rate: China has been manipulating the holdings of its currency at
an artificially low level. The currency appreciated 25% against the dollar through July
2020 and then went flat as Chinese authorities were concerned about slipping exports.

Factors Explaining the Rapid Economic Growth of China in Recent Decades

China‟s rapid path to economic development is well documented and even though growth rates
appear to be slowing, there is no doubt as to the pivotal role China‟s economy is playing in the
global economy.

 China initially pursued an export-oriented path to industrialization similar to the Asian

Tigers before them but has begun to diversify into other sectors of the economy in the last
ten years. It has done this with an unwavering determination to accelerate growth rates and
expand its economic reach. As geographers, we need to understand the factors responsible
for China‟s economic success.

 Strong leadership: Chinese politicians are said to feel a greater responsibility to the
nation than to them. Strong leadership from the head of state has been a major factor
contributing to economic success.

 Free market economics: China first began moving away from a centrally planned
economy towards a market-oriented system in 1978. Deng Xiaoping was Mao‟s successor
and he sought to bring an end to China‟s relative economic isolation.

 Private enterprise: For many years all manufacturing in China was state owned and
operated. This has gradually been relaxed as the economy has been restructured and now
up to 50% of businesses are privately owned.

 Female participation in the workforce: China‟s workforce is characterized by a higher

than average female participation in manufacturing industry. Western cultural analyses of
gender divisions in the workforce have little relevance in Chinese economic growth.
 P a g e | 30

 Raw materials: China has a great wealth of natural resources, having vast reserves of
coal, oil and natural gas. These are being used to fuel the industrial development of the
country.

Economic Culture of Bangladesh

Bangladesh‟s heavy dependence on agriculture has long contributed to seasonal unemployment
among rural farmworkers, as well as to a generally low standard of living in many areas. To
counteract this imbalance, a policy of industrialization was adopted in the mid-20th century.
During the period of Pakistani administration (1947–71), priority was given to industries based
on indigenous raw materials such as jute, cotton, hides, and skins. The principle of free
enterprise in the private sector was accepted, subject to certain conditions, including the national
ownership of public utilities. The industrial policy also aimed to develop the production of
consumer goods as quickly as possible in order to avoid dependence on imports. Major economic
sectors of Bangladesh are-

 Agriculture and fishing

 Resources and power

 Manufacturing

 Finance

 Trade

 Transportation

Factors influencing economic growth rate of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is among the three fastest growing economies in the world, according to the
International Monetary Fund (IMF). It also ranked Bangladesh is the 39th largest in the world in
nominal terms, and 29th largest by purchasing power parity with a GDP of US$ 314.656 billion.
Bangladesh‟s GDP per capita reached 1827.000 USD in June 2019, compared with 1675.000
USD in June 2018.

 Domestic and National Savings: In fiscal year 1993-94, the domestic and national
savings as percentage of GDP were 13.1 and 18.79 percent respectively and gradually
increased to 20.16 and 26.49 percent respectively in fiscal year 2004-05 and goes up to
28.8 in 2010

 Corruption and Political Instability: Corruption, especially of large business owners

and the government, is hampering the nation‟s efforts both at economic growth and at
 P a g e | 31

functional democracy. Corruption exists in high magnitude in various sectors like - Food
for Education Program, Education sector, Health sector etc. Lack of accountability,
discretionary power, lack of transparency, monopoly power, influence of powerful people
and the menace of red tape etc. are the principal causes of corruption.

 Unemployment: The impact of unemployment on growth structure is alarming. The

unemployment situation in Bangladesh is in deplorable state. 38 per cent of the 68.3
million strong labor forces in the country are either unemployed or underemployed.

Comparison between Economic Systems of China and Bangladesh

Indicators China Bangladesh Data Source

Nature of Economy Market oriented Mixed and Free

mixed economy Market economy
GDP 14.72 Trillion 329 Billion International Monetary
(2020) (2020) Fund (IMF)
nd th
GDP (World Ranking) 2 37 IMF

Per Capita Income 11819-USD 2122-USD (2020) IMF

(2020)
th th
Per Capita income (world 56 149 IMF
ranking)
GDP Growth Rate 2.3% (2020) 2.4% (2020) World Bank

Possible GDP Growth Rate 8.5% (2021) 6.8% (2021) World Bank

HDI point .761 (High) .632 (Medium) HDI report-2020

th th
HDI Rank 85 149 HDI report-2020

Inflation Rate 2.9% (2020) 5.5% (2020) IMF

Table: Comparison of Economic Systems.

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Belt and Road Initiative & Bangladesh

The "Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)" formally known as "One Belt One Road (OBOR)" or "New
Silk Road" is a global infrastructure development strategy adopt by the Chinese Government in
2013 to invest in nearly 70 countries and international organization. The Belt and Road Initiative
is the driving force for „holistic development‟ in terms of economic, social and political
development to improve the quality of life and well-being of the peoples of China and Eurasian
countries.

Aims of BRI: According to official outline, BRI aims to promote the connectivity of Asia,
European and African continents and their adjacent seas, establish and strengthen partnership
among the countries.

There have two initiatives:

 The Silk Road Economic Belt, comprising six development corridors

 The 21st Century Maritime Silk Road

The initiative‟s objective is to build connectivity and cooperation across six main economic
corridors. These are:

1. New Eurasian Land Bridge, running from Western China to Western Russia.

2. China-Mongolia-Russia Corridor, running from Northern China to Eastern Russia.

3. China-Central Asia-West Asia Corridor, running from Western China to Turkey.

4. China-Indo-china Peninsula Corridor, running from Southern China to Singapore.

5. China-Myanmar-Bangladesh-India Corridor, running from Southern China to Myanmar.

6. China-Pakistan Corridor, running from South-Western China to Pakistan.

Involvement of Bangladesh

Bangladesh officially became a part of BRI in 2016 after a visit by Chinese president Xi Jinping.
Now the present time, more than 120 countries have signed and joined BRI. Bangladesh is also a
signatory country of BRI and also is an important strategic member. However, it is reported that
all these deals are still in paper only due to bureaucratic complexities. Bangladesh is part of the
 P a g e | 33

proposed Bangladesh-China-India- Myanmar corridor (BCIM) which is one of the six corridors
of BRI. It covers 1.65 million square kilometers and includes about 440 million people.

Bangladesh is important for the BRI initiative for several reasons

The huge population of Bangladesh and their rising disposable income is one of the most
important aspects. Geopolitically, Bangladesh is at an attracting advantage. Bangladesh‟s
availability of cheap labor, physical and political proximity to India, and most importantly the
proximity to the Bay of Bengal is greatly important for China‟s geo-political and geo -economic
interests. Around 80% of China‟s energy imports pass through the Malacca straits via Indian
Ocean. To assert more control over Indian Ocean and Malacca straits China fervently needs the
cooperation of Bangladesh. Considering all of these, Bangladesh could emerge as a key player in
the BRI initiative. Moreover, China is shifting towards high-tech, high-margin and high-end
industries, such as IT, Aerospace, and Telecommunication. Existing Chinese companies that deal
in low-tech labor intensive industries are trying to relocate their manufacturing plants to places
that offer cheap labor and quality work. Bangladesh whose key demographic is between ages 15
and 30 could very well become the prime destination for these industries.

Benefits of Bangladesh

Energy Cooperation: Enhancing energy cooperation between the partner countries is a crucial
pillar of the BRI. So far, Bangladesh has been able to secure a small portion of Chinese
investment in the energy sector. But the scale of investments is expected to increase in upcoming
years. Chinese companies are especially interested in investing in Bangladesh‟s electricity sector.
China has already committed US$1.9 billion on coal plant expansion and another US$5.1 billion
in developing a 14 GW coal fired capacity. Recently, GCM resources and Power China signed a
US$4 billion deal to build a 2000 MW coal-fired power plant in Dinajpur using ultra-
supercritical technology. Furthermore, China-led Asian Infrastructure and Investment Bank
(AIIB) have granted Bangladesh US$120 million to upgrade and expand the power transmission
system in the Chittagong region.

China has also shown interest in Bangladesh‟s nuclear energy sector. Bangladesh‟s government
is planning to build a second nuclear plant in the country after the completion of the Rooppur
nuclear plant. Two Chinese companies Dongfang Electric Corporation and China State
Construction Engineering Corporation have reportedly lobbied to win the deal to construct the
proposed power plant.
 P a g e | 34

Development of Deep Seaports: Port building is a significant aspect of the BRI. China has
already financed the construction of several ports across Asia and Africa. The rapid growth in
international trade requires the construction of a deep seaport in a suitable location at the Bay of
Bengal. Bangladesh and China have agreed to increase the capacity of the Mongla port. Besides,
Chinese companies are building 2 out of the total 19 components of the Pyra deep seaport, which
is expected to be operationalized by 2023. The port would be connected to the national
transportation network upon the completion of the Padma Bridge project.

The project could help Bangladesh to become an important trade hub in the South Asian region.
Bangladesh could use its spare capacity to provide port facilities to Nepal and Bhutan, as both
landlocked countries are heavily dependent on the Kolkata port for International trade.

Improvement of trade facilitation: the initiative would integrate Bangladesh within the „Global
supply chain‟. The inter-regional connectivity initiative proposed under the BRI would provide
increasing trade opportunities with China and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.

High promises for economic development: China is rapidly transforming from a production-
driven economy to a consumption-driven one. This transformation would allow Bangladesh to
attract investment into its nascent manufacturing sector. The initiative could potentially facilitate
the relocation of China-based manufacturing industries to Bangladesh due to its low cost of
labour.

Faster connectivity with different areas: BRI-related investments could accelerate

infrastructure development in Bangladesh. Roads and railways proposed to be built under
Chinese economic assistance would enhance connectivity within the country. Besides, Chinese
investment in the energy sector is vital to fulfilling Bangladesh‟s growing energy demands.
Chinese investment initiatives would help Bangladesh to attain the economic goals pursued
under the „Vision 2021‟ framework.

Recent developments: Bangladesh has taken a number of steps to materialize the ideas
embedded in the BRI. During the Chinese President‟s visit to Bangladesh in October 2016, an
understanding was reached regarding implementation of various government-to-governments
(G2G) and business-to-business (B2B) projects. In particular, China pledged to invest an amount
totaling US$40 billion in Bangladesh of this, US$26 billion was in the form of bilateral
assistance for infrastructure projects and US$14 billion in joint ventures. In addition, China also
committed US$20 billion in loan agreements. In 2016, Bangladesh and China signed eight
projects costing more than US$9.45 billion, which were all financed by China. They include:
Padma Bridge rail link worth US$3.3 billion; the power plant in Payra worth US$1.9 billion;
digital connectivity worth US$1 billion and power grid network strengthening project worth
US$1.32 billion. Major activities under the BRI in Bangladesh have been the upgradation of
transport infrastructure and the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Between 2009
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and 2019, China invested in upgradation of the 48 km Dhaka Bypass Road to a dual carriageway,
and in a toll road project, which is the first of its kind in Bangladesh.

Bangladesh’s ties with China

In the last decade or so, Bangladesh's integration with the Chinese economy has been gradually
increasing through trade, investment and cultural exchanges. The BRI is expected to strengthen
the ties further.

Investment and financial integration: Due to the rapid pace of growth of the Bangladeshi
economy, the infrastructure investment need as a percentage of gross domestic products (GDP) is
expected to fall in the coming years. However, the difference between the infrastructure
investment need and the current trends of infrastructure investment in Bangladesh is predicted to
be more than 1 percent of GDP. Sectoral decomposition of infrastructure investment needs
shows that the greatest need for investment in Bangladesh is in the energy and transport sectors.
Predictions show that in 2040, infrastructure investment needs of the energy and transport sectors
will be around 1.5 percent and 1 percent of GDP, respectively. The largest proportion of BRI
projects in Bangladesh are in the energy and transport sectors. Thus, the BRI has the potential to
fill in the infrastructure gaps in Bangladesh. In Fiscal Year 2019, Bangladesh witnessed a record
high net foreign direct investment (FDI) inflow of US$3.2 billion between the months of July
and March. This surge in FDI was largely driven by Chinese investment. During the period
January-March 2019, Chinese net FDI inflows amounted to US$397 million, which was 38.34
percent of total net FDI inflows into Bangladesh during the period. In April 2018, AliPay, a
subsidiary of China's e-commerce and tech giant Alibaba Group, bought 20 percent stakes in
Bkash, Bangladesh‟s largest mobile financial service provider.

Trade: Historically, China has never been a major market for Bangladeshi exports. However,
since the third quarter of 2010, China has become the biggest import partner for Bangladesh,
overtaking the place previously held by India. In 2018, China was the largest trading partner of
Bangladesh with a share of 19 percent of total trade. This was almost double the share of trade
with India.

Cultural exchange: One of the five components of the BRI is cultural exchange. Through
means of knowledge sharing, research collaboration and strengthening of people-to-people
bonds, China is expanding cultural exchanges between the countries using the BRI. Since the
declaration of the BRI in 2013, there has been a steady increase in the number of Chinese
government scholarships offered to foreign students. Since the inception of the BRI, the number
of Bangladeshi students pursuing higher education in Chinese universities has grown rapidly
over the years. For example, an additional 4,905 Bangladeshi students went to study in China in
 P a g e | 36

2016, compared to 2015. Furthermore, the numbers of Confucius institutes and Confucius
classrooms have proliferated, not only in Bangladesh, but all over the world. Since the start of
the BRI, the number of Confucius institutes all over the world has increased from 440 in 2013 to
548 in 2018. This increase in the demand for learning Chinese language has been driven not only
through cultural exchange, but also through other components of the BRI, such as trade and
investment.

Challenges of Bangladesh

Debt issue: Sustainable financing of the BRI projects in the participating countries is an
important issue. Chinese government has provided debt relief to countries which have been
suffering from debt distress, on a case-by-case manner. Major official creditors actively
participate in multilateral mechanisms dealing with sovereign defaults, in particular the Paris
Club.

The external debt of Bangladesh fell from 20% of GDP in 2007 to 15% of GDP in 2015, but rose
again to 17% of GDP in 2018. The absolute amount of outstanding external debt has also
increased from $19354.81mn in 2007 to $33,511.83mn in 2018. Despite the recent trend of
increasing external debt, Bangladesh‟s good debt servicing record has ensured that external debt
has not piled up. The total debt service as a percentage of total exports decreased from 8.6% in
2013 to 3.9% in 2018.

Environmental concerns: While the BRI has the potential to bring in positive economic
development, it may cause irreversible damage to the environment as the infrastructure may
threaten the eco-systems and the livelihoods of the people who depend on environmental
resources surrounding them. However, China‟s own national sustainability commitments could
be used across the whole of BRI.

A positive sign is that 58.3% of BRI transport sector construction contracts are in railways,
which are relatively environment-friendly, compared to other modes of transportation. However,
38.05% of BRI construction contracts in the energy sector are in coal, which is highly damaging
to the environment. Around 56% of China‟s total investment in Bangladesh is in the energy
sector, and more precisely in coal. Such large investment in coal-based energy sector projects
may have adverse impacts on the environment. BRI is partly responsible for the soaring
investment in renewable energy worldwide. So China could have made more BRI investment in
renewable energy in Bangladesh.
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Transparency: Lack of open, transparent, and competitive procurement processes can lead to
poor performance of projects in terms of missing timeline, cost overrun, and low quality
services. The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) score of Transparency International indicates
that the perceived corruption in the Belt and Road corridor economies is higher than the global
average and higher among lower middle and low income countries. Increased transparency in
procurement process and other compliance can benefit BRI projects in terms of co-financing by
other financial sources including the multilateral development agencies.

The India Factor: As India views the BRI initiative as a direct threat to its regional and global
interests, New Delhi has sought to counter Chinese influence in South Asia and the IOR at two
levels: at the regional level, New Delhi has offered regional integration schemes such as the
Bangladesh–Bhutan–India–Nepal (BBIN) initiative to counter the BRI, while internationally, it
has taken measures to build closer strategic ties with another Asian giant, Japan. The Indo–
Japanese Asia–Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) has been portrayed as an alternative initiative
with a similar scope to that of the BRI.

In the regional setting, Bangladesh holds a key position in New Delhi‟s balancing effort. So far,
Dhaka has defended its position on the BRI despite Indian concerns. Bangladesh has insisted that
the idea of sovereignty needs to be re-conceptualized and has emphasized the necessity of
„economic integration and connectivity‟. Nonetheless, India holds a significant influence in
South Asia, and New Delhi has the capability to delay and disrupt the progress of the BRI in its
neighborhood. The Awami League government, which has historically maintained a pro-Indian
orientation, has shown sensitivity to Indian security interests by declining Chinese proposed
projects with significant strategic implications. In 2016, Dhaka cancelled the Chinese-funded
Sonadia deep seaport in favor of a similar Japanese-funded port project in Matarbari to allay
Indian concerns regarding a potential Chinese naval base in Bangladesh. Perhaps, the
Bangladeshi leadership understands New Delhi‟s clout in regional affairs in South Asia and the
necessity to maintain a cordial partnership with India. Thus, Dhaka has opted for a balanced
approach to gain India‟s tacit approvals for the BRI-related projects in Bangladesh. The strategy
of balancing seems to be working so far, as Bangladesh‟s economic and strategic ties with India
are growing stronger despite heavy Chinese involvement in the economy.

Current issues of China and Bangladesh

Current issues of China:
Covid-19: On 31 December 2019, WHO was informed of cases of pneumonia of unknown cause
in Wuhan City, China. A novel coronavirus was identified as the cause by Chinese authorities on
7 January 2020 and was temporarily named “2019-nCoV”.
 P a g e | 38

How China is responding to the novel coronavirus outbreak: China took immediate measures
to contain the spread of the virus and provide diagnosis and treatment in-time to reduce the
impact. On 23 January, the Chinese Civil Aviation Administration guided foreign airlines to
reduce their scheduled flights to Wuhan, when necessary, to prevent and control the spread of
pneumonia caused by coronavirus.

The government took a number of measures to contain the outbreak, as listed below:

1. Pooling trained medical personnel from across the country.

2. Ensuring supplies to the most vulnerable and affected areas.

3. Construction of new temporary coronavirus hospitals on a war-footing.

4. Extending holidays for schools and businesses as well as the Chinese Lunar New Year
holiday.

5. Cancellation/postponement of events.

6. Preventive measures at Chinese airports.

7. Building hospitals for coronavirus care and treatment.

8. Faster diagnosis and vaccine/drug development efforts.

9. Ban on sale of fever and cough medications.

Current issues of Bangladesh:

How Bangladesh is responding to the novel coronavirus outbreak: Bangladesh is a South
East Asian natural beautiful middle income country. Its economy is flourishing rapidly. In the
last decade immense development has been noticed in every sphere of life including women
empowerment. However, incidence of COVID-19 Pandemic has influenced every sector of
Bangladesh badly.

Bangladesh is also declared the COVID-19 infection reported from Directorate General of
Health Service on daily basis with 48 confirmed case and 5 death having community
transmission (dated 28th March, 2020).

Measures taken by the country: Following the guidelines of WHO, Bangladesh adopted a
holistic approach in formulating and implementing its own policy measures combining policy
tools, such as regulation, economic, informational, educational, voluntary, and technological
 P a g e | 39

instruments to keep the pandemic at control. The government declared lockdown throughout the
country starting from March 18, 2020.

Comparison between China and Bangladesh

Death of Covid-19: As of January 30, 2022, 4636 deaths had been attributed to the pandemic in
China. As of January 30, 2022, 28363 deaths had been attributed to the pandemic in Bangladesh.

Vaccination of Covid-19: 100% of Population in China were vaccinated for covid-19. 36.3%
(N=59.71 Million) of Population in Bangladesh were vaccinated for covid-19 and 58.0%
(N=95.44 Million) of the population received the first dose on January 30, 2022.

Conclusion

China is an emerging economy that offers lot of market opportunities for foreign investment.
China has a growing market infused with rapid industrial development and economic growth.
China needs to combine the free market economy with the macro-control of government. So that
it can establish a mixed market economy system. There are many supporting institutions that are
equally important for successful and sustained growth. On the other hand, Bangladesh is
developing step by step and we hope that within the 21st century the country will reach in peak
of the development. The migrated labors are sending remittance from abroad but all of them are
not using the economic development. Production of electricity and gas supplies in industries
construction of roads, bridges and development of ports, and political stability are necessary for
the economic development.

Bangladesh and China enjoy excellent cordial relations. Bilateral cooperation between the two
countries is rooted deep in history, culture and religious bonds. The bilateral relations between
the two countries also enhance in the sector of economic. The ties are time-tested and are
characterized by the common desire to bring the people of the two countries closer through
interactions in economic, cultural and other areas. The fraternal relations have been co-cemented
by exchange of high level visits by the political and business leaders of the two countries.
 P a g e | 40

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