Nordic Pulp & Paper Research Journal 2018; 33(3): 496–502
Paper technology
Mika Vähä-Nissi*, Timo Lappalainen and Kristian Salminen
The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose
sheets prepared with
polyamideamine-epichlorohydrin (PAE) resin
https://doi.org/10.1515/npprj-2018-3056
Received April 19, 2018; accepted June 27, 2018
Abstract: Some paper and paperboard grades require
strength also when rewetted. The purpose of this study
was to investigate the impact of web forming method, dif-
ferent foaming agents, polyamideamine-epichlorohydrin
(PAE) wet strength resin, and retention aids on the
strength development of hand sheets. Only a slight, if any,
improvement in dry tensile strength due to PAE resin was
observed. PAE improved the wet strength of the water-laid
sheets, and the retention systems had a minor but positive
impact. Although wet strength was lower at given PAE ad-
dition levels, the trend was similar with the sheets foam-
laid with an anionic foaming agent, except at high PAE
levels. With the non-ionic surfactant the maximum level
of wet strength was reached already at a low PAE addi-
tion level and use of retention aids decreased wet strength.
Such differences between the water- and foam-laid sheets
are most likely due to the chemical interactions between
PAE, foaming agents, and other additives.
Keywords: foam forming; foam-laid forming; PAE; tensile
strength; wet strength.
Introduction
Papers and paperboards requiring wet strength include,
for example, papers for sacks and bags, wallpapers, label,
tissue, filter and laminating papers, and liners and paper-
boards for special packaging applications (Dunlop-Jones
1996; Crisp and Riehle 2009). Breaking of such substrates
when rewetted in the course of converting or intended use
has to be prevented.
*Corresponding author: Mika Vähä-Nissi, VTT Technical Research
Centre of Finland Ltd, Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland,
e-mail: mika.vaha-nissi@vtt.fi
Timo Lappalainen, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Box
1603, FI-40101 Jyväskylä, Finland, e-mail: timo.lappalainen@vtt.fi
Kristian Salminen, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, Box
1300, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland, e-mail: kristian.salminen@vtt.fi
Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries
Wet strength paper retains at least 10 % of its origi-
nal dry tensile strength after being fully soaked in water
(Crisp and Riehle 2009). The relative wet strength can ex-
ceed 35 % without significantly reducing the absorbency
of the paper. Some of the dry strength is typically retained
with the help of wet-strength resins such as polyamide-
epichlorohydrin (PAE) added to the neutral and alkaline
papermaking stock.
The wet strength development of cellulose sheets pre-
pared with PAE has been extensively studied as such
(Crisp and Riehle 2009; Espy 1995; Fisher 1996; Obokata
and Isogai 2007; Obokata and Isogai 2009; Wågberg and
Björklund 1993). Improved wet strength is due to self-
crosslinking within the resin and physical resin/fiber in-
teractions around the contact points of fibers and forma-
tion of covalent ester bonds between the resin and the car-
boxyl groups on the fiber surfaces. The latter mechanism
is more effective and better understood (Crisp and Riehle
2009). The wet strength development depends on pH, the
local concentration of resin and temperature. The optimal
wet strength level is reached only after storage for some
weeks.
The cationic groups of PAE make it naturally sub-
stantive to the anionic adsorption sites on cellulose fibres
through electrostatic interactions (Crisp and Riehle 2009;
Obokata and Isogai 2007; Wågberg and Björklund 1993).
The effective surface charge area on the fibre is reduced by
PAE adsorption to a saturation point where the fibre can-
not retain any additional resin. However, anionic polyacry-
lamides (A-PAM) can be added to further increase anionic
sites on the fibres and thus the retention of PAE. The an-
ionic polymer interacts with the resin already retained on
the fibre and forms polyelectrolyte complexes (Crisp and
Riehle 2009). Similarly, complexes of A-PAM and C-PAM
(cationic polyacrylamide) are stated to improve retention
without impairing formation (Bessonoff et al. 2006). Also,
refining of fibres increases the surface area and carboxylic
sites capable of attracting PAE. However, the resin absorbs
also onto the fines, which needs then to be retained in the
sheet for maximum wet strength. Likewise, alkalinity and
swelling of fibres expose more reactive sites, improve resin
Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM
 M. Vähä-Nissi et al.: The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose sheets prepared with PAE resin | 497

Table 1: Water-laid (1–4) and foam-laid (5–12) samples.

retention onto the fibre and increase the rate of bond for-
mation.
Sample Surfactant (g/l) PAE (kg/t) A-PAM (kg/t) C-PAM (kg/t)
Using foam-laid technology for papermaking has been
1 0 0 0
studied intensively recently (Al-Qararah et al. 2012; Al-
2a 1.5 0 0
Qararah et al. 2013; Kinnunen et al. 2013; Koponen et al. 2b 1.5 0 0.2
None
2016; Lappalainen and Lehmonen 2012; Lappalainen et al. 2c 1.5 0.2 0.2
2014; Lehmonen et al. 2013; Mira et al. 2014). While this 3 3 0 0
technology provides good formation and increased bulk, 4 4.5 0 0
5 0 0 0
the strength properties need special attention (Kinnunen
6a 1.5 0 0
et al. 2013; Lappalainen et al. 2014). The type and dosage of 6b 1.5 0 0.2
surfactant in foam forming also have a significant impact SDS; 0.6
6c 1.5 0.2 0.2
on both the papermaking process and the properties of the 7 3 0 0
paper (Lappalainen et al. 2014). Interestingly, PAE resins 8 4.5 0 0
9 0 0 0
have been stated to provide good surface properties for the
10a 1.5 0 0
formation and stability of foam (Crisp and Riehle 2009). 10b 1.5 0 0.2
In this study, the impact of web forming method (water LUT XP; 3.5
10c 1.5 0.2 0.2
and foam), different foaming agents, PAE addition level, 11 3 0 0
and retention systems on the dry and wet strength devel- 12 4.5 0 0
opment of laboratory sheets was investigated.

changes in electrolyte concentration and water hardness.

Materials and methods
Materials
Bleached never dried and slightly refined softwood kraft
pulp with Schopper-Riegler freeness of 19 from Metsä Fi-
bre, Äänekoski, Finland was used for the hand sheets.
PAE resin was Kymene 25X-Cel, a generation two resin
from SOLENIS. The cationic starch used as a strength ad-
ditive was Raisamyl 50021 (Chemigate Ltd). Retention aids
were A-PAM Fennopol A321 from Kemira and C-PAM PC435
from Ashland Industries. Suitable surfactants should al-
low rapid production of foams fulfilling the requirements
of the foam forming process regarding air content (ca.
66 % v/v air) and bubble size distribution. Surfactants
should be biodegradable, and an advantage would be
if they were approved for food contact. Two commer-
cially available surfactants tested in this study were an-
ionic sodium dodecyl sulphate SDS (Merck Chemicals Ltd)
and non-ionic Lutensol XP 100 (BASF AG). The molec-
ular weight of SDS (CH3 (CH2 )11 SO4 Na) and Lutensol XP
100 (C10 H21 (CH2 CH2 O)10 H) are 288 g/mol and 600 g/mol,
respectively. Both surfactants were commodity products
used, for example, in laundry and personal-care products.
In addition, both surfactants are readily biodegradable.
SDS is mentioned in the recommendation of BfR in the list
of materials intended to come into contact with food. With
respect to anionic charged surfactants, non-ionic surfac-
tants present the advantage of being much less sensitive to
The critical micelle concentration (CMC) is defined as the
concentration above which surfactants in solution form
micelles and beyond which the surface tension of a sur-
factant solution remains unchanged. The value of CMC of
SDS and Lutensol XP 100 in water are 2.4 g/l and 1.0 g/l, re-
spectively. Samples were made using a hand sheet mould,
which is sensitive to rheological properties of the foam-
fibre mixture. Therefore, a stable foam-fibre mixture, with
an air content of 65–70 % is needed. Surfactant dosages
(g/l) presented in this article were calculated by taking
the active content given by the producer into account. For
each surfactant, the minimum surfactant concentration
required to reach the target air content (>65 %) depends
on its solution properties and its interactions with pulp
and other components in the formulation. The surfactant
doses required to achieve the target air content are shown
in Table 1.
Methods
Fibres were diluted with tap water and then blended, un-
der mild stirring and in the following order with stock
solutions/dispersions of i) PAE resin, ii) cationic starch,
iii) foaming surfactant, iv) A-PAM, and v) C-PAM. The
blending time for both the PAE and the cationic starch was
at least 30 min. 5 kg/t of cationic starch was used for all
the samples. Foaming was carried out until the vortex was
closed. Plain C-PAM was added 20 s after starting foaming,

Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries

Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM
498 | M. Vähä-Nissi et al.: The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose sheets prepared with PAE resin
Figure 1: The foam-forming hand sheet mould with one-sided dewa-
tering.
while in case of both A-PAM and C-PAM the addition time
was reduced to 10 s for each.
Water-laid sheets were prepared from stock with a con-
sistency of 0.02 % and foam-laid sheets with a consistency
of 0.6 %. While standard water formed handsheets were
prepared according to the standard method ISO 5269-1,
a special foam forming mould (Figure 1) was used for foam-
laid sheets. This mould removes the foam from the slurry,
making a 32 cm × 22 cm handsheet. The target grammage
of sheets was 80 g/m2 . Hand sheets were always made
from fresh foam-fibre mixtures. The foam was poured into
the top of the mould where a funnel directs it to one side.
Then the foam-fibre mixture spreads from one end of the
mould to the other. This flow is enough to orient fibres in
the flow direction. Finally, the foam-fibre mixture lies on
top of the forming fabric that mimics a paper machine. The
funnel is removed, and a plastic cover is placed on top of
the foam to create a seal for the vacuum. The foam is re-
moved by vacuum, which leaves a fibre mat onto the fabric.
All hand sheets were wet pressed using a pneumatic
laboratory sheet press (Lorentzen & Wettre) in order to
consolidate wet sheets and to simulate wet pressing in a
paper machine. Wet pressing was carried out in two steps.
The first pressing was at 1.5 bar (5 min ± 2 s), and then the
blotters were removed and replaced before the second wet
pressing at 1.5 bar (2 min ± 2 s). Sheets were dried by feed-
ing them through a cylinder drying device (Kodak rotary
drum dryer). The sheets were fed into the machine be-
tween two blotter papers. Samples are listed in Table 1.
In this study, foaming dynamics were recorded with a
CCD-camera (Lappalainen et al. 2014). Foaming was char-
acterized with the time (s) required for foaming and the
Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries
air content amount (%) of air in foamed stock. Foaming
time was the time from the beginning of the stirring to
the closing of the vortex. The air content was calculated
from the original volume of the stock and the volume of the
foamed stock when the vortex was closed. These measure-
ments were repeated eight times. Tests for basis weight
(g/m2 ), thickness (µm), density (kg/m3 ), and bulk (cm3 /g)
were carried out in a standard conditioned room at 23 °C
and 50 % RH. The basis weight of the samples was deter-
mined according to ISO 536. The thickness of the paper
sample was measured according to ISO 534. A combina-
tion of the basis weight and sheet thickness was then used
to calculate density and bulk for the 7–11 sheets of each
sample. Sheets for the determination of dry matter con-
tent (%) after wet pressing were taken from the centre of
each wet pressed pile of sheets. These sheets were cut in
half, and both halves were weighed before and after dry-
ing. An average from both measurements is then reported
for each sample. In this study, the formation was charac-
terized using optical formation measurements system (by
using a light transmission technique). The sample was il-
luminated using a backlight. The amount of light falling
on CCD sensor was kept as constant as possible. In other
words, the average gray level of the image was held con-
stant (2048). In practice, there are two methods to control
the amount of light falling upon CCD-sensor: change of ex-
posure of the sensor or change of luminous intensity of
the light source. One must notice that normally the spec-
tral power distribution of light source is not stable when
the voltage changes. When adjusting the exposure time
of the sensor the noise can be a problem if the amount
of light falling upon sensor is small. However, in our sys-
tem, the amount of light falling upon sensor is high, and
furthermore, the CCD-sensor was cooled down to –12 °C.
In our system, only exposure time was adjusted. The lens
of our system was Micro-Nikkor f=55 mm. F-number of the
lens was 8, to minimize vignetting (darkening of the cor-
ners relative to the center of the image). Number of pix-
els/mm in the image was 17.3. The size of the area mea-
sured was 74 mm × 59 mm. Floc size was used to describe
the uniformity of the formation. Floc size (in mm) was cal-
culated from the thresholded image (binary image) using
the run-length method. This was repeated three times for
each sample. The tensile strength properties, i. e. tensile
strength (N/m) and strain at break (%), were measured
using a tensile tester (Lorentzen & Wettre), in accordance
with ISO standard 5270:1998. Wet strength was measured
as a tensile strength after immersing the sheets in water
for 60 s. Relative wet strength is the ratio between wet and
dry tensile strengths. The tensile strength properties were
measured ten times for each sample.
Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM
 M. Vähä-Nissi et al.: The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose sheets prepared with PAE resin | 499

Figure 2: Foaming time of foamed stocks prepared with SDS (5–8) Figure 3: Air content of foamed stocks prepared with SDS (5–8) and
and LUT XP (9–12). LUT XP (9–12).

Results
Stocks
Foams meeting the target air content (65 % v/v air) were
obtained with both surfactants. The time required for
foaming was much higher with Lutensol XP (LUT XP) than
with SDS, although the concentration of LUT XP was al-
most six times higher (Figure 2). This is due to the larger
size of the surfactant molecule (lower diffusion rate) and
especially to the lower critical micelle concentration (CMC)
Figure 4: Dryness of water- and foam-laid hand sheets after wet
of the non-ionic surfactant. Thus, when the concentra-
pressing.
tion exceeds CMC a significant proportion of the surfac-
tant molecules are in the micelles and are unable to stabi-
lize air bubbles. Free monomers are necessary for a stable
foam. Due to the surfactant monomers, the air-water in-
terface becomes elastic. This means that the bubbles can
withstand being deformed. When the CMC is low, the mi-
cellar breakup time can be a rate-limiting step in the sup-
ply of monomers. High addition levels of cationic PAE to-
gether with anionic SDS resulted in slightly decreased air
content in the foam (Figure 3) and increased time for foam-
ing (Figure 2), which indicates interactions between the
two additives. With the non-ionic surfactant (LUT XP) the
time required for foaming was decreased due to the PAE
addition and the air content remained roughly the same, Figure 5: The bulk of water- and foam-laid hand sheets.
which supports the role of PAE also as a foaming aid.
LUT XP increased dewatering more than the SDS (dry-
ness 57.7 % and 53.1 %, respectively, versus 51.7 % for the
atic impact of PAE was observed. However, adding C-PAM
water-laid hand sheets). Stocks with C-PAM provided the
or, in specific, combination of C-PAM and A-PAM resulted
highest water retention (Figure 4).
in the poor formation in the case of water-laid sheets with
PAE. It seems that in foamed stocks, such stable flocs were
Handsheets not formed, or the retention aids formed another type of
chemical complexes.
Foam-laid sheets, in line with previous studies, had higher It was not surprising that the dry tensile strength of
bulk (Figure 5) and better formation (Figure 6). No system- water-laid sheets with C-PAM and A-PAM having poorer

Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries

Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM
500 | M. Vähä-Nissi et al.: The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose sheets prepared with PAE resin
Figure 6: Floc size (mm) of water- and foam-laid hand sheets.
Figure 7: Tensile index of water- and foam-laid hand sheets. In case
of foam-laid hand sheets these are geometric averages of tensile
index values in the machine- and cross machine-direction.
formation was somewhat lower than with the other water-
laid samples (Figure 7). Only a slight, if any, improve-
ment in tensile strength due to the increased amount of
PAE was observed with water- or foam-laid sheets. In-
terestingly, the tensile strength of foam-laid sheets pre-
pared with anionic SDS decreased slightly with the reten-
tion aids and at moderately high addition levels of PAE.
This was likely due to chemical complexes formed be-
tween these additives. On average, foam-laid sheets pre-
pared with a non-ionic surfactant (LUT XP) were some-
what stronger and had a higher elongation at break (Fig-
ure 8) than SDS sheets. Water-laid sheets were stronger
and had a higher elongation at break than foam-laid
sheets, except with the water-laid sheets with C-PAM and
A-PAM.
Figure 9 shows the relative wet strength of the sheets.
Unlike with dry tensile strength increased dosage of PAE
led to increased wet strength. In the case of water-laid
sheets the higher the addition level of PAE the stronger
were the rewetted sheets. The retention chemicals had a
slightly positive impact on the wet strength, which was dif-
ferent to the negative impact on the dry tensile strength,
especially with the combination of C-PAM and A-PAM. This
Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries
Figure 8: Elongation at break of water- and foam-laid hand sheets.
In case of foam-laid hand sheets these are geometric averages of
stretch values in the machine- and cross machine-direction.
Figure 9: The relative wet strength of water- and foam-laid hand
sheets. In case of foam-laid samples the values are geometric
means of those in the machine- and cross machine-direction.
indicated the dual reaction mechanism of PAE, i. e. co-
valent bonding with the fibre surface and internal cross-
linking.
With the anionic SDS the lowest addition level of PAE
(1.5 kg/t) was not enough for reaching the critical level
of wet strength (relative wet strength ≥10 %). However,
both retention systems (C-PAM and A-PAM/C-PAM) had a
slight positive impact at this PAE addition level similar to
the water-laid sheets. This was opposite to the dry ten-
sile strength. However, at high PAE addition levels the wet
strength actually decreased, which possibly indicates in-
teractions between excess cationic PAE resin and the an-
ionic foaming surfactant.
With non-ionic LUC XP already 1.5 kg/ton of PAE was
enough to provide wet-strength and to cover the anionic
sites on the fibres. Cationic C-PAM had a slightly neg-
ative effect on wet strength. However, C-PAM together
with A-PAM had an even stronger negative impact on wet
strength, which could indicate reactions between PAE and
A-PAM. Excess PAE is lost with water and the foaming sur-
factant.
Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM
 M. Vähä-Nissi et al.: The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose sheets prepared with PAE resin
Conclusions
The purpose was to investigate the impact of web forming
method, foaming agents, PAE resin, and retention aids on
the key characteristics of stocks and hand sheets, and in
specific on the strength development of the sheets.
Foams with the target air content were obtained with
all the stocks for foam forming, although high addition
levels of PAE had a slight impact on foaming behaviour,
which indicates the function of PAE also as a surface ac-
tive agent. Foam-laid sheets had higher bulk and better
formation than water-laid sheets. No systematic impact of
PAE was observed. However, use of retention aids resulted
in the poor formation in the case of water-laid sheets with
PAE. In foamed stocks no such stable flocs were formed.
In general, the water-laid sheets were stronger and
had a higher elongation at break than the foam-laid sheets.
However, the poor formation of the water-laid sheets with
both A-PAM and C-PAM resulted in lower dry strength than
with the other water-laid samples. Only a slight, if any,
improvement in dry tensile strength due to an increased
amount of PAE was observed with any of the sheets. The
tensile strength of the foam-laid sheets prepared with an-
ionic SDS decreased only slightly with the retention sys-
tems and at moderate addition levels of PAE. On average,
the foam-laid sheets prepared with a non-ionic surfactant
(LUT XP) were stronger and had a higher elongation at
break than the SDS sheets.
In the case of the water-laid sheets the higher the
amount of PAE the stronger were the rewetted sheets. In
contrast to the negative impact on dry tensile strength the
retention systems had a slightly positive impact on the
wet strength, which indicates the dual reaction mecha-
nism of the wet strength resin, i. e. covalent bonding with
the fibre surface and internal cross-linking. With the foam-
laid sheets formed with SDS the lowest addition level of
PAE was not enough for reaching the critical level (10 %)
of the wet strength. However, both the retention systems
had a positive impact at this PAE addition level similar to
the water-laid sheets, which is in contrast to the dry ten-
sile strength. However, at high PAE loading levels the wet
strength actually decreases, which could indicate the in-
creasing interaction of the excess cationic PAE with the an-
ionic foaming surfactant. With non-ionic LUT XP already
1.5 kg/ton of PAE was enough to provide wet strength and
to cover the anionic sites on the fibres. C-PAM had a slightly
negative effect on wet strength. However, C-PAM together
with A-PAM had a strong negative impact on wet strength,
which indicated possible reactions between PAE and A-
PAM. Excess PAE is lost with water and the foaming sur-
factant.
Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries
| 501
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank Metsä Fi-
bre for providing the pulp, and all the chemical suppliers
for the product samples.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of in-
terest.
References
Al-Qararah, A., Hjelt, T., Kinnunen, K., Beletski, N., Ketoja, J.
(2012) Exceptional pore size distribution in foam-formed fibre
networks. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 27(2):226–230.
Al-Qararah, A., Hjelt, T., Koponen, A., Harlin, A., Ketoja, J. (2013)
Bubble size and air content of wet fibre foams in axial mixing
with macro-instabilities. Colloids Surf. A, Physicochem. Eng.
Asp. 436:1130–1139.
Bessonoff, M., Paltakari, J., Laine, J., Paulapuro, H. (2006) Effects
of A-PAM/C-PAM complexes on retention, formation and
dewatering of papermaking pulp. In: 92nd Annual Meeting
of PAPTAC. Montreal, Canada, February 7–9, PAPTAC.
pp. A117–A121.
Crisp, M. T., Riehle, R. J. (2009) Wet-strengthening of paper
in neutral pH papermaking conditions. In: Applications
of Wet-end Paper Chemistry, 2nd Ed, Eds. Thorn, I., Au,
C. O., Springer, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London, New York.
pp. 147–170.
Dunlop-Jones, N. (1996) Wet-strength chemistry. In: Paper
Chemistry 2nd Ed, Ed. Roberts, C. J., Chapman & Hall, London.
pp. 98–140.
Espy, H. H. (1995) The mechanism of wet-strength development in
paper: a review. Tappi J. 78(4):90–99.
Fisher, S. A. (1996) Structure and wet-strength activity of
polyaminoamide epichlorohydrin resin having azetidinium
functionality. Tappi J. 79(11):179–187.
Kinnunen, K., Lehmonen, J., Beletski, N., Jetsu, P., Hjelt, T. (2013)
Benefits of foam forming technology and its applicability
in high MFC addition structures. In: The 15th Pulp and
Paper Fundamental Research Symposium, September 8–13,
Cambridge, U.K., The Pulp and Paper Fundamental Research
Society. pp. 837–850.
Koponen, A., Torvinen, K., Jäsberg, A., Kiiskinen, H. (2016) Foam
forming of long fibers. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 31(2):239–247.
Lappalainen, T., Lehmonen, J. (2012) Determinations of bubble
size distribution of foam–fibre mixture using circular Hough
transform. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 27(5):930–939.
Lappalainen, T., Salminen, K., Kinnunen, K., Järvinen, M., Mira, I.,
Andersson, M. (2014) Foam forming revisited. Part II. Effect of
surfactant on the properties of foam-formed paper products.
Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 29(4):689–699.
Lehmonen, J., Jetsu, P., Kinnunen, K., Hjelt, T. (2013) Potential of
foam-laid forming technology in paper applications. Nord. Pulp
Pap. Res. J. 28(3):392–398.
Mira, I., Andersson, M., Boge, L., Blute, I., Carlsson, G.,
Salminen, K., Lappalainen, T., Kinnunen, K. (2014) Foam
forming revisited Part I. Foaming behaviour of fibre-surfactant
systems. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 29(4):679–688.
Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM
502 | M. Vähä-Nissi et al.: The wet strength of water- and foam-laid cellulose sheets prepared with PAE resin

Obokata, T., Isogai, A. (2007) The mechanism of wet-strength
development of cellulose sheets prepared with
polyamideamine-epichlorohydrin (PAE) resin. Colloids Surf.
A, Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 302(1–3):525–531.
Obokata, T., Isogai, A. (2009) Wet-strength development of cellulose
sheets prepared with polyamideamine-epichlorohydrin
(PAE) resin by physical interactions. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J.
24(2):135–140.
Wågberg, L., Björklund, M. (1993) On the mechanism behind wet
strength development in papers containing wet strength
resins. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 8(1):53–58.

Brought to you by | North Carolina State University (NCSU) Libraries

Authenticated
Download Date | 11/8/18 10:33 AM