SUITABILITY OF RICE HUSK ASH TREATED BLACK COTTON SOIL

FOR WASTE CONTAINMENT APPLICATION

D. Hamisu1*, A. M. Kundiri2 and S.Y. Umar3

1. Pipeline Right of Way Department, NNPC/PPMC Gombe Area Office, P.M.B. 100 Bauchi Road, Gombe
State, Nigeria.

2. Department of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria.

3. Department of Civil Engineering, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria

*Corresponding Author: hamisdgumel@yahoo.com

Abstract: This paper presents an experimental study aimed at assessing the suitability of rice husk ash (RHA)

treated black cotton soil as a barrier in Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) containment facility. Laboratory tests were

conducted on black cotton soil treated with 5, 10 and 15% RHA at moulding water contents of 2 and 4% on both wet

and dry sides of optimum moisture content (OMC) using British Standard Heavy (BSH) compactive effort. Index

properties, hydraulic conductivity (k), volumetric shrinkage strain (VSS), and unconfined compressive strength

(UCS) tests were conducted on all the samples. The results obtained indicated that the soil was classified as A-7-

5(18) according to the American Association of States Highway and Transport Officials (AASHTO) classification

system and Silt of high plasticity (MH) in accordance with the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). It was

observed that addition of RHA was accompanied with decrease in the plasticity index from 24 to as low as 3%. An

improvement in the moisture-density relationship of the soils showed an increase in Maximum Dry Density (MDD)

from 1.46 to 1.52 Mg/m3 as well as a decrease from 24.5 to 21.2% in OMC. The increase in RHA contents up to

10% brought about an improvement in the strength of the soil specimens by almost 332.4kN/m 2 at 2% on the dry

sides of OMC. The VSS decreases with increase in RHA content to achieve the minimum shrinkage strain of 4.1%

at 5% RHA treatment.

Keywords: Rice husk ash, Black cotton Soil, Municipal Solid Waste, Containment facility.

1
1.0 Introduction

Indiscriminate disposal of waste particularly Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) may lead to severe
groundwater contamination with resultant health effects which warrants Geo-environmental engineer’s
attention. Landfilling MSW has been and is still the most widely practice and viable alternative means of
waste disposal in most developing countries such as Nigeria (Kundiri, 2009; Kundiri et al., 2016b). The
environmental and health hazards associated with this traditional landfilling system are well known
sources of groundwater contamination (Benson, 1999; Ige, 2003; Adewuyi, 2004; Onipede and Bolaji,
2004; Bello, 2010; Kundiri et al., 2017).
In current practice, attempt has been made to counter this problem by use of barrier systems which
employed compacted clay liners between the waste and the natural ground to impede migration of
leachate and other contaminants into the ground water.
Compacted soil liners have been used in recent times as hydraulic barriers in engineered landfills,
although the issue of effective waste management has become a serious problem of concern to
environmental protection agencies and environmental professionals.
Compacted soil liners are widely used as hydraulic barriers in landfills and other waste containment
facilities in developing countries like Nigeria, to impede migration of leachate into the subsurface
groundwater to mitigate health related effects (Daniel and Wu, 1993; Benson et al., 1994; Adewuyi,
2004; Osinubi and Bello, 2010; Umar et al., 2015). This is because the interaction of chemical pollutants
with both surface and underground water bodies could pose adverse health effects on their quality (Al-
Dakheel et al., 2009). Even though geo-membranes have been considered as the best alternative for liners,
they are out of reach of most developing countries for their high price and the need for trained personnel
for installation (Avinash et al., 2016). Hence, there is need for economically viable landfill liner that is
natural, locally available, and that can be handled in an inexpensive way, and in compliance with the
environmental regulations.
The design requirement for compacted soil liners according to (Edil et al., 1992; Daniel and Wu, 1993;
Stark and Poeppel, 1994; Wilt and Zeh, 2005; Kundiri, 2009; Osinubi and Bello, 2009; Osinubi and
Bello, 2010), include:
 Low hydraulic conductivity to minimize leakage (k< 10-9 m/s)
 Adequate shear strength to maintain liner stability (a minimum Unconfined Compressive Strength
value of 200kN/m2) and
 Minimum shrinkage strain of < 4% to minimize desiccation cracking.
RHA is one of the major Agricultural wastes found abundantly. The burning of rice husk
generates about 20-23% of its weight as ash. The RHA is a pozzolanic material due to its high amorphous
silica content (Mehta, 1986; ASTM C 168, ASTM 1997; Della et al., 2002). The objective of this paper is
to determine the suitability of Rice Husk Ash treated Black Cotton Soil when compacted with Modified
Proctor (MP) compactive effort as a barrier in waste containment facilities.

2.0 Materials and Methods

2.1 Materials

2.1.1 Black-cotton soil

The soil sample used for this study was obtained from Baure village (latitude 10 0 16’N and longitude110
21’E) in Yamaltu-Deba Local Government Area of Gombe state, using the method of disturbed sampling
and collected at depth of 0.5 to 1.0m. The materials were preserved in polythene bags to avert moisture
loss, and transported to the Soil mechanics Laboratory of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi.

2
2.1.2 Rice Husk Ash

Rice husks were obtained from rice mill in Yelwa area of Bauchi, and burnt using controlled furnace of
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi; to produce the RHA which was sieved through BS Sieve
No 200 (75 µm).

2.1.3 Water:

Portable drinking water was used for the purpose of the laboratory tests.

2.2 Methods

Laboratory tests were conducted for the determination of the index properties of the natural soil and soil –
RHA mixtures samples in accordance with BS 1377 (1990). Compaction test was conducted using
Modified Proctor (MP) method as specified by Head (1992) to determine the Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) and Maximum Dry Density (MDD) on the air-dried soil samples passing through 4.75mm sieve
size.
Volumetric Shrinkage Strain (VSS), Hydraulic conductivity and Unconfined Compressive Strength
(UCS) tests were also conducted in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) on the RHA treated Black Cotton
Soil (BCS). The specimens were prepared by mixing the soil with 0, 5, 10, and 15% RHA at four
different moisture contents of 2 and 4% on the dry and wet sides of the optimum moisture contents using
the MP compactive effort.

3.0 Results and Discussion

3.1 Oxide Compositions and Engineering Properties

The results of the oxide composition and loss on ignition (LOI) were obtained using X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) for both the black cotton soil (BCS) and Rice Husk Ash (RHA) as presented in Tables 1 and 2
respectively.

Table 1: Oxide Composition of Black Cotton Soil

Oxide Concentration (%)

CaO 0.53

SiO2 31.05

Al2O3 18.21

Fe2O3 4.74

3
 MnO 0.38

TiO2 2.34
LOI
< 50

Table 2: Oxide Composition of Rice Husk Ash

Oxide Concentration (%)

CaO 1.58

SiO2 67.3

Al2O3 4.96

Fe2O3 0.95

MgO 0.53
LOI < 25

The main oxides of the BCS sample and the RHA are Silicon dioxide (SiO2) and Aluminium (III) Oxide
and were 31.05 and 18.021 % as well as 67.3 and 4.96 % respectively. The cations are exchangeable with
another group of different cations having the same total charge in the RHA, thus stabilizing and
improving the properties of the BCS, as observed by (Baig et al., 1999; Rathan et al., 2016; Alhassan and
Alhaji, 2017)
The Engineering properties of both the natural and treated soil samples vital for determination of index
properties and classification of the soil are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3: Engineering Properties of Soil.

Properties Rice Husk Ash (%)
0 5 10 15
Liquid Limit, (%) 62 62 62 65
Plastic Limit, (%) 38 45 57 59
Plasticity Index, (%) 24 17 8 3
% Sand (0.06-2mm) 15 15 15 15
% Silt (0.002-0.06mm) 74.8 74.8 74.8 74.8
% Clay (<0.002mm) 10.2 10.2 10.2 10.2
% Passing BS Sieve NO. 200 (75µm) 85 83 81 84
AASHTO Classification A-7-5 A-7-5 A-7-5 A-7-5
Group Index 18 15 12 12
USCS Classification MH MH MH MH

4
Activity 2.35 1.67 0.78 0.29
Specific Gravity 2.62 2.63 2.65 2.68
Maximum Dry Density (Mg/m3): 1.46 1.53 1.52 1.38
Optimum Moisture Content (%): 24.5 22.3 21.2 24.6

The soil was classified as A-7-5 using the American Association of States Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO 1986) soil classification system and Silt of high plasticity (MH) using the Unified
Soil Classification System (USCS) (ASTM, 1992). Physical inspection showed that the soil is dark grey
in color and has an activity value of 2.35 which is indicative of active Montmorillonite. The activity
decreases to 1.67 and subsequently to 0.29 with increase of 5 to 15% in RHA content. The value of the
specific gravity of the soil was observed to be 2.62 which also indicated the prevalence of
montmorillonite minerals (Das, 2005). It increases to 2.68 gradually with increase of 5 to 15 % RHA, the
liquid limit maintained a constant value of 62% up to 10% RHA blend, but with further increase to 15 %,
the liquid limit also increases to 65%. This could be due to the reduction in the diffused double layer as
well as incomplete dilution of the clay content of the mix. The subsequent increase in the liquid limit
could be attributed to the increase in RHA which introduced more pozzolanic substances from the ash.
This requires more amount of water to complete the hydration process (Rahman, 1986; Osula, 1991;
Akinyele et al., 2015).

3.2 Compaction Characteristics

Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of 1.53 Mg/m 3 was obtained with the corresponding Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) of 24.6 %, it increases with increase in RHA content, as the OMC reduces; which
signifies that the RHA has occupied the void within the soil matrix and resulted to the flocculation of the
soil particle due to ions exchange. These results are no doubt in agreement with earlier studies by
(Eberemu, 2011a; Kundiri and Kundiri,2002; Osinubi and Stephen, 2007; Oriola and Moses, 2010;
Kundiri et al., 2016a).
The trends of the moisture – density relationships are presented in figure 1.

Figure 1: Moisture – Density relationship for natural and treated soils using MP compactive effort.

It could be inferred that 5 % RHA yielded the highest MDD, followed by 10 % RHA, with 15 % RHA
being the least. This can be attributed to the replacement of soil by RHA in the mixture which absorbs

5
more moisture up to an optimum RHA content of 5 – 7 %, and then there is slight decrease in MDD due
to incomplete hydration process at 10 and 15 % of the RHA mixture.

3.3 Volumetric Shrinkage Strain

The shrinkage is mainly as a result of loss of moisture due to evaporation, as the surface dehydrates and
drying proceeds from the surface as it goes deeper downwards until it affects the entire specimen (Khire
et al., 1997; Tang et al., 2010; Eberemu, 2011). The cracking is not likely to occur in compacted soil
liners with volumetric shrinkage strain (VSS) of less than 4 % upon drying ( Daniel and Wu, 1993;
Osinubi and Kundiri, 2007). The specimens compacted at higher moulding water contents shrank more
resulting in high VSS, which conformed to similar findings by researchers such as (Daniel and Wu, 1993;
Albrecht and Benson, 2001; Osinubi and Eberemu, 2010). In general, decrease in the VSS was observed
with increase in RHA contents up to 10 %; followed by a slight increase with addition of 15 % RHA. This
could be attributed to the pozzolanic input of the RHA treatment which reduces the fine grained soils
(Liman, 2009).
The variations of VSS with moulding water content relative to the optimum for both natural and treated
soils are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Variation of VSS with RHA treatments relative to optimum for MP compactive effort.

It was observed that at 5 and 10 % RHA, a higher value of VSS occurs at 2 % on wet side of OMC. 2 %
dry sides of OMC satisfied the VSS requirement of < 4 % as confirmed by (Kundiri et al., 2016a)

3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity is the key parameter affecting the performance of containment facilities (Daniel,
1987; Daniel and Benson, 1990). Generally, there are notable increases of hydraulic conductivity values

6
with addition of RHA; these increases indicate that RHA content has filled the air voids present in the
black cotton soil. After the addition of RHA, specimens on wet side of optimum moulding water content
have lower hydraulic conductivity than those on the dry side of the optimum. This could be due to the de-
flocculation of the soil particles structures thereby reducing the voids (Eberemu, 2011b). The hydraulic
conductivity also changes with the change in moulding water content. Soils compacted on the dry side of
optimum water content tend to have relatively high hydraulic conductivity values, whereas soils
compacted on the wet side of optimum water content tend to have lower hydraulic conductivity values.
Moreover, increasing water content results in the re-orientation of clay particles and reduction in the size
of inter particle pores (Benson and Trast, 1995).

The maximum permissible value of 1 x 10 -9 m/s were obtained for almost all the moulding water and
RHA contents except for 15% RHA contents on the dry side of the optimum moulding water contents (-4
and -2%). This could be as a result of the RHA content displacing the clay contents and fines in the
specimen, thus making specimen incapable of satisfying the specified values of the hydraulic conductivity
(Benson et. al., 1994). Better result was achieved using higher compactive efforts with RHA contents up
to 10 %, which agreed with an earlier research work by (Osinubi and Eberemu, 2009).

The relationship between hydraulic conductivity and RHA contents is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Variation of Hydraulic conductivity with RHA treatment.

3.5 Unconfined Compressive Strength

The UCS values of the untreated Black Cotton Soil decreases with increase in moulding water content. As
the moulding water content increases, the electrolyte concentration reduces, leading to an increase in
diffused double layer expansion; thus the distance between the alumina – silicate unit layers thereby
increases. The specified minimum UCS values were not achieved in the case of the untreated black cotton
soil samples. Although, the trend of the untreated black cotton soil is in conformity with earlier research
works by (Daniel and Wu, 1993; Taha and Kabir, 2003; Ijimdiya, 2011).
There is an improvement in the UCS values of BCS treated with RHA up to 10 %, resulting to an
increased in strength of up to 332.4 kN/m 2 at 10 % RHA treatment using 2 % on the dry side of optimum
moulding water content. With 15 % RHA treatment, maximum UCS value of 195.8 kN/m 2 was obtained
which is slightly below the specified minimum UCS value of 200 kN/m 2. This trend is attributed to the

7
incomplete hydration reaction of the RHA due to insufficient water. The minimum specified value of 200
kN/m2 was obtained at 4 % on the dry side of optimum moisture content with RHA treatments of 5 to 10
% RHA. The variation of the UCS with RHA contents is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Variation of UCS with RHA treatment.4

3.6 Delineation of Acceptable Zone Criteria

Design of containment facilities notably Liners and covers systems involves the satisfaction of several
parameters such as VSS, UCS and Hydraulic conductivity to obtain an acceptable zone that define the
level of convergence of these parameters as prescribed by (Daniel and Benson, 1990). The delineation of
the three design parameters using compaction plane was carried out as shown in Figures 5, 6 and 7; with
the overall acceptable zone presented in Figure 8.

8
Figure 5: Acceptable zone for UCS.

Figure 6: Acceptable zone for VSS

9
Figure 7: Acceptable zone for Hydraulic conductivity

Figure 8: Overall acceptable zone for the design parameters

10
4.0 Conclusion

(1) The soil was classified as A-7-5(18) according to AASHTO classification system and MH in
accordance with USCS classification system. The general properties of the natural untreated soil
do not satisfy the requirements based on the three most important parametric design criteria for
containment facilities.
(2) The addition of RHA led to decrease in the plasticity index from 24% to as low as 3% with
subsequent reduction in swell characteristics from medium to low.
(3) Addition of RHA also resulted to improvement in the index properties of the soil; with an
increase in MDD from 1.41 to 1.53 Mg/m3 and decrease in OMC from 28.8 to 18%.
(4) The increase in RHA contents up to 10% brought about an improvement in the strength of the
soil specimens to 332.4kN/m2 at 2% of optimum moisture content. This improvement is mostly
on the dry sides of the optimum than on the wet sides.
(5) The VSS decreases with increase in RHA content to achieve the minimum shrinkage strain of
4.1% at 5% RHA treatment.
(6) The maximum permissible value of 1 x 10 -9 m/s was achieved with almost all the moulding water
contents and RHA treatment, but at higher values on the wet sides of the optimum than on the dry
sides.
(7) The total acceptable zone was achieved as a guide for suitability criteria.

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