PROlECTIONS

erhaps very few geograph!cal fea tures, it is called a chart. A m ap , on the other
Ph d contains both the graticule and an abundance of ground features.
Chapter an
Maps: They h ave more geographical details depending upon scale of the
map.
3 Charts: They have lesser details and h a v ~ n for which they have
been made.
Method Of Construction:
·
(a) Geometric, perspective. A flat surface, cylinder or a cone is placed conveniently
on the surface of the reduced earth and a light source placed (at the center or
PROJECTIONS at one of the poles of the reduced earth) projects the graticule. An example is
the polar stereographic.
(b)Geometric, mathematically modified. The basic geometric projections may
be improved by modifying them mathematically. This is normally done to
An y attempt at repr odua·ng a spherical shape on to a flat surface d" must
· achieve a certain property. Mercator and transverse Mercator projections are
· ·tabl e d"istortions • Thus, on a flat surface we must expect 1stort1ons
prod uce mev1
examples.
of the ideal properties of the reduced earth .
~c) Mathematical. Some proje_ctions are p~oduced entirely by mathematical
Projections on Oat surfaces: The object of m~k.ing a map or a chart is t? methods, although the basic concept might be drawn from the geometric
represent the spherical earth, or at least a part of 1t, on a flat surface. Ideally it projection. Lambert's ortho morphic projection is an example here.
should possess the following features:
(a) T he scale: it should be both correct and constant.
(b) The shapes should be correct. Projection
(c) Areas should be..shown__con:eq4'.
(d) The bearing measurements anywhere on the reduced earth should be
identical to the measurements on the earth. Perspective Non perspective
(e) Great circles should be straight lines, just as on the earth. (Light source and graticule) (Mathematically constructed/modified)
(f) "Me~ ns :ond .()arallels should mtersect each other at 90°.
(g) Adjacent sections fit perfectly together. Ortho morphic (Coafonnal) : It is property in which bearings are correctly
_ The geo~etric _projections_ are also called True Projections and the sheet o n shown. For a projection to be ortho morphic, following must be met.
which the graticule 1s to be projected is called the developable surface. Examples (a) W cridiam1°and p aral)el-oHatitude should cut each at 90" ./
(a) Cylindrical projections, eg, Mercator. (b) - Scale-is constant. in 38 direct.ions with in vicinity of a point.
Practically every chart used will have its method of projection noted on
(b) Conical projections, eg, Lambert.
~t. <?fte_n the word conformal or ortho morphic will appear in the name. The
(c) uiiitbal ·edioris th . . proJecllons encountered are likely to be as follows:
th' ~.., , . etJ>lane ofthe-pro_Ject10njs tangenti.aJ to the
r . s su, ,c1ce, eg, polar stereographic. -::t Not conformal: Gnomonic (Polar, Oblique, Equatorial), Orthographic, Equi-
When a projection contains I • distant.
on y a gratJcule of latitude and longitude with
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--------~PA~R~:T_!l_;_-~G~EN~EAA~L:...'N
..:::::A::;
~..:.:
IG :::A.:::T..:.:
10 ::;N
~-----------..,_ PROlECTIONS
_r L bcrt's Con fo rm al• Conic, Sta nda rd ,Mercator (cylind ...:•~
C 011.1orma1: a m · . . .
It is non perspective projection
con fo rmal), T ran sve r se Mercator, O blique Me rcato r, Stereographic (Polar, (ii)
Rhumb li ne is a straight line and great circle is c urve d convex to th e
Oblique, Equatorial) (iii)
pole, simil· r to cr.lindrical ojection.
GENERAL PROPERTIF.S OF MISCELLANEOUS TYPE OF PROJECTIONS:
• Cylindrical projection (iv) It is an ort o ic projection .
Construction: Point of tangency is equ atot a nd light source is a t center of U sage:
(i)
Sui table for Rhumb line tracks rather than G/C tracks.
the ear th S ui table for topographical maps near equator (8° N/S of equator). In low
(ii)
Prof,tt'ties: latitudes, c hart almost has a constant scale.
(i) Me ridian s are straight parallel lines equid istant from each other. (iii) Met charts in India are Mercator charts. ,
(ii) Parallels oflatitu des are also straigh t lines but n ot e quidistant from each Draw backs:
other. Distance between the m increases from eq u ator to poles. (i) Can' t b e used in p olar region a nd coverage is limited to 70° N/S of
(iii) Convergence on projection on these maps is zero. It is on earth su rface equator, above its scale expansion becomes very la rge.
shown by 'n' . (ii) Radio Bearings are great circles, which must be converted to rhumb
n= d'long x sine lat lines before plotting.
(iv) A straight line on this map represents a Rhumb line. (iii) On a long route, the rhumb line can add appreciabl y to the distance.
(v) Great circle is shown by a cu rved line concave to equator or concave to Note: In Mercator projection scale in FJW direction is varied a t the same rate
rhumb line or convex to pole. o f scale expansion in N/S direction.
(vi) It is not an ortho morphic o r con fo rmal projection
l @ <it] ~pi'ml~ scale_.atequato.r x secant oflatitudc,
MERCATOR
O rigin of Projection Cylindrical: The cylinder touches the reduced Eanh at
I the Equator. Projection is from the center of I.he sphere.
Graticule Meridians: Parallel straight lines. Equally spaced.
I Parallels of Latitude: Unequall y-spaced parallel straight
lines, spacing increases away from the Equator.
Scale Correct at the Equator. Expands away from I.he Equator
Mercator projection: as the secant of the latitude.
cylindrical projection to Mathematical correctio n s are carrie d o ut in simple Convergence Correct at the Equator. At all other latitudes, chart
MERCAT OR. ma ke it o rtho m o rphic.This projection is cal led
convergence is less then Earth convergence.
Properties: Rhum.bLine Straight line.
(i)
Appearance is similar to simple cylindrical projection. Great Circle Curves convex to the nearer pole and concave to the
Equator. '.:§uator-and meridians are~ -
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 I
PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION PROJECTIONS
~-- O,;., ...o\... C::., . C -fo
Conical Proje ction: purposes it may be considered a strai__Kht line, 'b.-t. ~ .
Construction: Point o f tangency is one particular standard parallel wh· (iv) Scale is correct at standard Parallels, between them scale contracts and
can be changed by changing apex angle / cone angle. Light source is the cen l(l it is least al latitude of origin. The scale contraction is very less. i.e. less
of the earth. ltt then I % , therefore between 2 standard Parallels scale is co nstanL
--
.-...
(v)
usage:

Away from standard Parallels scale expands al high rate, map is ortho
morphic only between 2 standard Parallels.
This projection is increasingly being u sed as a plotting chart. Its other uses
are as ~ n i q i l charts, radio aid charts, airways charts--.m.cl, mctcoro-iogical
c synoptic charts. I
~--- ~,7
Drawbacks:
The greater the latitude difference between the two standard parallels the
greater the scale error and distortion of the shapes. If the shapes are greatly
......,..,...,.,,, r
distorted, so are directions, with a loss of ortho morphic p roperties.
In mid way, rhumb line,.is .Paralld with the GCFiying that angle will make
Properties: aircraft follow RL path. Convergence (in degrees) = d long (in degrees) x sin lat
(i) Meridians are straight lines converging towards nearest poles. (in degrees)
(ii) Parallels of latitude are curved lines not equidistant from each other,
distance between increases away from standard Parallels. LAMBERTSCONFORMAL
(iii) Great c:irrlc.iuhown by__a straight line.
(iv) Rhumb line is a curved line concave to pole or great circle or convex to Origin of Projection Conical: The cone touches the reduced Eanh at the
equator. parallel of tangency. Projection from the center of the
(v) Convergence is less then I (n< I) sphere L> II
(vi) It is not an ortho morphic projection. When it is corrected to make it Graticule Meridians: Straight lines con\"erge toward the pole of
projection . Parallels of Latitude: Arcs of circles,
orthomorphic it is c:alJed Lamberts conical ortho morphic / conformal
with in 2 standard Parallels. nearly equally spaced, with their center at the pole
of projection.
Lambert Conformal Conic (LCC) : Ortho morphic / Conformal Correct at the standard parallels. Expands outside the
with in 2 standard parallels: Scale
standard parallels and contractS between the standard
Construction: Points of t.angency are with in 2 standards of Parallels and parallel. Is minimum at the parallel of origin.
light source is at latitude of origin.
Correct at the paralleJ of origin. Chart convergence is
Properties: Convergence
equal to Ch Long x Sin Parallel of Origin.
(i) Ap~eara.nc~ 0 ~ meridian and Parallels of latitude are similar to simple Curves concave to the Pole of projection. ~feridians are
corneal pro1ect.1on. RhumbLine
straight lines.
(ii) Mathematical co?"ections are carried out by choosin 2 standard Curves concave to the parallel of origin. Closest to a
Parallels to make 1t ortho morphic. g Great Circle
straight line at the parallel of origin
(iii)~c;c a curved line concave to latitude f · · r. .
0
ongm. .8 ut, ,or pracocal
2-f 25
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f'ltJ{T I- N,f,VJGATION PROlECTIONS
·-
- _,_. I
"°'""POLE
....,,.,,._
FLAT "-"TE FOR
-
LIGHT IIOURCIE
F"rg- Rhumb ;;md Gr-= Cirde Tracls on Lamberts Charts in ~onheni
Propertie1:
Hanispbrtr
(i} This is an only projection which is truly perspective and orthomorphic.
-1~.
(ii) Meridians are straight lines converging towards ne-arest pole.
• QC ::, w.'1rls the pok. Great cirde is a cuned line convex to
(iii) Parallels of latitude are concentric circles and distance between them
me=-~ poie oo !tfen:::a.w r chan. On I arnbeus and Polar Goowic increases fonn pole to equator. Rhumb line is a curve concave to the
C::U..""G GC i;. :a mzigbr lint-:.
Pole. Parallels of latitude are demonstrative.
• Rhm:it b- t:- zho-z~ w--.i:rds equator. On a Mercator chart R/L is a
(ijj ) Convergence on this map is equal to o ne. Convergency reduce~ towards
ii:oe.. On L.mberu and Potrr- Gnomic charts R/L is a cur...-ed
E::it romn: re me f.qnamr-1 ~ -~- pa p-Q.1,-.
the equator, where it is O; so chart co nvergen<.-y i5 constant at l , correct
only at the Poles, too large away fro m the Pole.
• f.quz.oi- i:! ;. rhmnb !mt 2:s ..-di as a greaz cirde.
(i\·) When plottin_g in high latitudes nof'too filJ-°!GY from the Po~ where
• P-~ olI...riwdt rimmb .-\n A C fl~ing along latitudes flies Con\'ergency is correct; a GC..is to be
a ltr@igbJ_MDC fur pract.icaJ
c: = ·"'=! dmx:rion or WJ' ( I) or- ?ilf ITJ. V\I\. E- pUTJ>OSCS,.As di.stance from the Pole incr~ , a GC in fact curves concave
• -~.::i .-\C_Im:lg alc-.eg • l:leTicfi;;rn is flying a GC p-.ah and in True .'ionh - to the Pole, and finally the equator, itself a GC, will appea~ a d_i.stinct
U, r;n rr, or li!I.I' ITJ. curve. Rather an academic point for a chart used for av1auon m t~e
Polar Regions, perhaps. A straight line drawn on a polar stere.o graphic
Polar .s.t-_1.,_
- - - -.,,.. cq,u.ic
Pro·JEeCtlon:s:
. chart is sometim~ referred to a5 a stereo drome.
Cc
.:F-1.I:Z =----
b suica: h IS rm: . . .
. • . .
-- ~--<:W"A!U-prk_ =,t:cnf.JIJ •ith J)'.AJlt ol iangencv
. at pole and
(v)
<~i )
R/L is a curved line conca\'C to nearest pole or G/C o r con\'CX w equa10r.
l]Jr fQ}e pole. Tiie dislanc.e5 measured very' cl<>!e to
the Pole is \'ery nearl )' correct diswic.a. ~ o m the pole the fC2lc
a;_paooi:'" I
J) 2~
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N:,___ _ __ _ PR01ECTIONS
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POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC: -------- datum meridia n and anti-meridian giving complex curves. For practical
purposes any straigh t line drawn near the datum meridian may be taken
Origin of Projection Azimuthal: The Oat plate to~1ches the ,·educ~
to represent a GC.
Eanh at th e po1e Projection ,s from the opposite pole. All meridians and p arallels are rhumb lines, curves concave to the nearer
. . . ht lines radiating from the pole
Str.ug (v)
Graticule Mendians: pole.
Parallels of Latitude: Circles centered on the pole.
Tht'" spaci ng increases away from the pole.
Scale
secant of the Co-latitude
9
r.
Correct at the pole. Expands.away from the pole as
Scale is correct to within
'Ii- to iS"NJS. and to "~thin 3% to 70°N/S.

-
.
Con,~nce Correct at pole. At all points on the chart,
com·ergence equals Ch Long.
RhumbLine Curves conca,·e co the pole of projection. Meridians
are straight lines.
Gn,at Circle Cun·es conca,·e to the pole. Meridians are straight TRANSVERS E MERCATOR:
lines. Close to the pole may be considered a straight
line for plotting purposes.
Origin of Projection Cylindrical: The cylinder touches the red uced Earth
at the selected meridian.
Transvuse Mercator: The Transverse Mercator is a cylindrical projection Graticule Meridians: ThC:d iium m erid iail;'"thcF.quator,7111~
placed horizontallr on the reduced Earth such thatq[iiiderand~ g lobe to~
~ll},Cljgians at 00: tou;ic datu m meridian are straighTliiia
along a chosen,..meridian and corresponding anti-meridian, as shown at Figure Other meridians are compl~ rves'."- - - --
the ~ m~ian.nd.anti-mqjdian are !mown an fie central-meridian~, and ""liuilleliofl:iititinle:Elli~~ equamq
themtsciron
J>.Q _whidt the central meridians cross"'lhe equa.tor are ~ o wn as,.,(!}.~
points ~tgm. Close to the pole areJiearly~ • __ r.
~I: Scale Correct at the datum meridian. Expands away from the
(i) datum meridian as secant of great circle distance from
the datum meridian .
(ii) The chan is ortho morphic. . .
The scale is correct along the datum meridian and its anti -meridian. Convergence Correct at the Equator and poles.
Expands
cirtle away from the datum meridian at the rate of secant of the great
distance. RhumbLine Complex curves. Datum meridian, meridians at 90° to
(iii )
the datum meridian are straight lines.
Convergency is correct at the equator and the Poles. Elsewhere it is
Great Circle Complex curves except the datum meridian.
~=
incorrea and as the meridians are curved, no simple formula can be
purposes_
fo, clran ~ m·,,...ore. How.,.,, up •• 900 mile, &om <he d arnm I Datum meridian, Equator, and the meridian at 90° to
the datum can be taken as straight lines.
(iv) •erid;,., W, "'"' 0 "'Y "'"" .u,d m,y b, n,gJec""' fo, ,u p ractical ! Any straight line at a right angle to the datum meridian
is a great circle.
Aoy .,,;gh, ...... wb;,h '"" tl« """-" m«;Wan a, 90• ;, , g,ea, ci,cle
by oo="""°" Ebewhe,e, g,e,, ci•de, ' " "'"'" conc,,e <o <he
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PART I - GENERAL NAVIGATION PROjECTIONS
. Oblique Mercator: The oblique Mercator is a cylinddcal projection.
ttus case the cylinder touches the red uced Ea rth along a chosen great
tangency (sometimes referred to as the False Equator).
ci.~ " q
- Within 500nm of the great circle of tangency may be
used as a constant scale chart.
Correc-t along the great circle of tangency, at the poles,
Convergence
and at the Equator.
RbUDlh Line Complex curves.
Complex curves. Close to the great circle of
Great Circle
tangency may be interereted as.,l! straight lint
The representation of meridians, parallels, great circles and rhumb lines:
G/C is always towards the pole. Great circle is a curved line convex to the
nearer pole on Mercator chart. On Lamberts and Polar Stereographic charts G/C
is a straight line.
Rhumb line is always towards equator. On a Mercator chart R/L is a straight
line. On Lamberts and Polar Stereographic charts R/L is a curved line concave to
the nearer pole.
f>ropertia:
T he use of current aeronautical charts:
(i) The chan is ortho morph ic (conformal).
For plotting purposes, all conformal charts can be placed into two categories:
(ii) The scale is correa along the datum great circle.
Category M: (Standard) Mercator
(iii)
Convergency mar be assumed to be reasonably correct close to the
datum great circle. Category L: All others - usually one of the followin g: Lambert's Conformal,
(iv) Oblique Mercator, Transverse Mercator, Polar Stereographic.
Great circles are curves concave to the datum great circle. ltnii:cto:ta,
limeneaing die datum gre.atril-cle_aL...90° will be_st!:aigbt lines~ Plotting Positions: With the understanding of the latitude and longitude
(\') Rhumb lines are complex curves. W scales, we can learn how to plot a position. We can quickly and accurately
p lot any known position. For example, a position at (Lat. 36° 11 'N, Long. 70°
OBLIQUE MERCATOR 17.5'W) can be plotted as follows: ·
Origin of Pro;ettion Find the latitude, 36° 11 'N , on the latitude scale. Place the point of the
co~pass on 36° and measure up 11 '; mark the scale with the compass lead .
Cylioo,;<aJ, Th, ,yliode, '°"'htt <he «tlwced Ea,<h j
GraticuJr
along a selected great circle route. Without opening or closing the compass, move the point of the compass
over to the proper meridian. In this case it is 70°. Mark the meridian with the
Meridians: Curves concave to the datum great circle. latitude measurement. Next we will find our longitude 70° and measure 17.5'.
The meridian passing through the pole of the datum Care must be taken to measure towards the west or left, towards the next
great circle is a straight line.
higher longitude. We will use our lead to mark off 17.5'. Move the compass
~ ~ls of Latitude: Complex curves cutting the
Sca.lr point up to the 36° parallel and mark off 17.5'. Continue to move up the
70th meridian to the point where you marked off the latitude (36° 11 'N) and
mark off your longitude. You will mark off the longitude once again, this time
cy. Expanduuecaal
making a small arc. place the point of the compass on the 36° parallel at
B ngency_.
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N!.!:E~
RA~ L.!.:
N~A:.,:
~.!;IG:=:A
:.::T:.:.1:0:::,:..N;___ _ _ __ __ --......._ PROlECTIONS
Lhe point where Lhe 700 J 7.5' w is marked. mark a small arc that will er - Questions
Lhe . l.ongitude mark. That 's it. the point whe1·e the two arcs inte rsect is:
pos1t1on . t
Measuring RL Tracks And Distances: Radio Navigation charts (Jeppesen) uses: .,,
On Lambcrts: Join the two points by a straight line. ~ign .your protractor QI .
a) LarnbertS conformal conic projection
along the mid meridian between the two points on the straight lme and read oft
b) Mercator's projection
the R/L track.
c) IMPP
Distance may be measured along the scale diagram or latitude scale. A rhumb line is a straight line. This applies to
On Mercator's: On a Mercator projection, a rhumb line cuts every Q2.
a) Mercators b) Lamberts c) IMPP.
meridian at the same angle. In other words, it is a line ~f the same bearing
Meridians and parallel intersect at right angles. This applies to
throughout. Although it does not represent the shortest distance ~etween the Q3.
points it connects, this fact is not important unless very large distances are a) Mercators b) Lamberts c) Both.
involved. On the Mercator's chart,
Q4.
Since rhumb line is a straight line o n Mercator's, track can be measured by a) Distortion increases away from the Equator. b) Distortion increases away from the
joining the two places by a straight line and m easuring track angle anywhere on Pole
the line. c) Parallels oflatitude are not straight lines.
When measuring distances on Mercator 's projection the middle latitude scale QS. The scale on a Lamberts projection is correct only along
between the two points should be used . On Earth's surface, 1° of latitude
a) The standard parallels
may be considered 60 nautical miles in le n g th ; whereas, the length of 1° of
longitude varies with latitude. Therefor e, th e la titude scale must be used for b) The equator
measuring distance. Al though this scale is expande d on a Mercator chart, c) The end parallels oflatitude and 2degs. on either side of the central meridian.
the expansion exactly equal to the exp a n sio n of distance at the same latitude. Q6. Charts are used only for: ,..
Therefore, in measuring distance on a Mercator chart, one must be careful a) Flying over seas b) Dead reckoning navigation c) Polar navigation.
to use the latitude and longitude scale in the area one is mea suring. N e ver use
the longitude scale. Q7. In an ortbo morphic projection,
a) Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles
. Pio«:mg B ~ gs from ADFN OR: Bearings are alwa ys plotte d from the
station. Smee beanngs obtain ed from Radio Statio n s a re Magne tic they a re first b) Meridians and parallels are straight lines
converted. to True. It is not necessary to apply converge ncy when ~lotting VOR/ c) Both the above
ADF beanng on a ~ambert o r Pola r Stereogr a phic chart. It is however necessary The chart that is generally used for navigation In polar areas is based on a?
Q8.
to apply a corr~cl.ion for con version ang le when plotting. VOR bearin on a
a) Lambert's Conformal.
~;::(:C~rchartdif the ch an ge ofl<;>ngit_u d~ be tween a ircr aft a nd station is sig~ficant.
e proce ure to plo t beanngs 1s g iven in Pa rt 3 , Radio Navigation. b) Transverse Mercator.
c) Stereographical projection.
On a Lambert conformal conic chart the convergence of the meridians is?
Q9.
······································• • •····················· ······•·················································· a) The same as earth convergency at the parallel of origin.
b) The same as the scale.
c) Most accurate at the standard parallels.
i ii,(jJ, I 32
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