CH 2 Traffic Studies

2/7/2012
Chapter II Traffic Studies

CHAPTER II
• Traffic survey, traffic census, Traffic studies etc
are major work of a Traffic Engineer.
• The result from the data collection are used
TRAFFIC for transport planning, traffic management,
economic studies, traffic and environmental
STUDIES control and monitoring trends both for the
establishment and updating of design
standards.
-sunil khyaju
2/7/2012 Traffic Engineering/ ER.SUNIL KHYAJU 1 2/7/2012 Traffic Engineering/ ER.SUNIL KHYAJU 2
Objective: Types of traffic studies

1. Traffic volume studies
-To collect facts on traffic and parking 2. Speed studies: Spot speed study
situation Speed and delay study
-Traffic data help to analyze; geometric design, 3. Origin and destination study
traffic control measures, future traffic 4. Traffic flow characteristics
prediction and road improvement. 5. Traffic capacity study
6. Parking study
7. Accident study
Traffic volume study • Objective and use of traffic volume study

– It is important for improvement and expansion of
road.
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles
– It is used in planning, traffic operation/ control of
crossing a section of road per unit time at any existing facilities and for planning new facilities
selected period. – It is used for structural design of pavements
Traffic volume is used as a quantity measure – It is used to analyze traffic pattern
of traffic flow. Units; veh/day, veh/hrs, etc. – It is used for design intersections, signal timing and
other control devices
The volume of different type is usually – Pedestrian traffic volume is used for planning and
converted into passenger car units (PCU). design of sidewalks, crosswalks, subways and
pedestrian signals
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Types of traffic volume • Average annual weekday traffic (AAWT)

• Average annual traffic flow : Expressed in • Hourly flow: vehicle per hour, peak hour
vehicle per year volume
• Annual average daily traffic (AADT): expressed
in vehicles per day. It is 1/365th of the total
annual traffic flow.
• Average daily traffic (ADT): If the flow is not
measured for all the 365 days, but only for few
days (<365days)
Methods of traffic count • B) Combined manual and mechanical method

• A) Manual count Multiple pen recorders. The chart moves
The prescribed record sheet is provided for continuously at the speed of clock, different
manual count. Vehicles are counted by the pens record the occurrence of different events
method of five dash system. on the chart.
Methods of Conducting
Volume Counts
• C) Automatic devices • Manual Method
• Pneumatic tube (road tube)
• Electric contact
• Photo-electric
• Radar
• Infra-red sensors
• Magnetic field
• Video photographic method
• Moving observer method
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Methods of Conducting
Hand--held Traffic Data Collectors
Hand Volume Counts
• Automatic Method
http://www.jamartech.com/TMBs.html
Presentation and analysis of traffic volume data • Traffic flow at intersection shown by thick
• Average Annual Daily traffic (AADT): It is 1/365th lines
of the total annual traffic flow. It is expressed in 700 1050
terms of PCU and used for future development of

the road.
600
• Trend chart: It shows the volume trends over the
period of years. By extrapolating the trend chart 100
we can estimate the future volume prediction.
• Variation chart: for the presentation of hourly,
daily, weekly variations such charts are prepared
(peak hour requirements) 450 300
Traffic flow map
• Traffic flow maps: Graphical presentation of

traffic volume along the routes of the road
network.
• 30th highest hourly volume: it is the hourly
volume that will be exceeded only 29 times in
a year and all other hourly volumes of the
year will be less than this value.
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Speed study
Speed is factor influencing traffic flow on 1.Running speed:
existing roads. it is the average speed of vehicles along a
Speed studies are essential for: given section of road excluding delays at
• Traffic operation like signal location and timing controlled intersections.
establishing speed zones etc. • Running speed = length of route / running time
• Geometric design of elements like super- = length of route/ (journey time –
elevation, SSD etc delay time)
2. Spot speed: It is an instantaneous speed of a 4. Average speed: Average spot speed of several
vehicle at a specific location vehicles passing a specific section.
Average speed is affected by physical
3. Journey speed: It is average speed of vehicles elements of road like pavement width, curve,
along a route including all delays. sight distance and grade.
Journey speed = Length of route/ total journey
time
Space mean speed:

• There are two types of average speed • Average speed of vehicles over a certain length of
road at given time
– Space mean speed
– Time mean speed
• Vs- Space mean speed; kmph

• n- number of individual vehicle observation
• d- length of road section, m
• ti- observed travel time in second for the ith
vehicle to travel distance d
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• Time mean speed: • Time mean speed:

It represents speed distribution of vehicles at
a point on the roadway and it is the average of
instantaneous speed of observed vehicles at
the spot. • Vt- Time mean speed (kmph)
• Vi- observed instantaneous speed of the ith
vehicle, kmph
• n- number of vehicles observed.
a). Spot speed study
• Types of speed studies • Uses:

a). Spot speed study – Geometric design
b).Speed and delay study – Regulation and control of traffic operation
– Analyzing the causes of accidents
– Determining the problems of congestion in the
road section
– Capacity study
Methods of spot speed measurement
• The spot speeds are affected by: The spot speed may be obtained either by finding
the running speed of vehicle over a short distance
– Physical features of the road like pavement width, of less than 50m or by finding the instantaneous
curve, sight distance, gradient, intersections, road speed while crossing a section.
side development etc
– Environmental conditions like weather, visibility 1. Direct timing procedure
etc 2. Enoscope method
– Traffic condition, driver, vehicle etc 3. Pressure contact tube method
4. Radar speed-meter
5. Photographic method
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Direct timing procedure

• Simple method.
• Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a
suitable distance apart and observer starts and stops
stop watch as a vehicle crosses these two lines. From
the known distance and measured time intervals, spot
speed is calculated.
• Large effects may occur due to the parallax effects.
• Reaction time of individual observer may affect the
results.
• One observer stands at the first reference point and
gives signal to the observer standing at last reference
point with stop watch.
Enoscope
Enoscope method RADAR SPEED METER
• It is a simple device consisting of L-shaped mirror • The radar speed meter method is the most efficient
box, open at both ends. It has a mirror set fixed at one as it is capable of measuring the spot speeds
instantaneously and also records them automatically.
450 to the arms of the instrument.
• An enoscope is placed in such a way that the image
of the vehicle is seen by the observer when the
vehicle crosses the section where the enoscope is
fixed and at this instant the stop watch is stopped.
Radar Gun Spot Speed Study Bias in Radar Measurements

Vehicle
Radar beam
α
North
True Speeds (mph)
Main Street Angle 30 50 70
α (o) Measured Speeds (mph)
0 30 50 70
Target Vehicle 5 29.9 49.8 69.7
10 29.5 49.2 68.9
Observer
20 28.2 46.7 65.8
Tree used to conceal With Radar 45 21.2 35.4 49.5
observer
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Cosine Correction Road Tubes for Collection of Spot Speed
Minimize cosine error by keeping angle <7o on

freeways, <9o on urban streets
Recorder
Presentation of spot speed data Graphical presentation

(Histogram and cumulative frequency
• Tabular presentation (Say L=50m) curves)
• Modal speed: Peak of the frequency curve (mode
of the distribution)
Observation Observed Speed,m/sec • Median speed: 50th percentile speed
No. time, sec • 98th percentile speed: below this speed 98% of
vehicles move and it is taken as design speed for
1 3.54 50/3.54= the geometric design
2 4.0 50/4 • 85th percentile speed: 85% of vehicles move
3 3.33 50/3.33 below this speed. It is used to establish upper
speed limit for traffic management. It is taken as
4 2.85 50/2.85 limit of safe in the road.
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Traffic Engineering/ ER.SUNIL KHYAJU
. 39 2/7/2012 Traffic Engineering/ ER.SUNIL KHYAJU 40
Example:
• Spot speed studies were taken as under;
Speed No. of Speed No. of
• 15th
percentile speed: 15% of vehicles move range; vehicles range vehicles
below this speed. It is used for determining kmph observed observed
2-6 1 37-41 40
minimum sped limit for major highways. 7-11 4 42-46 68
• Arithmetic mean or average spot speed: 12-16 5 47-51 75
summation of all variable speed divided by 17-21 3 52-56 60
the number of observations 22-26 20 57-61 40
27-31 22 62-66 23
32-36 30 67-71 3
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Calculate: Speed Mid speed, Frequency Frequency Cumulative

1. upper and lower values of speed limits range; Vi; kmph % frequency
kmph %
2. The design speed for checking the geometric 2-6 4 1 100*1/total
design elements of the highway. 7-11 9 4 100*4/total
12-16 14 5
17-21 19 3
22-26 24 20
27-31 29 22
.. .. .. .. ..
b).Speed and delay study
Uses:
• Find the cost of journey during economic studies Methods of carrying out speed and delay studies
• Evaluate congestion, capacity, service level and
improvement needs • Floating car method (Moving observer/riding
• Delay studies at intersection for traffic control check)
devices • License plate or vehicle number method
• Traffic planning studies for the determination of
travel time. • Interview technique
• Speed and delay studies give the running speeds, • Elevated observation
overall speeds, fluctuation in speeds and the
delay between two stations of a road spaced far • Photographic technique
apart.
Origin and destination study

• Purpose of O-D study: Application of O-D data
– Planning new facilities • To judge adequacy of existing route
– Planning the schedule for different modes • To plan transportation system and other mass
transit routes
• To locate express way or major route along desire
• To locate by-pass route
• To locate the terminal facilities
• To locate new bridges as per traffic demand
• To locate intermediate stops for public transport.
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• Presentation of results:
Methods of O-D study Most popular- Desire line chart
Road side interview
License plate method
Return post card method
Tag on car method
Home interview method
Parking study Effects

• Congestion: Capacity of the street is reduced
Journey speed drops down
• Parking problem is the one of the serious Journey time, delay increases
problems for planners and traffic engineer.
• Accidents:
Careless opening of the door of vehicles
Bringing a car to the parking location from the
mainstream
Moving out of a parked position
• Obstruction to the emergency services

fire fighting vehicles; block access to building
• Environment:
Methods of parking surveys Design of parking facilities

• Parking space inventory: Sketch plan is • There are two types;
prepared; number and type of parking space – On street parking
are counted and recorded. – Off street parking
• Questionnaire type parking usage survey (to
know parking demand)
• Cordon count
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Parallel parking
• On street parking
– Parallel parking
– 300 angle parking
– Right angle parking
Right angle parking Angle parking
Surface car parks

• Off street parking
– Surface parking
– Multi-storey car parks
– Roof car parks
– Mechanical car parks
– Underground car parks
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Multi storey car parks Roof car parks
Underground parking Traffic Capacity Studies

• Traffic capacity is the ability of road way to
accommodate a stream of moving vehicles.
• It is expressed as the maximum number of

vehicles in a lane or road way that can pass a
given point in unit time, usually in hours.
Different types of vehicles are converted into a
common type passenger unit (PCU).
Types of traffic capacity

• The capacity of a single lane is approximately 1. Basic capacity/ Theoretical capacity/Capacity
2400 PCU per hour, with average time under ideal condition:
headway of 1.5sec. • Maximum number of passenger cars that can
• Traffic volume: Actual rate of flow pass a given point on a lane in one hour under
• Traffic capacity: maximum rate of flow, with the ideal roadway and traffic condition
the certain level of service.
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2. Possible capacity: 3. Practical capacity or design capacity:

• Maximum number of passenger cars that can • Maximum number of vehicles that can pass a
pass a given point on a lane or roadway in one given lane or roadway during one hour,
hour under prevailing condition. without the traffic density being so great as to
• In bad prevailing condition: traffic congestion- cause unreasonable delay, hazard or
possible capacity = zero restrictions to driver’s freedom to maneuver
• In ideal condition: Possible capacity= Basic under prevailing roadway and traffic
capacity condition.
Importance of traffic capacity studies: • Determination of theoretical maximum capacity:

• Design features; highway type, No of lanes,
width of lane, intersection geometry etc.
• To study adequacy or deficiency of highway
network; present traffic volume is compared • Where: C-Capacity of single lane; veh/hr
with the capacity of the existing facility. V-Speed km/h
• To improve and change in geometric features, S-Average center to center spacing of
junctions, traffic control devices etc. vehicles (Space headway), m
The value S
• - From actual observations
• -Can be calculated from consideration of perception • The maximum theoretical capacity of a traffic
time, braking distance and length of vehicle lane may be
Where: S-Spacing of vehicles, m

L-length of vehicles
• where ht-time headway; sec
V-Speed; kmph
f- Frictional coefficient
t-Reaction time; sec
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Speed capacity relationship

• Peak value of the maximum theoretical
capacity is reached at an optimum speed.
• As speed is increased further, the maximum
capacity of the lane starts decreasing due to
increase in headway
Highway Capacity and Level of Service

• Level of service (LOS) is the qualitative The following factors may be considered to evaluate LOS
measure describing the operational conditions • Speed and travel time
within a traffic stream, and their perception • Traffic interruption or restrictions; number of stops per
km
by motorists or passengers. • Freedom to maneuver to maintain the desired
operation speed
• Economy; with due consideration operation cost of
vehicle
• Driving comfort and convenience reflecting the
roadway and traffic conditions
• Level of service A: free flow operation, with low volumes and

high speeds, average spacing of 528ft. Traffic density is low.
Drivers can maintain their desired speed with no delay.
• HCM has categorized LOS depending upon the
travel speed and V/C ratio.
• LOS A
• LOS B
LOS C
LOS D
LOS E
LOS F
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• Level of service B: Reasonably free flow, free flow • Level of service C: Provides flow with speed near
speed. Average spacing 330ft. Drivers still have free flow speed. Lane changes require more care by
freedom to select their speed and lane of operation. driver. Average spacing 220ft. A relatively satisfactory
operating speed is still obtained.
Level of service D: Speed begins to decline slightly • Level of service E: Level of physical and psychological
with increasing flow. Density begins to increasing. comfort afforded the driver is poor. Average spacing
Freedom to maneuver is more limited. Average is 110ft. Flow is unstable and there may be
spacing 165ft. stoppages of momentary duration.
LOS can be distinguished as in the figure below

Volume to capacity ratio
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
• Level of service F: Forced flow at low speed. 120
LOS: A
100 LOS: B
Op e r a t in g S p e e d , Km / h
80 LOS: C
LOS: D
60
LOS: E
40
LOS: F
20
40
800 1200 1600
0
Traffic volume, PCU/h
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Factors affecting capacity

1.Roadway factors
– LOS A = Free flow Condition a). Lane width 3.65m is ideal
– LOS B and LOS C = Stable flow Multiplying factors are mentioned in HCM for
– LOS D and LOS E = Unstable flow determining capacity with different lane width.
– LOS F = Forced flow for example: lane width 3.65 m – 1.0 ; 3.35m –
0.97; 3.05m – 0.91; 2.75m – 0.81 etc.
b). Lateral clearance: lateral obstructions like
retaining walls, abutments, sign posts, light posts
located closer than 1.83m from the edge of the
traffic lane reduces capacity.
c). Shoulder: Shoulders of adequate width are 2. Traffic factors

necessary. a). Traffic flow pattern (composition)
d) Road surface conditions: Poorly maintained
pavement adversely affect level of service. b). Speed, one or two-way traffic movement,
(HCM have no adequate data to develop vehicles and driver characteristics.
suitable factors)
e). Road alignment: If the alignment and
geometrics are not upto the desired
standards, the capacity will decreases.
NRS:
S/No Types of vehicle PCU
• Passenger car units
1 Car , light van, pick-up 1.0
Different types of vehicles offer different 2 Light truck 2.5T 1.5
degree of interference to other traffic and it is 3 Truck 10T 3.0
necessary to bring all types to a common unit. 4 Truck 15/25/40T 4.0/5.0/6.0
5 Busses 40/>40 passengers 3.0/4.0
6 Bicycle/motorcycle 0.5
7 Hand carts 2.0
8 Bullock carts 8.0
9 Pedestrians (no separate footpaths) 0.25
10 Porters((no separate footpaths) 0.5
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Traffic flow characteristics

• The theory of traffic flow can be defined as a Parameters connected with the traffic flow
mathematical study of the movement of There are eight basic variables used in describing
traffic flow
vehicles over road network. – Speed (V)
– Volume (q)
– Density (k)
– Headway (h)
– Spacing (s)
– Occupancy (R)
– Clearance (c)
– gap (g)
1. Speed (v)
• It is defined as the rate of motion, as distance
per unit time. (kmph, m/sec) • Vt- Time mean speed (kmph)
• If travel time t1, t2 ….tn are observed for n • Vi- observed instantaneous speed of the ith
vehicles travelling a segment of length L, the vehicle, kmph
average travel speed is • n- Number of vehicles observed.
• Relationship between the two mean speeds is
• Vs- Space mean speed; kmph or

• n- number of individual vehicle observation
• L- length of road section, km
• ti- observed travel time in hour for the ith Where -variance of the space mean speeds
vehicle to travel distance L
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2. Volume 3. Density or concentration

• It is the actual number of vehicles observed to • It is defined as the number of vehicles
be passing a point during a given time interval. occupying a given length or lane of roadway,
• Rate of flow: Number of vehicles passing a expressed as vehicles per km.
point during a time interval less than one
hour, but expressed as an equivalent hourly
rate.
• Density can be obtained through aerial

photography or calculated from the equation 4. Spacing and headway (s and h)
if speed and rate of flow are known.
• Spacing is defined as the distance between
successive vehicles in a traffic stream,
measured from front bumper to front bumper.
• Headway is the corresponding time between
Where: q-rate of flow: veh/hr successive vehicles as they pass a point on a
V-average travel speed; kmph roadway.
k- average density; veh/km
5. Lane occupancy (R)
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6.Lane clearance (c) and Gap (g) are related to

the spacing parameter and headway.
• Example
• These four measurements are shown in figure
• Four vehicles 6m, 6.5m, 6.75m and 6.9m long, below.
are distributed over a length of roadway 200m
long. What is the occupancy and density? Clearance (m)
gap (sec) L, m
Spacing (m) or
headway (sec)
Figure: Clearance-gap and Spacing-headway

Speed, Flow, Density curves

• Mathematically
V=A-Bk A2 /4B
Mean speed, km/h

Mean speed, km/h
V-mean speed of the vehicle A
Flow, veh/h
A
k-average density veh/km V=A-Bk A/2
A,B – empirical parameters A/B

A/2B
A2/4B
A/B
Density, veh/km Density, veh/km Flow, veh/h
q = kv = Ak − Bk 2
a) b) c)
Speed -Flow-Density curves
Accident studies
Objective of accident studies Basic elements of the road accidents
• To study the causes of accident and suggest • Road user
preventive measures
• To evaluate the existing facilities and support new • Vehicle
improvement • Road and its condition
• To carry out before and after studies to check the • Environmental factors
effects of the improvement
• A road accident may be caused due to
• To assess the losses of the accident
combination of several reasons
• To define and identify high accident location
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• Causes of accident Accident studies and records

• Driver: High speed, carelessness, violation of rules, fatigue, 1. Collection of accident data.
sleep, alcoholic effects, failure to see, age, social standing, a).General: date, time, person involved in the accident;
lack of skill etc classification of the accident (fatal, serious, minor etc.)
• Pedestrians: Violation of traffic rules, carelessness b). Location: description and details of the location site of
the accident.
• Passenger: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles
c). Details of vehicle involved: Registration number,
• Vehicle defects: brake failure, lighting system, steering system description of vehicle, loading details, vehicular
etc. defects etc.
• Road condition: Slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes d).Nature of the accident: Vehicle condition, details of
and damaged condition collision, involving pedestrian/ object/ another vehicle,
• Road design: Defective geometric design damages, injuries etc.
• Weather: snow, rainfall, dust etc which restrict to the normal e). Road and traffic conditions: Details of road geometry,
visibility
surface characteristics, traffic condition etc.
f). Accident cost: property damages, personal injuries and
• Animals: stray domestic animals and wild animals casualties.
• Other causes: Incorrect
2/7/2012
sign or signals, advertisement board 109
Traffic Engineering/ ER.SUNIL KHYAJU 2/7/2012 Traffic Engineering/ ER.SUNIL KHYAJU 110
etc.
2. Accident report 3. Accident records

a). Location files: Records on the location of accidents to
• Accident should be reported to police identify points of high accident incidence.
authorities for legal action. b). Spot maps: on the location of the accidents- by spots,
pins or symbols on the maps
c). Condition diagram: it is a drawing indicating all
important physical features at the location. Geometric
features: width, corner radii, shoulder width etc, Traffic
sign, signal, marking, bridges, culverts, parking,
lighting, obstructions etc.
d). Collision diagram: It shows the approximate path of
vehicles and pedestrians to be involved in accidents.
Collision Diagram
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Condition Diagram Accident investigation

1. Recording General observations
• Length of skid mark
• Recording the position of vehicle and object
involved
• Details of accident, injuries and damages
• Condition of pavement surface, environmental
condition etc
• Condition diagram with dimensions
Collision Diagram
4. Vehicle test
• Test on the condition of brakes, steering..
2. Driver test • Test on essential accessories of the vehicle
• Analysis for alcohol content • Characteristics and details of other vehicle and object
involved
• Test on driver characteristics: reaction time,
distance judgment, angle of clear vision etc 5. Cost analysis
• Injuries and fatalities of person involved
• Damages to the vehicle
3. Skid resistance of pavement surface • Property damages
• Traffic delay
• Investigations and legal proceeding
20

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2/7/2012

Chapter II Traffic Studies

Objective: Types of traffic studies

Traffic volume study • Objective and use of traffic volume study

Types of traffic volume • Average annual weekday traffic (AAWT)

Methods of traffic count • B) Combined manual and mechanical method

terms of PCU and used for future development of

Traffic flow map

• Traffic flow maps: Graphical presentation of

Space mean speed:

• Vs- Space mean speed; kmph

• Time mean speed: • Time mean speed:

a). Spot speed study

• Types of speed studies • Uses:

Methods of spot speed measurement

Direct timing procedure

Radar Gun Spot Speed Study Bias in Radar Measurements

Cosine Correction Road Tubes for Collection of Spot Speed

Minimize cosine error by keeping angle <7o on

Presentation of spot speed data Graphical presentation

Calculate: Speed Mid speed, Frequency Frequency Cumulative

b).Speed and delay study

Origin and destination study

Parking study Effects

• Obstruction to the emergency services

Methods of parking surveys Design of parking facilities

Right angle parking Angle parking

Surface car parks

Multi storey car parks Roof car parks

Underground parking Traffic Capacity Studies

• It is expressed as the maximum number of

Types of traffic capacity

2. Possible capacity: 3. Practical capacity or design capacity:

Importance of traffic capacity studies: • Determination of theoretical maximum capacity:

Where: S-Spacing of vehicles, m

Speed capacity relationship

Highway Capacity and Level of Service

• Level of service A: free flow operation, with low volumes and

LOS can be distinguished as in the figure below

Factors affecting capacity

c). Shoulder: Shoulders of adequate width are 2. Traffic factors

Traffic flow characteristics

• Relationship between the two mean speeds is

• Vs- Space mean speed; kmph or

2. Volume 3. Density or concentration

• Density can be obtained through aerial

5. Lane occupancy (R)

6.Lane clearance (c) and Gap (g) are related to

Figure: Clearance-gap and Spacing-headway

Speed, Flow, Density curves

Mean speed, km/h

V-mean speed of the vehicle A

k-average density veh/km V=A-Bk A/2

A,B – empirical parameters A/B

Speed -Flow-Density curves

• Causes of accident Accident studies and records

2. Accident report 3. Accident records

Condition Diagram Accident investigation