Transportation Engineering II

Prepared by: Anil Marsani
ACEM, Civil Department
Chapter One: Traffic Engineering

1.1 Introduction to and Scope of Traffic Engineering
Transportation engineering is defined as the application of technology and
scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management
of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical and environmentally compatible movement
of people and goods.
Traffic engineering may be defined as that phase of engineering which deals with
the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on streets and highways.
Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the

improvement of traffic performance of road networks and terminals.
Traffic engineering is defined as the phase of transportation engineering that

deals with the planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets
and highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands and relationships with
other modes of transportation. (ITE)
Traffic engineering is the science of measuring traffic and travel, the study of the
basic laws relating to traffic flow and generation and application of this knowledge
to the professional practice of planning, designing and operating traffic systems
to achieve safe and efficient movements of goods and people. (Prof. Ress
Blunden, California University)
Traffic engineering is often defined as the nation’s lifeblood circulation system

which is the most important part of national infrastructure and supports the vast
majority of inter and intra city movements of goods and people.
Traffic engineering is concerned with the safety of the public, the efficient use of
transportation resources and the mobility of people and goods. It is the most
visible part of public infrastructure and the field which involves politics at virtually
every level of government.
Traffic engineer is concerned to ….

¾ To protect the environment while providing mobility
¾ To preserve a scarce public resources while working to
assure economic activity
¾ To assure safety and security through good practices and
high tech communications.
• The real concern of traffic engineer is moving people and goods rather than
vehicle, the movement of vehicles is just a way of accomplishing this.
• Good movement and person movement—given the well known problems of
traveling to work in many urban areas. It is conditioned reflex to think of the
roads as intended primarily to serve the motoring public with the trucks on
those roads being ‘things that get in the way and reduce capacity’. As a
practical matter, trucks provide most of the goods transport that underlies an
area’s economy.
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Scope of Traffic Engineering

Traffic engineering is concerned with the safety of the public, the efficient use of
transportation resources and the mobility of people and goods. Traffic engineering
includes a variety of engineering and management skills and the followings are
the main aspects:
• Traffic characteristics—vehicles and road users
• Traffic study and analysis—speed, volume, capacity, traffic pattern, OD,
traffic flow characteristics, parking and accident studies
• Traffic operation, control and regulation—laws and traffic regulatory
measures, installation of traffic control devices—signs, signals and islands
• Planning and analysis—separate phase for expressways, arterial roads,
mass transit facilities, parking facilities etc.
• Designs—geometric design, parking facilities, intersections, terminals,
lighting
• Traffic administration and management—engineering, education and
enforcement
• Continual research
The system of facilities

- freeways Travel Demand
- arterials - Trip generation rates
- intersections - mode split
- others - route selection
Influencing the Demand

Measuring the performance
- reducing
- system
- shifting
- user
- Repackaging
Transportation System Management
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Highway safety factors

Pre crash Crash Post crash
Training In-vehicle restraints worn by Emergency medical services
Knowledge driver and fitted in vehicle Incident detection and assistance
Human Skill
Basic abilities
Motives and attitudes
Control system design Occupant protection system Fire/fume control systems
Comfort system design Control system design Design for ease of emergency access
Vehicle
Information systems design Repair capabilities
Laws and enforcement
Geometrics and appurtenances Geometrics and appurtenances Geometrics for ease of emergency access
Enforcement system for energy absorption and Debris control and cleanup
Environment Control system forgiving highway Restoration of road and traffic devices
Weather and light conditions
Road surface conditions
Source: FHWA 1980
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¾ Simplified framework of a model that provides an understanding of the human-

vehicle-environment system
¾ Drivers has two main functions:
o Using the system to move from one point to another in a certain period of
time taking into account of safety, convenience, and comfort.
o Acting as the guidance and control system for the vehicle, which involves
continuous “fine control” of the vehicle in terms of direction and speed.
Human-Vehicle-Environment Operating System (FHWA, 1980)
Traffic Characteristics
--over 50 years research to understand and design efficient person-machine systems.
--helps to understand how human beings interact with vehicles and the transportation
facilities they use.
• Drivers need to have proper and adequate training and knowledge of the highway
mode before they drive a vehicle—in the event of crash, the vehicle needs to
have the proper restraints (seat belts and air bags)—emergency medical services
should be available to victims in case of crash.
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Description of Human-Vehicle-Environment Framework

Proper driver education
• Imparts knowledge of human vehicle environment interaction
• Develops driving skills
• Positively affects the attitude of the would-be driver
--results safe driving practice—reduced accidents.
Laws and enforcement

• Guidance and motivation for safer and efficient driver behavior
Roadway/roadside environments
• Physical and ambient conditions
Vehicle characteristics
• Mechanical control system and information provided to drivers
Sensory field consists

• Many pieces of information that driver uses
• Visual field consists of objects, lines and edges
• Inputs received through the hearing and smelling abilities together with those
perceived by the sense of touch make up the sensory field.
Driver personality
Driver’s decision
• Classical chain of sensing, perceiving, analyzing, deciding and responding.
Driver’s personality—broad based knowledge that deals with the driver’s natural abilities,
the learned capabilities and his/her motives or attitudes.
• Good driving requires no exceptional natural abilities
• To understand why drivers behave the way they do can be known from their
motives and attitudes—attitudes often determine how a driver reacts to a driving
situation. Motives may be associated with fear of injury, fear of criticism and
feelings of social responsibility.
• Use of alcohol, drugs, and narcotics quickly and seriously modifies driving
personality.
Sensing
Driver receives necessary information for the safe control of vehicle through feeling,
seeing, hearing and smelling.
• Temperature, humidity, forces and rates of change, vibrations and oscillations
connected with the stability of the vehicles are some of the other factors that are
needed to be considered.
Feeling
Different forces that are experienced by driver—force of gravity, acceleration, braking
deceleration etc.
• Drivers are strongly influenced in accelerating or decelerating by the speed and
conditions of the highway.
Seeing
Vision is the most important means of acquiring accurate information
• Static and dynamic visual acuity, depth perception, peripheral vision, night vision
and glare recovery
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• Visual acuity is the ability to see fine details clearly. It depends on several factors
for the same person and the range of visual acuity is large for different age
groups.
• Most acute vision 3~5º, fairly clear sight 10~12º.
• Drivers should have proper depth perception for judging distances and speeds.
• Peripheral vision relates to an individual’s ability to see objects not necessarily
clearly.
• Five propositions drawn from human factors literature apply directly to highway
design
o As speed increases, visual concentration increases.
o As speed increases, the point of visual concentration recedes.
o As speed increases, peripheral vision diminishes.
o As speed increases, foreground details begin to fade.
o As speed increases, space perception becomes impaired.
Hearing and smelling—hearing is important to the driver and pedestrian.

• Though not as important as vision in driving, hearing can be helpful in perceiving
collision
• Useful information about the vehicle engine, tires, warning sounds as sirens,
horns, bells and possibly other traffic sounds
• Drivers with hearing problem—1.8 times more accidents
• Sense of smelling—detecting emergencies as over heated engine, burning brakes,
smoking exhausts and fires
Perception and Reaction

Two main functions of drivers are
• Are using the system to move from one point to another in a certain period of
time taking into account of safety, convenience and comfort.
• Are acting as the guidance and control system for the vehicle –continuous fine
control of the vehicle in terms of direction and speed
• Intimate and continuous interaction among the highway geometrics, the vehicle
and the driver.
• Process of extracting necessary information from the environment is called

perception
• Driving task includes
o Control—physical manipulation of vehicle, steering, accelerating and
braking
o Guidance—task of selecting safe speed and path on the highway—decision
process.
o Navigation—drivers ability to plan and execute trip for origin and
destination
For this needs information which comes from maps, signs and landmarks.
Information comes from the environment (the road), traffic control devices, and
the surrounding traffic.
Drivers make a selection of information based on its importance.
P-R time—time required from the point of perception to the point of reaction.
Perception time includes the detection, identification and decision elements involved in
responding to a stimulus.
Reaction time is the time it takes to initiate the physical response. It varies with the
complexity of the task and whether the task is expected or unexpected task
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Perception—perception delay and apperception interval
Perception delay—time between visibility and point of perception

Apperception interval—time required to determine that there is potential hazard.
Reaction time—reaction and total reaction
Reaction includes the analytical and decision making portions of the drivers reaction
process.
Total reaction—reaction + actual control response (bringing the foot to the brake)
P-R time –2.5 secs
Driving strategy—driving task—performance of driver depends on the decision regarding

the action needed and the moment at which it is taken, depending on the location of the
obstacle, the relative speed of the driver and the physical characteristics of the
intervening space between the driver and hazard.
1 2 3 4
X
M T Stalled vehicle
A
Driver Strategy (Vanstrum and Caples, 1971)
Dist 1—perception time

Dist 2—during the time needed to take decision
Dist 3—reaction time
Dist 4—minimum stopping distance
T—true point of no return—last point at which action can be taken to avoid hazard
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M—mental last point at which action must be taken
PIEV Theory
Perception—the recognition or realization that a cue or stimulus exists and requires a
response
Intellection—an interpretation/identification of the stimulus
Emotion—the determination of an appropriate response to the stimulus
Volition—the physical response resulting from the decision
Consider a typical example of a driver approaching a STOP sign. The driver first sees the
sign (perception), then recognizes it as a STOP sign (intellection) then decides to STOP
(emotion) and finally puts his or her foot on the brake (Volition).
The total time taken for this sequence of events is referred as the PIEV time or
perception reaction time. It is a critical parameter in many computational and design
analysis.
1.3 Characteristics of Vehicles

• Wide variety of sizes and types of vehicles with different operating and
performance characteristics
IRC
Maximum dimensions and weight of vehicles
Vehicle dimensions (max)

Overall width 2.44 m
Height
Single deck 3.81 m
Double deck 4.72 m
Length
Single unit 2 axle 10.67 m
Single unit more than 2 axle 12.19 m
Semi trailor, tractor combination 15.24 m
Tractor and trailor combination more than 2 axle 18.29 m
Weight of loaded vehicle

Maximum axle load 8265 Kg
Gross load of any vehicle or combination of vehicles should not exceed as
given by
When L > 2.44 m
W = 1525 (L+7.3) – 14.7 L2
Where
W—gross weight of vehicle Kg
L – Distance between extreme axles
When L < 2.44 m then gross weight of vehicle should not exceed 14515 Kg.
• Design vehicle—minimum turning radius is the most important geometric feature

controlled by design vehicle dimensions.
• Vehicle dimension-width affects traffic lanes, parking facility, shoulder, road
capacity decreases with increase in width. Height affects the vertical clearance.
Length affects turning radius, safe overtaking distance, capacity and parking
areas.
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• Power of vehicle—power of heaviest vehicle and its gross weight governs the
permissible and limiting gradients. Total resistance to traction consisting of
inertial resistance, rolling resistance, air resistance and grade resistance.
• Speed of vehicle—affects sight distance, super elevation, length of transition
curve, limiting radius on horizontal curves, length of vertical curves, width of
pavement on horizontal curves, design gradient, lane capacity, design and control
measures on intersections.
• Friction—between tire and road surface—determines safe speed, stopping sight
distance, super elevation, skid resistance.
• Braking characteristics—depends on design and type of braking system and its
efficiency. The safety of vehicle operation, stopping distance, spacing between
two consecutive vehicles in a traffic stream are affected by braking capacity.
Kinematics of Vehicles
Fundamental relation of force and acceleration
F = ma
If a is constant
dv
=a
dt
v t
v0
∫ dv = ∫ a * dt
0
v = v 0 + at ----------------- (1)
Also,
dx
=v
dt
x t
∫ dx = ∫ (v
0 0
0 + at )dt
1 2
x = v0 t +
at ---------------- (2)
2
v 2 − v 02
⇒x= Substituting (1) in (2)
2a
Non uniform acceleration
Specific case—acceleration varies inversely to speed
dv
= α − βv α , β --constants
dt
α --maximum acceleration attainable
β -- Maximum possible speed
Integrating between v & v 0
v
−1
log(α − βv) =t
β v0
α − βv
= e − βt
α − βv 0
α
v = (1 − e − βt ) + v 0 e − βt
β
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Details of derivation see below

1 − βdv
v t v t
dv
∫v α − βv = ∫0 dt ⇒ − β v∫ α − βv = ∫0 dt
0 0
− {ln(α − βv ) − ln(α − βv0 )} = t

1
β
α − βv α − βv
ln = − βt ⇒ = e − βt
α − βv 0 α − βv 0
α − βv0 α − βv0
α − βv = βt
⇒ βv = α −
e e βt
α α
⇒ v = − e − βt + v0 e − βt
β β
α
⇒ v = (1 − e − βt ) + v0 e − βt
β
Equation for distance as a function of time

αt α v
x= − 2 (1 − e − βt ) + 0 (1 − e − βt )
β β β
dx
=v
dt
⎧α ⎫ ⎧α α ⎫
( )
⇒ dx = v.dt = ⎨ 1 − e − βt + v0 e − βt ⎬dt = ⎨ − e − βt + v0 e − βt ⎬dt
⎩β ⎭ ⎩β β ⎭
Integrating both sides
x
⎧ α α − βt − βt ⎫
∫0 dx = ∫ ⎩β β
⎨ − e + v 0 e ⎬dt
⎭
α α
β β
( v
⇒ x = t − 2 1 − e − βt + 0 1 − e − βt) β
( )
Acceleration time relationship
dv
= (α − βv0 )e − βt
dt
⎧α ⎫
= α − βv = α − β ⎨ (1 − e − βt ) + v0 e − βt ⎬ = α − α + αe − βt − βv0 e − βt = (α − βv0 )e − βt
dv
dt ⎩β ⎭
Numerical
1. A truck traveling at 25 mph is approaching to a stop sign. At time t0 and at a
distance of 60 ft, the truck begins to slow down by decelerating at 14 ft/sec2. Will
the truck be able to stop in time? (note 1 mile = 5280 feet)
Solution:
v = v0 + at
Where v—final velocity = 0 ft/sec2
v0 -- 25 mph = 36.67 ft/sec
a—14 ft/sec2
Therefore
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0 = -14t + 36.67
Giving
t = 2.62 sec
The distance covered by the truck in these 2.62 seconds is
1 2 1
x = v0 t + at = 36.67 * 2.62 + * (−14) * 2.62 2 = 48.02 < 60 ft
2 2
This indicates that the truck will stop just in time
2. An impatient car driver stuck behind a slow moving truck traveling at 20 mph
decides to overtake the truck. The accelerating characteristics of the car is given
by
dv
= 3 − 0.04v
dt
Where v is the speed (ft/sec) and t is the time (sec)
a) What is the acceleration after 2,3,10 and 120 seconds?
b) What is the maximum speed attainable by the car?
c) When will the acceleration of the car approach zero?
d) How far will the car travel in 120 seconds?
Solution:
= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv0 )e − βt
dv
dt
Given
α = 3 ft/sec2
β = 0.04 secs
Also 20 mph = 29.33 ft/sec
a) after 2 sec
= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv 0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*2 = 1.686 ft/sec2

dv
dt
After 3 sec
= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*3 = 1.618 ft/sec2

dv
dt
After 10 secs
= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*10 = 1.223 ft/sec2

dv
dt
After 120 seconds
= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv 0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*120 = 0.015 ft/sec2

dv
dt
b) Acceleration = 3.0-0.04v. therefore when acceleration = 3.0 – 0.04 v = 0 and
v = 75 ft/sec = 51.14 mph
c) The acceleration approaches to zero in approximately 400 secs.
αt α v
d) x= − 2 (1 − e − βt ) + 0 (1 − e − βt )
β β β
3 *120 3(1 − e −0.04*120 ) 29.33(1 − e −0.04*120 )
= − + = 7868 ft = 1.49 mi
0.04 0.04 2 0.04
3. The impatient driver mentioned in example 2 approaches an intersection
controlled by a two way stop sign. The through traffic is quite heavy, with an
dv
average gap of 5 secs. If this driver can achieve an acceleration of = 3 − 0.04v
dt
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ft/sec2 and his perception reaction time is 0.75 second, determine if he can clear
the intersection. Assume that the width of the intersection is 24 ft and his car is
20 ft long.
Solution:
The equation for calculating the distance as a function of time is
αt α v
x= − 2 (1 − e − βt ) + 0 (1 − e − βt )
β β β
Here
α = 3 ft/sec2
β = 0.04 secs
t = 5-.075 = 4.25 sec. and v0 = 0;
3 * 4.25 3(1 − e −0.04*4.25 )
x= − + 0 = 24.87 ft.
0.04 0.04 2
Thus, this vehicle is only able to cover 24.87 ft, whereas the intersection plus the
length of the vehicle add up to 44 ft. therefore, he is not able to clear the
intersection safely.
Discussion:
The average gap in the main stream of vehicles is 5 seconds. Hence it would not
be smart for this driver even to attempt to get through this intersection,
particularly if the standard deviation of the gaps was large. It is assumed that the
driver of the car begins to accelerate when the preceding vehicle clears the
intersection.
Dynamic Characteristics
Moving vehicle has to overcome
¾ Air resistance
¾ Rolling resistance
¾ Grade resistance
¾ Frictional resistance
Air resistance is proportional to the cross sectional area of the vehicle perpendicular to
the direction of motion and square of the speed of vehicle.
2.15 ρC D AV 2
Fa = 0.5
g
Fa—air resistance force (lb)
ρ -- Density of air (0.002385 lb/ft3 at sea level)
CD—aerodynamic drag coefficient 0.15~0.5 0.4 for average car, trucks have
higher values
A—frontal cross sectional area (ft2)
V—vehicle speed (mph)
g—acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
Rolling resistance—represents combination of internal friction (at wheel, axle, drive

shaft bearings and in transmission gears), the frictional slip between the tire and the
road surface, flexing of tire rubber, rolling over rough particles and climbing out of road
surface depressions
Rr = (C rs + 2.15C rvV 2 )W ---passenger cars (on smooth pavement surface)
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Ra = (C a + 1.47C bV )W ---trucks
Rr—rolling resistance (lb)

Crs—constant (typically 0.012 for passenger cars)
−6
Crv—constant (typically 0.65 * 10 sec2/ft2 for passenger cars)
Ca—constant (0.2445 for trucks)
Cb—constant (0.00044 sec/ft for trucks)
V—vehicle speed (mph)
W—gross vehicle weight (lb)
Fg
Fi
Fr
Fa
H
W
L
Grade resistance is that component of the weight of the vehicle acting in the plane of
roadway. The friction between the tires of the vehicle and the road pavement creates a
force that acts in opposition to forward movement
WG
Grade resistance force R g =
100
Rg—Grade resistance force (lb)
W—gross weight (lb)
G—gradient (%)
Power used by a motor vehicle for propulsion
P = 0.00267RV
P—power actually used (hp)
R—sum of the resistance to motion (Rr+Rg+Ra) (lb)
Negotiating a curve and acceleration requires additional power.
Tire friction
• Forces acting on standing tire
• Forces acting on a rolling tire
Standing tire—vehicle loads are transmitted through the wheels to the tires and then on
to the road.
• The load carrying mechanism of the tire consists of two parts
o Load carrying capacity of tire material
o Load carrying capacity of the compressed air in the tire
Rolling resistance of a tire is the force required to pull the tire over a surface—connected
with the bending and straightening of the thread as it meets and leaves the road
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surface—also connected to the non uniform pressure distribution between the tire and
the road.
A tire that is subjected to braking action develops a shear or traction force between its
contact patch and the road surface. The velocity of tire circumference is less than the
forward velocity of the vehicle. The difference in velocity causes the tire to slip over the
road surface. Locked sliding tire has 100% slip, free rolling tire has zero slip
Tire slip
VV − VT
ST =
VV
VV—vehicle velocity
VT—circumferential velocity of tire (ft/sec)
When all brakes are locked, the braking distance is given by

v2 − u2
Sf =
2 g ( f ± n)
v—vehicle speed
f—tire-road friction coefficient
1.4 Road User Characteristics

Most traffic engineering designs are based on a single characteristics value that can
safely accommodate the vast majority of users. Timing a traffic signal for the average
brake reaction time of drivers would be a risky proposition given that a substantial
number of users have a longer reaction time--- for this reason, a high percentile value is
used most often the 85th percentile value.
It is not possible to provide a system that exactly accommodates the individual

characteristics of each user. The approach taken is to provide for a safe and efficient
system that accommodates the vast majority of users and to quantitatively consider
those few users with characteristics outside the boundary of the design values used.
Road users—drivers, passengers, bicyclists, pedestrians who uses streets or highways

Complex element of traffic system—human elements differentiates traffic
engineering with other engineering fields.
Critical Characteristics of Road Users

1. perception reaction time—increases with age, fatigue, presence of alcohol or
drugs
2. visual acuity
Static acuity—ability to read letters at certain distances so that there is some assurance
that signs can be seen and read.
Dynamic visual acuity plays major role in the placement of signs and other traffic
displays. It is the ability to see objects in relative motion with the eye.
Depth perception is the ability to discern the relative distances between objects
Glare recovery is the ability to quickly respond to changing lighting conditions
Color vision is the ability to discern colors.
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Good static visual acuity does not guarantee good dynamic acuity, depth perception,
glare recovery or color vision.
Acute vision cone (3°~5°)
Fairly clear vision

(10°~12°)
Peripheral vision
120°~180° (important in
the drivers estimation of
speed)
Drivers should not have to divert their eyes to read a sign or device to the extent that
the roadway in front of t hem is not longer in their clear vision field.
Various factors that affect road user characteristics are

physical
mental
psychological
environmental
Physical—permanent and temporary

Permanent—vision, hearing, strength, general reaction to traffic situations
Visual acuity—clear vision, fairly clear vision, peripheral vision—horizontal plane
The field of clear vision in vertical plane may be only two thirds of that in the horizontal
plane.
Should be taken into account while designing and installing traffic control
devices.
Hearing—more important for pedestrians and cyclists
Strength is not an important factor in general, but lack of strength may make parking
maneuvers difficult (particularly heavy vehicles)
Temporary physical characteristics—fatigue, alcohol or drugs and illness—reduces

alertness and increase the reaction time and also affect the quality of judgment in some
situations.
Mental Characteristics- knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can

affect the road user characteristics. Knowledge of vehicle characteristics, traffic behavior,
driving practice, rules of road and psychology of road users will be quite useful for safe
traffic operations. Reactions to certain traffic situations become more spontaneous with
experience. Understanding the traffic regulation and special instructions and time action
depends on intelligence and literacy.
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Psychological Characteristics
Emotional factors like attentiveness, fear, anger, superstition, impatience, general
attitude towards traffic and regulations and maturity.
Distractions by non traffic events and worries reduce attentiveness to traffic situations.
Dangerous actions are likely due to impatience.
Some road users don not pay due regard to the traffic regulations and do not have the
right attitude towards the traffic.
Environmental Factors
• Traffic stream characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric conditions and
the locality.
• Traffic stream may consist mixed traffic or heavy traffic
• Facilities to overtake slow moving vehicles may be limited.
• The adoptability to different traffic stream characteristics depends on the driver’s
characteristics and motivation.
• Purpose of entering the traffic stream—social, recreational, business, routine
movement or an emergency dash.
• Time, place and route are based on the needs.
• Whatever may be the motive, the road user is motivated by the desire for time-
distance economy on one hand and comfort and safety on the other hand.
• Locality may be shopping centers or a place with other distractions affecting road
user behavior.
• Other important environmental factors are weather visibility and other
atmospheric conditions.
design vehicles
Dimensions (m)
Design vehicle type Overall Overhang Wheelbase
Height Width Length Front Rear WB1 WB2
Passenger car 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4
Single unit truck 4.1 2.6 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1
Single unit bus 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6
Semi trailer 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.0 8.2
Large trailer 4.1 2.6 16.7 0.9 0.6 6.1 9.1
RV-motor home 2.4 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1
Design vehicle dimensions AASHTO
Minimum turning radius of design vehicles

Design vehicle Passenger Single unit Single Semi Large Motor
type car truck unit bus trailer trailer home
Minimum turning
7.3 12.8 12.8 12.2 13.7 12.2
radius (m)
Minimum inside
4.2 8.5 7.4 5.7 5.8 7.9
radius (m)
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Numerical
(1) If a vehicle traveling at the speed of 25 kmph was stopped by applying brakes fully
and the skid marks were 9.0m long. Determine average skid resistance
V = 50 kmph
Braking distance L = 9.0 m
V2 V2 25 2
L= ⇒ f = = = 0.273
254 * f 254 * L 254 * 9.0
(2) A vehicle traveling at 40 kmph was stopped within 1.8 s after the application of
brakes, determine the average skid resistance
Initial speed, u = 40 kmph = 11.11 m/s
Braking time = 1.8 s
u
v = u + at final velocity v = 0 ⇒ retardation a =
t
W
⇒ F = ma m= F =W * f
g
a u 11.11
⇒ f = = = = 0.629
g t * g 1.8 * 9.81
(3) A vehicle was stopped by fully jamming brakes in 1.9 s and the skid marks measured
was 9.5. Determine the average skid resistance
v = u + at v=0 u = -at
− u 2 a 2t 2 2s
v2-u2 = 2as ⇒s= = ⇒a= 2 s—braking distance
2a 2a t
a 2s 2 * 9 .5
⇒ f = = 2 = = 0.534
g t * g 1.9 2 * 9.81
(4) Timing of change (yellow) and clearance (all red) intervals of traffic signals
Consider a case of intersection with approach speed of 50 kmph, a coefficient of friction
0.45 and assume that the driver’s perception reaction time of 0.5 s.
50 2
The safe stopping distance = 0.278 * 50 + = 35.77 m
254 * 0.45
For a vehicle to safely clear the intersection from a point just at the safe stopping
distance, it will have to travel the stopping distance plus the width of the street plus one
car length (to clear rear of the vehicle)
If the street if 35 m wide and car is taken to be 5.8 m long, such a vehicle must traverse
T = 35.77+5.8+25 = 66.57 m before vehicles from opposite approach are released. If
the vehicle is assumed to travel at its approaching speed of 50 kmph
66.57
Yellow time = = 4.8 seconds
50 / 3.6
The yellow and all red signal should be a total of 4.8 seconds long to accommodate the
safe clearance of vehicles unable to stop when the light changes.
(5) Sign placement

Toll plaza ahead—be prepared to stop
How far in advance of the toll plaza should such sign be placed?
Given that, it can be seen from the distance of 100m and that queued vehicles from the
toll plaza rarely extend more than 50 m from the gates. Approach speed is 60 kmph,
coefficient of friction is 0.35 and reaction time 2.5 s.
18
The sign must be seen in time to allow vehicles to stop safely before the end of the
vehicle queue at the toll plaza.
60 2
SSD = 0.278 * 60 * 2.5 + = 82.2 m
254 * 0.35
The vehicle cue extends 50 m from the toll gates. Thus the driver must see the sign a
minimum of 82.2+50 = 132.2 m from the gates. The sign itself may be read from 100m.
Thus the sign must be placed a minimum of (132.2 – 100) = 32.2m in advance of toll
gates.
(6) Accident investigations using skid distances

Make use of skid marks to estimate vehicles speeds before an accident
A vehicle hits a bridge abutment at a speed estimated by investigators as 20 kmph. Skid
marks of 30 m on the pavement (f = 0.35) followed by skid marks of 60 m on the gravel
shoulder approaching the abutment (f = 0.5). Level grade. What was the initial speed of
the vehicle?
Involves only the braking distance
Two braking distances—30 m on the pavement surface
--60 m on the gravel surface
Each has initial and final speed
V g2 − 20 2
Braking distance in gravel = 60 = ⇒ V g = 60 * 254 * 0.5 + 20 2 = 89.55
254 * 0.5
kmph
This is not only the speed at the beginning of the gravel skid, but the speed at the end of
the pavement skid. Thus for the pavement skid
Braking distance in pavement = 30 =
V p2 − 89.55 2
⇒ V p = 30 * 254 * 0.35 + 89.55 2 = 103.37 kmph
254 * 0.35
The speed of vehicle just prior to the skidding on the pavement was = 103.37 kmph
It helps to determine whether excessive speed was a contributory cause of the accident.
A car is traveling along a road at a uniform velocity when at time zero the driver
recognizes a hazard. At a moment 0.8 seconds later the driver brakes her vehicle
(locking the wheels) resulting in her vehicle sliding 90 ft in the same direction at which
time it strikes another stationery vehicle at 25 mph. the road surface is dry and f = 0.75.
the driver was traveling on a rural highway with a speed limit of 55 mph. was she
exceeding the speed limit?
Solution:
V0 = ?
V2 = 25 mph
g = 32.2 ft/sec2
Braking distance
V12 − V22
S=
2 gf
V1 = V22 + 2 gf * S = (25 *1.466)2 + 2 * 32.2 * 0.75 * 90 = 75.43 ft/s
a
V1 = V0 + t
2
Where a is deceleration and is given by a = f. g
19
32.2
Therefore V0 = 75.43 + 0.75 * * 0 .8 =
2
1.5 Traffic Studies

Traffic studies are conducted for a number of reasons
¾ Managing for physical system including inventories of control devices (signs,
signals, markings), lighting fixtures, repair and maintenance activities, decisions
and authorizations, permits, street maps, condition assessments
¾ Investigating trends over time including volume, speeds, accidents and needs
assessments so that actions can be anticipated, identified and taken.
¾ Understanding the needs and choices of the public and industry for mobility
including mode choice, routings, parking, trip making by time of day, goods
delivery, space utilization and motivation for ride sharing.
¾ Calibrating basic parameters or relations such as the perception-reaction time,
friction coefficients, discharge headways, lane utilization
¾ Assessing potential impacts including traffic and environmental impact
assessments, site developments and access requests.
¾ Evaluating performance of systems or sub systems specially focused on how well
mobility is being delivered.
¾ Traffic engineer’s responsibilities are dominated by 3 elements—evaluating
performance, assessing potential impacts and managing the physical system.
Methods of Traffic Counts

One of the fundamental measures of traffic on a road system is the volume of traffic
using the road in a given interval of time. It is also termed as flow and it is expressed in
vehicles per hour or vehicles per day.
Short and Long Term Counts

The duration of the counts depends upon the purpose for which the data are needed and
the financial and man power resources at the command of the traffic engineer.
Sometimes it is only necessary to measure the flow for a short term say an hour, at
other times the flow may be measured for an intermediate period such as a full day of
twenty four hours, in some situations, the count may extend for a duration of a full week
and lastly the count may be a continuous and regular affair.
The methods available for traffic counts are

¾ Manual methods
¾ Combination of manual and mechanical methods
¾ Mechanical methods
¾ Automatic devices
¾ Moving observer method
¾ Photographic methods
Manual data collection by direct observation in the field with use of standard paper forms
was the most prevalent method for collecting volume data for many years. By this
method, it is possible to obtain data that can not be collected by mechanical counters
such as vehicle classification, turning movements and counts where the loading
conditions or number of occupants are required.
¾ It is not practicable to have manual count for all the 24 hours of the day and on
all days round the year.
¾ Necessary to resort to statistical sampling techniques in order to cut down the
manual hours involved in taking complete counts.
20
¾ The fluctuations of traffic volume during the hours of the day and the daily
variations are observed and then by selecting typical short count periods the
traffic volume study are made by manual counting, and then by statistical
analysis the peak hourly traffic volume as well as the average daily traffic
volumes is calculated.
Mechanical Counters
¾ Fixed (permanent) or portable type
¾ Can automatically record the total number of vehicles crossing a section of the
road in a desired period.
¾ Mechanical hand counters are widely used in which buttons are depressed to
advance interlocking mechanical wheels. Different buttons are used for specific
movements (left, through, right) for classification of vehicles (auto, truck, bus,
others) or for other purposes.
¾ Roadside mechanical traffic counters activated by a pressure tube (pneumatic) as
wheels cross the tube have been used in traffic counting purpose when extended
counts (day, week, month) are needed.
¾ Wire loops buried in the pavement serve both traffic counting and traffic control
purpose. A current running through the loop creates a magnetic field and vehicles
cause changes in the magnetic field and a detectable change in current.
o Used on the minor streets as semi actuated signal locations.
o Vehicles in turn bays
o Locations for special signal phases
o All approaches and/or movements at fully actuated signal locations
¾ Counters activated using pneumatic tubes and pressure plate detectors do not
count vehicles rather axles are counted. This requires that sample classification
counts be made to establish the average number of axles per vehicle at the study
location so that conversion from axle counts to vehicle counts can be made.
¾ Photoelectric, radar, infrared and ultrasonic, photographic methods are also used
for traffic counts.
• Traffic studies or surveys are carried out to analyze the traffic characteristics
• Helps in deciding geometric features and traffic control for safe and efficient
traffic movements.
• Various types of traffic studies are
o Traffic volume study
o Speed studies—spot speed study, speed and delay study
o Origin and destination study
o Traffic flow characteristics
o Traffic capacity study
o Parking study
o Accident study
Traffic Volume Study

• Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a
highway or a given lane or direction of a highway during a specified time interval.
The unit for volume is simply ‘vehicles’ although it is often expressed as vehicles
per unit time.
• Complete traffic volume study includes—classified volume study by recording the
volume of various types and classes of traffic, directional distribution and turning
movements and the distribution on different lanes per unit time.
• Objectives and uses of traffic volume studies
o True measure of the relative importance of roads and in deciding the
priority for improvement and expansion.
21
o Used in planning, traffic operation and control of existing facilities and also
for planning and designing the new facilities.
o Used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends
o Classified traffic volume is useful in structural design of pavements, in
geometric design and in computing roadway capacity.
o Volume distribution study is used in planning one way streets and other
regulatory measures.
o Turning movement study is used in the design of intersections, in planning
signal timings, channelization and other control devices.
o Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side walks, cross
walks, subways and pedestrian signals.
Daily Volumes and Use

Common time interval for volume is day
Frequently used for highway planning and general observations of trends
Traffic volume projections are often based on measured daily volumes
AADT- is the average 24 hour traffic volume at a given location over a full 365
day year—that is the total number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided
by 365.
AAWT—is the average 24 hour traffic volume on weekdays over a full year. This
volume is of considerable interest where weekend traffic is light so that averaging
higher weekday volumes over 365 days would mask the impact of weekday
traffic. AAWT is computed by dividing the total weekday volume for the year by
260.
ADT is an average 24 hour volume at a given location for some period of time
less than a year. ADT can be measured for 6 months, a season, a month, a week
or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period of time over
which it was measured.
AWT is an average 24 hour traffic volume occurring on weekday for some period
less than one year such as for a month or a season.
Unit—vehicles per day
Daily volumes generally are not differentiated by direction or lane but are totals
for an entire facility at the specified location.
Hourly Volume and Use

Daily volumes can not be used alone for design or operational purposes.
Volume varies considerably during the course of a 24 hour day usually with
periods of maximum volume occurring during the morning and evening rush
hours.
The single hour of the day that has the highest hourly volume is referred to as
the peak hour—is of greatest interest to traffic engineers in design or operational
analysis.
Peak hour volume is generally a directional volume –that is, a volume in which
the directions of flow are separated.
Highways must be designed to adequately serve the peak hour traffic volume in
the peak direction of flow.
Most operational analyses whether concerning imposition of control measures,
safety or capacity must address conditions existing during periods of peak traffic
volume.
In design, peak hourly volumes are sometimes estimated from daily volumes
projections using the following relationships.
DDHV = AADT * k * D
Where
DDHV – directional design hour volume (vph)
22
AADT – average annual daily traffic (vpd)

K – Proportion of daily traffic occurring during the peak hour
expressed as a decimal—for design purpose k often represents the
proportion of AADT occurring during the 30th highest peak hour of
the year.
D - Proportion of peak hour traffic traveling in the peak direction
expressed as a decimal.
Sub Hourly Volumes and Rate of Flow

• The quantity of traffic flow is often related to short term fluctuations in traffic
demand. A facility may have capacity adequate to serve the peak hour demand,
but short term peaks of flow within the peak hour may exceed capacity thereby
creating a breakdown.
• Volumes observed for periods of less than one hour are generally expresses as
equivalent hourly rates of flow.
• The short term fluctuations could be quite important in terms of operating
conditions.
• The recovery process from breakdown is complex, often extending far beyond the
period of the breakdown itself. Therefore it is necessary to consider maximum
rate of flow within a peak hour.
• For reasons of statistical analysis, HCM (1997) suggests using 15 minutes for
most operational and design analyses.
• The relationship between hourly volume and the maximum rate of flow within the
hour is defined as the peak hour factor.
hourly volume
PHF =
maximum rate of flow
For 15 minutes periods—the maximum value of the PHF = 1.0 which occurs when the
volume in each 15 minutes period is equal, the minimum value is 0.25 which occurs
when the entirely hourly volume occurs in one 15 minute interval.
Presentation and Analysis of Traffic Counts

The data of traffic volume collected during studies are sorted out and are presented by
the following forms depending upon the requirements.
1. AADT or ADT of total traffic or classified traffic

¾ Helps in deciding the relative importance of a route and in phasing the
road development programme.
¾ PCU—conversion factor of different vehicle classes to one class
(passenger car)
23
Illustration of Daily Volume Parameters

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total
No. of Total Total
No. of ADT
Weekdays Monthly Weekday AWT 5/2
Month days in 4/3
in Month Volume Volume (vpd)
Month (vpd)
(days) (Veh) (Veh)
(days)
Jan. 22 31 425000 208000 9455 13710
Feb. 20 28 410000 220000 11000 14643
Mar. 22 31 385000 185000 8409 12419
Apr. 22 30 400000 200000 9091 13333
May 21 31 450000 215000 10238 14516
Jun 22 30 500000 230000 10455 16667
Jul 23 31 580000 260000 11304 18710
Aug 21 31 570000 260000 12381 18387
Sep 22 30 490000 205000 9318 16333
Oct 22 31 420000 190000 8636 13548
Nov 21 30 415000 200000 9524 13833
Dec 22 31 400000 210000 9545 12903
year 260 365 5445000 2583000 - -
AAWT = 2583000/260 = 9935 vpd
14918 vpd
AADT = 5445000/365 =
2. Trend charts: - volume trends over period of years—useful for planning future
expansion design and regulation.
3. Variation charts: - hourly, daily, seasonal variations—help in deciding the facilities
and regulation needed during peak traffic periods.
4. Traffic flow maps along the routes (the thickness of lines representing the traffic
volume to any desired scale)—help to find the traffic volume distribution at a
glance.
5. Volume flow diagram at intersections either drawn to a certain scale or indicating
traffic volume—showing details of crossing and turning traffic.
6. 30th highest hourly volume (design hourly volume)—found from the plot between
hourly volume and the number of hours in a year that the traffic volume is
exceeded. 30th highest hourly volume is the hourly volume that will be exceeded
only 29 times in a year and all other hourly volumes of the year will be less than
this value.
24
525
25 490 10 750
375 30
300 400
70
50
450 375
25 415
585 50 670 30
750
Poisson distribution
¾ in traffic engineering known as counting distribution
¾ has clear physical meaning of a no. of events X occurring in a specified counting
interval of duration T and is a one parameter distribution
m x e −m
P(X=x) = with mean µ =m and variance
x!
σ2 =m
In fact, one parameter m specifies both the mean and variance is a
limitation in that if we encounter field data where the variance and mean are clearly
different the Poisson does not apply.
1
1. when inter arrival times are exponentially distributed with mean µ= , the
λ
number of arrivals is an interval T is Poisson Distributed with mean µ = m = λT
25
2. the binomial distribution tends to approach the Poisson Distribution with

parameter m = np
Suitable approximation to the low p high n cases.
m = n*p----- average no. of times the event occurs
p—probability of occurrence of the event in a single trial
Poisson distribution is usually valid when:

--n is sufficiently large say >> 50 and
-- p is small say << 0.1
m x e −m
P( x) =
x!
• Most widely used situation is the arrival pattern of vehicles
• m—average no. of occurrence –can be determined from the observed data
Total no. of evens observed
m=
Total no. of trials or time interval
• in the case of arrival of traffic, m becomes the average no. of vehicles per any
stated time interval.
• Time interval can be 10, 15, 20 seconds etc. –designated as t secs.
• If λ is the average rate of arrival per second
m = λt
• Probability of arrival of x vehicles in any time interval t seconds
P( x) =
(λ t ) x e − λt
x!
V
• If V is the no. of vehicles per hour, the value of λ is simply
3600
• λ and t should be in the same unit
Numerical
On a motorway, the no. of vehicles arriving from one direction in successive 10 seconds
intervals was counted and recorded in table as below
Vehicles arriving in 10 seconds interval Frequency
0 11
1 28
2 30
3 18
4 8
5 4
6 1
7 and over 0
Find out the mean rate of arrival and with the help of Poisson Distribution and compare
the observed frequency with the theoretical frequency. Does the data suggest that the
arrival pattern can be considered as random?
26
Solution
No. of
Observed Theoretical
vehicles
frequency Total no. of probability of Theoretical
arriving in Total time
vehicles stated no. of Probability
10s ( fi )
arrivals in 10s
interval
(1) (2) (3)=(1)*(2) (4)=(2)*10 (5) (6)=(5)* ∑f i
0 11 0 110 0.1353 13.53

1 28 28 280 0.2706 27.06
2 30 60 300 0.2706 27.06
3 18 54 180 0.1804 18.04
4 8 32 80 0.0932 9.32
5 4 20 40 0.0361 3.61
6 1 6 10 0.0120 1.20
7 and over 0 0 0 0.0048 0.48
∑ =100 ∑ =200 ∑ =1000 ∑ =1.0000 ∑ =100.00
λ = arrival per unit time (one second)

total no. of vehicles arriving durign the observation 200
= = = 0.2 veh/sec
total time of observation 1000
t = selected time interval for observation = 10 seconds
P( x) =
(λt )x e − λt P ( x = 0) =
(λt )0 e − λt
x! 0!
Comparing column (2) and (6)—good agreement between the observed data and the
frequency to be expected under Poisson distribution.
The data on the table shows the occupancy of parking spaces in a parking lot consisting
of 50 spaces. The count was taken as 15 minute intervals during the 4 hours duration
between 11AM ~3 PM on 6 weekdays. Find the inspection whether the no. of vacant
spaces during any count follows a Poisson distribution.
Occupancy of parking spaces Frequency

50 6
49 15
48 21
47 20
46 15
45 10
44 5
43 2
42 1
41 1
40 and less 0
27
Solution:
No. of vacant
Observed Theoretical
spaces out of 50 Theoretical
frequency Total no. of frequency of
Total spaces probability of stated
vacant spaces stated no. of
available = 50 – ( fi ) no. of vacant spaces
vacant spaces
spaces occupied
(1) (2) (3)=(1)*(2) (5) (6)=(5)* ∑f i
0 6 0 0.0498 4.8
1 15 15 0.1494 14.3
2 21 42 0.2241 21.5
3 20 60 0.2241 21.5
4 15 60 0.1681 16.5
5 10 50 0.1009 9.6
6 5 30 0.0505 4.8
7 2 14 0.0216 2.1
8 1 8 0.0081 0.8
9 1 9 0.0027 0.3
10 or more 0 0 0.0007 0.1
∑ =96 ∑ =288 ∑ =1.0000 ∑ =96.00
Cordon Survey
• a cordon is an imaginary boundary around a study area of interest
• Established to define a CBD or other major activity center, where the
accumulation of vehicles within the area is of great importance in traffic planning.
• Cordon volume studies require counting all streets and highways that cross the
cordon, classifying the counts by direction and by 15~60 minute time periods.
• Such counts will enable the estimation of vehicle accumulations with in the area.
• The cordon must be large enough to define the area of interest, yet small enough
to define area within which accumulation data will be useful for planning.
• Cordon is established to cross all streets and highways at mid block locations to
avoid the complexity of establishing whether turning vehicles are entering or
leaving the area.
• Natural barriers such as rivers, railroads or other points of limited crossing can be
used as part of the cordon where available to simplify the counting program.
• Accumulated information can be used to estimate street capacity and parking
needs –so similar land use type
• The accumulation of vehicles within the cordon boundary is found by summarizing
the total of all counts entering and leaving the area by time period.
28
Accumulation Computations for a Cordon Study

Vehicles Vehicles Accumulation
Time
Entering Leaving (veh)
4:00~5:00 AM - - 250
5:00~6:00 100 20 330
6:00~7:00 150 40 440
7:00~8:00 200 40 600
8:00~9:00 290 80 810
9:00~10:00 350 120 1040
10:00~11:00 340 200 1180
11:00~12:00 Noon 350 350 1180
12:00~1:00 PM 260 300 1140
1:00~2:00 200 380 960
2:00~3:00 180 420 720
3:00~4:00 100 350 470
4:00~5:00 120 320 270
Counts generally begun at an hour when the street system is virtually empty.
Speed Studies
o Traffic speed is often used in describing the rate of movement of traffic.
o There are many different types of speeds each of which describes the rate of
traffic movement under specific conditions and for a specific purpose.
o Spot speeds, running speeds and journey speeds are some of most interest.
Spot Speed
¾ Stantaneous speed of vehicle at a specified location
¾ Variety of uses
o To determine enforceable speed limits
o Indicative of the speeds desired by the motorists—used for geometric design
purposes on improved or new facilities.
o Specific control applications including timing of yellow and all red signal intervals,
proper placement of signs and establishing proper signal progression.
o Investigation of high accident locations at which speed is suspected to be a
causative factor.
Travel time
o Is the reciprocal of speed and is a simple measure of how well a road network is
operating
Average speed
¾ There is a broad distribution of individual speeds in a traffic stream, an average
travel speed is considered. Average speed is the average of the all spot speeds of
all vehicles passing a given point on the highway.
distance
¾ Speed = --inverse of time taken by a vehicle to travel a given distance
time
Time Mean Speed and Space Mean Speed

TMS- is defined as the average speed of all vehicles passing a point on a highway over
some specified time period. It represents the speed distribution of vehicles at a point on
the roadway and it is the average of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the
spot.
29
n n
d
∑v i ∑t
i =1
TMS = i=1
= i
n n
SMS—is defined as the average speed of all vehicles occupying a given section of a
highway over some specified time period.
¾ Obtained from the observed travel time of the vehicles over a relatively
long stretch of the road
L nL
SMS = n
= n
ti
∑
i =1 n
∑i =1
ti
SMS is slightly lower than TMS

Computation of TMS and SMS
Travel Time
Vehicle No. Distance (m) Speed (m/s)
(s)
1 200 18.0 200/18=11.11
2 200 20.0 200/20=10.00
3 200 22.0 200/22=9.09
4 200 19.0 200/19=10.53
5 200 20.0 200/20=10.00
Total 1000 99.00
Average 200 99/5 = 19.80 10.15
TMS = 10.15 m/s
SMS = 200/(99/5)=1000/99=10.10 m/s
Running speed- average speed maintained over a given route while the vehicle is in
motion. In determining the running speed, the times along the route when the vehicle is
at rest are not taken into account in the calculations.
¾ Can be used as a measure of the level of service offered by a highway
section over a long period of time—useful for a highway planner.
Travel speed—is the effective speed with which a vehicle traverses a particular route
between two terminals and is obtained by dividing the traveled distance by the total time
taken to complete the distance.
¾ This total time includes both the running time, when the vehicle is actually in
motion and the time when the vehicle is at rest i.e. at traffic signals, in traffic jams
etc.
¾ Primary concern of motorist
¾ Direct measurement of traffic congestion and the general adequacy or inadequacy
of a road or road system—highway economic studies normally utilize journey times
and speeds in their analyses.
¾ Journey times are used as criteria on which to base decisions regarding the
diversion and assignment of traffic to new and improved highway facilities.
Method of spot speed measurement

¾ Spot speeds are affected by physical features of the road like pavement width, curve,
sight distance, gradient, pavement unevenness, intersections and road side
developments, environmental conditions (weather, visibility etc.0 enforcement, traffic
conditions, driver vehicle and motive of travel.
¾ Use of radar meter—data collection operation should be concealed from traffic
otherwise drivers will slow down and the measurements no longer reflect speeds
freely selected by drivers.
30
¾ Measurement of travel times over a short trap distance manually with a stop watch
less accurate (random error and some systematic error caused by the angle of
observation) but they are less likely to cause drivers to alter their behavior.
¾ Care must be taken to avoid systematic errors in the data collection process.
Common errors include:
¾ Looking for the ‘fastest’ vehicle causing a bias to higher speeds in the
database.
¾ Disproportionate inclusion of trucks or other heavy vehicles in the sample
causing a bias to lower speeds.
¾ Inclusion of speeds of vehicles following a lead vehicle in platoon—causing
a bias to lower speed
The first two are avoided by sampling on a systematic basis such as every
nth vehicle in each lane depending upon the collection capabilities.
¾ The specified or base distance recommended depends on the speed being
measured
For speeds (kmph) Recommended base distance (m)
Under 40 27
40~65 54
Over 65 81
¾ To avoid excessive computations, the entire data are grouped into speed class
intervals. A convenient class interval of convenient size is easily obtained from
the expression
R
Ci =
(1+ 3.322 log n )
Where Ci—class interval
R—range between the largest and the smallest speed
n—no. of observations
Location Date Time

Weather conditions Roadway surface conditions
Speed Group Time Group Passenger
Trucks Remarks
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Cars
Method of measurement
Time over measured length of
Numerical:
The following counts were observed on a freeway. Computer (a) the hourly volume (b)
the peak rate of flow for a 5 minute period (c) the peak rate of flow for a 15 minute
period and (d) the peak hour factor based upon 15 minutes period.
31
15 minute
Time Count
count
5:00~5.05
201
PM
626
5:05~5:10 208
5:10~5:15 217
5:15~5:20 232
5:20~5:25 219 671
5:25~5:30 220
5:30~5:35 205
5:35~5:40 201 601
5:40~5:45 195
5:45~5:50 210
5:50~5:55 190 595
5:55~6:00 195
Total 2493
a) hourly volume = 2493 vph

60
b) peak rate of flow for 15 min. period = * 671 = 2684 vph
15
60
c) peak rate of flow for 5 min. period = 232 * = 2784 vph
5
2493
d) PHF based on 15 min. period = = 0.929
2684
2) The following travel times were measured for vehicles as they traversed a 2.0 mile
segment of highway. Compute the time mean speed and the space mean speed.
Travel Time
Vehicle
(s)
1 2.6
2 2.4
3 2.4
4 2.8
5 2.2
6 2.1
Solution:-
d
∑ (t )
Time mean speed (TMS) = i
n
1 ⎡ 1 1 1 1 1 1 ⎤
= *2*⎢ + + + + +
6 ⎣ 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.8 2.2 2.1⎥⎦
= 0.8353 mpmin
= 50.12 mph
nD
Space mean speed (SMS) =
∑ ti
6*2
=
2 .6 + 2 .4 + 2 .4 + 2 . 8 + 2 .2 + 2 .1
32
= 0.8276 mpmin
= 49.66 mph
A student recorded the following traffic counts of vehicles traveling on the roadside lane
of a freeway. Compute a) the hourly volume b) the peak rate of flow for a 5-minute
period and c) the peak rate of flow for a 15 minute period for this lane.
Time Count Time Count

8:35~8:40 AM 104 9:05~9:10 Am 101
8:40~8:45 AM 109 9:10~9:15 Am 105
8:45~8:50 AM 116 9:15~9:20 Am 130
8:50~8:55 AM 122 9:20~9:25 Am 103
8:55~9:00 AM 130 9:25~9:30 Am 107
9:00~9:05 AM 121 9:30~9:35 Am 105
Solution:
Time 5 min Count 15 min count
8:35~8:40 AM 104 329
8:40~8:45 AM 109
8:45~8:50 AM 116
8:50~8:55 AM 122 373
8:55~9:00 AM 130
9:00~9:05 AM 121
9:05~9:10 Am 101 336
9:10~9:15 Am 105
9:15~9:20 Am 130
9:20~9:25 Am 103 315
9:25~9:30 Am 107
9:30~9:35 Am 105
Total 1353 1353
a) hourly volume = 1353

60
b) peak rate of flow for 5 minute period = * 130 =
5
60
c) peak rate of flow for 15 min period = * 373 =
15
A helicopter pilot recorded the travel time of five vehicles on a 2 mile segment of a
highway. Estimate the time mean speed and the space mean speed of the vehicles
Vehicle Travel time
1 161
2 173
3 145
4 159
5 182
Solution:
d
∑t 2 ⎛ 1 1 1 1 1 ⎞
TMS = *⎜
i
= + + + + ⎟
n 5 ⎝ 161 173 145 159 182 ⎠
nD 2*5
SMS = =
∑ ti 161 + 173 + 145 + 159 + 182
Presentation and analysis of data
Spot speed data are presented in several standard formats.
33
1. frequency distribution table

From the spot speed data of the selected sample, frequency distribution tables are
prepared by arranging the data in groups covering various speed ranges. This table
shows the total number of vehicles observed in each speed group. The middle speed S of
the third column is taken as the mid point value within the speed group. As individual
speeds have not been recorded, it will be assumed that the average speed of vehicles
observed within any speed group is the middle speed. This is why speed group of more
than 5 kmph are not used. As the size of the speed group increases, accuracy of this
assumption decreases.
Speed group
No. of
Lower Upper Middle Vehicle in Cumulative
vehicles in nS nS2
Limit Limit speed S group (%) vehicle (%)
group n
Kmph Kmph
32 34 33 0 0.0 0 0 0
34 36 35 5 1.8 1.8 175 6125
36 38 37 5 1.8 3.5 185 6845
38 40 39 7 2.5 6.0 273 10647
40 42 41 13 4.6 10.6 533 21853
42 44 43 21 7.4 18.0 903 38829
44 46 45 33 11.7 29.7 1485 66825
46 48 47 46 16.3 45.9 2162 101614
48 50 49 62 21.9 67.8 3038 148862
50 52 51 37 13.1 80.9 1887 96237
52 54 53 24 8.5 89.4 1272 67416
54 56 55 14 4.9 94.3 770 42350
56 58 57 9 3.2 97.5 513 29241
58 60 59 5 1.8 99.3 295 17405
60 62 61 2 0.7 100.0 122 7442
62 64 63 0 0 100.0 0 0
Total 283 100 13613 661691
4th column: number of vehicles or frequency observed for each speed group.
5th column: percentage of vehicles in each group
34
Frequency and cumulative frequency distribution curves
Frequency Distribution Curve
25.0
20.0
% Frequency
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57 59 61 63
Speed
Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve
120
Cu m ulati ve Frequency
100
80
60
40
20
0
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64
Speed
The frequency distribution curve plots points which represent the middle speed of each
speed group Vs the percentage frequency in the speed group.
The cumulative frequency distribution curve plots the upper limit of the speed group
against the cumulative percentage frequency for the group. Because the cumulative
percentage frequency is defined as the percentage of vehicles traveling at or below a
given speed, the speed index must be the upper limit of speed for the group NOT the
middle speed.
The Average or Mean Speed

¾ Computed by summing all of the individual observations and dividing by
the number of observations. But data have been collected in group and
exact values of individual speeds are unknown.
Assumption—the average speed within a given speed group represents the
average speed of all observations within the group.
Therefore sum of all speeds within the group I may be estimated as
ni S i
Where ni—frequency of observations in group;
35
Si—middle speed of group i

Total sum of all speeds in the study = ∑n S
i i
Average speed x =
∑n S i i
N
N—total number of individual speed observations made and recorded
13613
∴x = = 40.10
283
The median speed is defined as the value of speed that divides the distribution into
equal halves i.e. there are as many drivers traveling at speeds higher than median as
are driving slower than it.
¾ Best found graphically from the cumulative frequency distribution curve
¾ Commonly referred to as the 50th percentile speed P50
The modal speed is defined as the single value of speed that is most likely to occur.
¾ Can be scaled from the frequency distribution curve y dropping a vertical
line from the peak of the curve reading the result from the horizontal
curve.
If the curve if perfectly symmetric around the mean, then the average speed, the
median speed and the modal speed are all the same.
85th percentile speed—found from cumulative frequency distribution curve—gives that

speed at or below which 85% of the vehicles are passing the point on the highway or
15% of the vehicles exceed the speed at that speed. The drivers exceeding 85th
percentile speed are usually considered to drive faster than the safe speed under
existing conditions and hence this speed is adopted for the safe speed limit at this zone.
However for the purpose of highway geometric design, the 98th percentile speed is
taken.
The 15th percentile speed represents the lower speed limit if it is desired to prohibit
slow moving vehicles to decrease delay and congestion as 85% of the vehicles to the
stream travel at speeds higher than this value and therefore need overtaking
opportunities.
The standard deviation

¾ Most common measure of speed of data around a central value is the
standard deviation.
s=
∑ (x i − x) 2
N −1
¾ Because speed data is calculated by group
∑ n (V ∑n V
2
− x) 2 2
− Nx
s= ⇒ s=
i i i i
N −1 N −1
For our example
661891− 283 * 48.12
s= = 4.94
283 − 1
Variance s2 =
∑ (x i − x) 2
N −1
36
The standard deviation of the distribution may also be roughly estimated using two
values from the cumulative frequency distribution curve.
P85 − P15 52.5 − 42.7
s est = = = 4.9
2 2
• Based on the assumption that speeds are normally distributed and that the area
under a normal distribution between the mean ± one standard deviation is
approximately 70% (68.3% to be exact)
Applying the normal distribution to analysis of spot speed data

1 ⎛ x−µ ⎞
2
1 − ⎜ ⎟
2⎝ σ ⎠
Gaussian function f ( x) = e
σ 2π
Where µ -- population mean
σ -- standard deviation
z2
1 − x−µ
Standard normal distribution f ( z) = e 2
z=
2π σ
¾ Most of the cases speed distribution tends to be normal

Strong central tendency and decreasing probability of extreme values
s
Standard error of mean E=
n
From the characteristics of normal distribution
95% of all values lie between the mean ± 1.96E
99.7% of all values lie between the mean ± 3.0E
As the confidence level increases, the precision also increases.
Numerical
The spot speeds at a particular location are normally distributed with a mean of 51.7
kmph and a standard deviation of 8.3 kmph, what is the probability that
a) the speed exceeds 65 kmph
b) and the speed lie between 40 kmph and 70 kmph?
c) What is the 85th percentile speed?
Solution:
µ =51.7
σ =8.3
a) probability that speed exceed 65 kmph is the area under the normal curve to the
right of x = 65 kmph
Standard normal variable
x−µ 65 − 51.7 13.3
z= = = = 1 .6
σ 8 .3 8 .3
From table
Φ (1.6) = 0.9452
P ( x ≥ 65) = 1 − Φ ( z ) = 1 − 0.9452
b) probability that speeds lie between 40 and 70 kmph
= P(40 < x < 70) = Φ( z 2 ) − Φ( z1 )
70 − 51.7
z2 = = 2.21
8 .3
40 − 51.7
z1 = = −1.41
8 .3
37
Φ(z 2 ) = Φ(2.21) = 0.9864

Φ( z1 ) = Φ(−1.41) = 1 − Φ(1.41) = 1 − 0.9207 = 0.0793
∴ P ( 40 < x < 70) = 0.9864 − 0.0793 = 0.9071 = 90.71%
c) 85th percentile speed—speed below which 85% of all the speed lie
∴ Φ ( z ) = 0.85
z = 1.04
x−µ x − 51.7
z= = = 1.04
σ 8.3
∴ x = 1.04 * 8.3 + 51.7 = 8.6 + 51.7 = 60.3 kmph---85th percentile s peed
Estimating the required sample size

s
e = xE = x e—tolerance
n
X—1.96 for 95% confidence
-- 3.0 for 99.7% confidence
x2s2
⇒n= s—standard deviation from a previous
e2
study on the same facility may be used (5kmph)
In connection with a survey for determining the spot speed at a given location of
highway, it is desired to obtain the average speed within 2 kmph with a probability of
0.95. Previous studies have indicated that the standard deviation of the speeds is 8
kmph. What size of sample should be selected?
Solution:
σ σ
⇒E= e = xE = x
n n
σ *x 2 2
8 * 1.96 2 2
∴n = = = 61.5 say that about 60 observations.
e2 22
Before and after studies
Consider the following typical situation—an accident analysis at a critical location on a

highway indicates that excessive speeds are a principal causative factor in the frequent
accidents. As a result new speed limit signs are installed and a lower limit is applied.
Enforcement procedures are intensified. Six months later, speed studies at the location
show a 3 mph reduction in the average speed. Were the new speed limit, signs and
enforcement procedures effective?
Dilemma—even if two different speed samples were taken at the location at the same
time, the average speeds would be different.
Question—whether or not the observed reduction in speeds reflects real changes in the
underlying average speed of the population, or whether it was achieved through the
chance of selection of two different samples from the same population.
• Can be tested using a procedure called the Normal Approximation
• If two speed studies are conducted at the same location and it is assumed that
both samples are selected from the same underlying population, then the
difference in sample means is normally distributed with in average of ‘0’
difference and standard deviation of
38
s12 s 22
SY = + n1, n2 should be greater than 30
n1 n 2
1—before test
2—after test
SY—pooled standard deviation of the distribution of sample mean
differences
( x1 − x 2 ) − 0
Zd = 0 mean—no change in the mean as a result of
SY
the traffic improvements.
The observed difference in sample means is statistically significant if
Pr ob( Z ≤ Z d ) ≥ 95%
Not significant if Pr ob( Z ≤ Z d ) < 95% using α = 0.05 confidence
Consider the following example

A speed study with n = 50 results in an average speed of 65.3 kmph and a standard
deviation of 5 kmph. After making traffic improvements intended to reduce average
speeds, a second study was made 6 months later. This study with n = 60 resulted in an
average speed of 64.5 kmph and a standard deviation of 6 kmph. Was the observed
reduction in speeds statistically significant?
52 62
(1) SY = + = 1.05 kmph
50 60
65.3 − 64.5
(2) Zd = = 0.76
1.05
(3) Find Prob ( Z ≤ Z d ) ⇒ Pr ob ( Z ≤ 0.76) = 0.7764 = 77.64% < 95%
Observed reduction in average speeds is not statistically significant.
Speed and Delay Analysis
Gives: - running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuations in speeds and the delay between
two stations of a road spaced for apart.
- Information related to amount, location, duration, frequency and causes of the
delay in the traffic stream.
- Results are used to detect spots of congestion, their causes so that suitable
remedial measures can be provided. Also used in finding the travel time and in
benefit cost analysis.
Time lost during the travel—fixed delays and operational delays

Fixed—at intersections due to traffic signals
Operational—caused by the interference of traffic movements (turning vehicles, parking
and unparking vehicles, pedestrians etc.) and by internal friction in the traffic stream
due to high traffic volume, inefficient capacity and by accidents.
Various methods of carrying out speed and delay study

¾ Floating car
¾ License plate observations—do not give details such as causes of delays and the
duration and no. of delays within the test section.
¾ Observation of vehicles from a vantage point—short section line intersection
¾ Photographic technique
¾ Interview technique—collected data may not provide with all the details correctly.
39
Floating Car Methods:

¾ A test vehicle is driven over a given course of travel at approximately the average
speed of the stream.
¾ Record the times at various control points like intersections, bridges or any other
fixed points in each trip, duration of individual delays.
¾ Time, location and cause of delays
¾ No. of vehicles traveling in the opposite direction in each trip
na + nw
q=
ta + tw
nw
t ave = t w −
q
q—flow of vehicles (veh/min) in one direction of stream
na—average number of vehicles counted in the direction of the stream when the
test vehicle travels in the opposite direction.
nw—the average number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the no. of
vehicles overtaken when the test is in the direction of q.
tw—average journey time in min when the test vehicle is traveling with the stream
q.
ta—average journey time in minute when test vehicle is running against the
stream q.
L
Journey speed =
t ave
Time speed plots of vehicle paths
(1) (2)
C D (3)(4)(5) (6)
1000 (7)
(8)
(9)
800
B B'
Distance (m)
?X
600
A A'
400
(10)
ph
m
7
.2
27 (11)
200 (12)
0 C' D' 5 10 15 20 25
?t Time (sec)
(a) to calculate the vehicles flow

An observer counts 7 vehicles crossing line A-A’ in 25 secs, calculate the flow of
vehicles per hour
n 7 veh
q= = =
T 25 min
(b) A speed trap consisting of a record of times when vehicle passed the points AA’
and BB’ was made. Find the average speed of vehicles 3, 4, 5,6,7,8 and 9
assuming that the trap distance is….
40
(c)
Time of passing Time of passing Trap Time
Vehicle Speed
AA' BB' (min)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
Numerical
The consolidated data collected from speed and delay studies by floating car method on
a stretch of urban road of length 3.5 km running North-South are given below.
Determine the average values of volume, journey speed and running speed of the traffic
stream along either direction.
Total No. of
Journey
Stopped No. of No. of Vehicles
Trip Direction Time
Delay Vehicles vehicles from
No. of Trip
Overtaking Overtaken Opposite
min sec min sec
Direction
1 N-S 6 32 1 40 4 7 268
2 S-N 7 14 1 50 5 3 186
3 N-S 6 50 1 30 5 3 280
4 S-N 7 40 2 0 2 1 200
5 N-S 6 10 1 10 3 5 250
6 S-N 8 0 2 22 2 2 170
7 N-S 6 28 1 40 2 5 290
8 S-N 7 30 1 40 3 2 160
41
Solution:
Mean Values Calculation
Stopped
Journey Time Number of Vehicles
Delay
Direction
In Opposite
Min Sec Min Sec Overtaking Overtaken
Direction
6 32 1 40 4 7 268
6 50 1 30 5 3 280
N-S
6 10 1 10 3 5 250
6 28 1 40 2 5 290
Total 26 0 6 0 14 20 1088
Mean 6 30 1 30 3.5 5 272
7 14 1 50 5 3 186
7 40 2 0 2 1 200
S-N
8 0 2 22 2 2 170
7 30 1 40 3 2 160
Total 30 24 7 52 12 8 716
Mean 7 36 1 58 3 2 179
N-S Direction
n w = 3.5 − 5.0 = −1.5
na = 179
t w = 6 min 30 secs = 6.5 min
t a = 7 min 36 secs = 7.6 min
na + n w 179 − 1.5
q= = = 12.59 veh/min
ta + tw 6.5 + 7.6
nw − 1 .5
t ave = t w −
= 6 .5 − = 6.62 min
q 12.59
3.5 3.5 * 60
Average journey speed = = = 31.7 kmph
6.62 6.62
Average stopped delay = 1.5 min
Average running time = 6.62 – 1.5 = 5.12 min
3.5 * 60
Average running speed = = 41.0 kmph
5.12
S-N Direction
n w = 3.0 − 2.0 = 1.0

na = 272
t w = 7 min 36 secs = 7.6 min
t a = 6 min 30 secs = 6.5 min
na + n w 272 + 1
q= = = 19.36 veh/min
ta + tw 6.5 + 7.6
nw 1
t ave = t w − = 7 .6 − = 7.55 min
q 19.36
42
3.5 3.5 * 60
Average journey speed = = = 27.8 kmph
7.55 7.55
Average stopped delay = 1.8 min
Average running time = 7.55 – 1.80 = 5.75 min
3.5 * 60
Average running speed = = 36.5 kmph
5.75
A travel time study on a busy inner city route was conducted using the moving vehicle
method. Estimate the travel time and volume on this section of the highway. The data
for this study are as follows.
Run Direction Travel time No. of vehicles
(min) Traveling in Overtaking test Overtaken by
opposite direction vehicle test vehicle
1 NB 15.80 320 7 2
2 NB 16.20 332 10 3
3 NB 15.40 340 11 3
4 SB 15.93 305 12 4
5 SB 16.35 328 15 5
6 SB 16.33 345 5 0
Solution
N-B direction
15.80 + 16.20 + 15.40
Mean travel time = =
3
7 + 10 + 11
Mean no. of overtaking test vehicle = = 9.3
3
2+3+3
Mean no. of overtaken by test vehicle = = 2.6
3
SB direction
15.93 + 16.35 + 16.33
Mean travel time = =
3
12 + 15 + 5
Mean no. of overtaking test vehicle = = 10.6
3
4+5+0
Mean no. of overtaken by test vehicle = =3
3
Traffic flow parameter
¾ transverse and longitudinal distribution of vehicles on the various routes

¾ The gap ahead of each vehicle determines the longitudinal distribution of vehicles in
one way traffic stream.
¾ Spacing (space headway) is defined as the distance between successive vehicles in a
traffic lane measured from some common reference point on the vehicles such as the
front bumpers or front wheels
¾ Headway (time headway) is the time between successive vehicles as they pass a
point along the lane also measured between common reference points on the
vehicles.
¾ The number of headways per unit time is dependent on the rate of traffic flow and is
therefore a direct measure of traffic volume.
¾ With increase in speed of traffic stream, the minimum space headways increases
where as the minimum time headways first decreases and after reaching a minimum
value at optimum speed or the stream increases as shown in figure.
43
Minimum Headway (s)

Minimum Spacing (m)
ay
Headw
in g
Spac
Observed Speed
¾ Lane occupancy is a measure used in freeway surveillance. If one could measure the
lengths of vehicle on a given roadway section and compute the ratio
R=
sum of lengths of vehicles
=
∑L i
Then R could be divided by the
length of roadway section D
average length of a vehicle to give an estimate of the density (k)
¾ Lane occupancy can also be described as the ratio of the time that vehicles are
present at a detection station in a traffic lane compared to the time of sampling
total time vehicle detector is occupied ∑ t 0
LO = =
total observation time T
¾ Clearance and gap corresponds to parameters of spacing and headway
Direction of Travel
C
L = Length of Vehicle
C = Distance between loops of detector
The difference between spacing and clearance is obviously the average length of a
vehicle. Similarly the difference between headway and gap is the time equivalence of
the average length of a vehicle (L/v)
L
g = h− & C = g *v
v
Where
g—mean gap (s)
L—mean length of vehicle
C—mean clearance
h—mean headway
v—mean speed
44
Traffic flow characteristics
Traffic facilities are broadly separated into two principal categories

¾ Uninterrupted flow facilities
¾ Interrupted flow facilities
Uninterrupted flow facilities are those on which no external factors cause periodic
interruption to the traffic stream.
¾ Exists primarily on freeways and other limited access facilities where there are no
traffic signals, STOP or YIELD signs or surface intersections to interrupt the flow.
¾ Also may exist on long section of rural highway between signalized intersections.
¾ Traffic stream is the product of individual vehicles interacting with each other and
with the geometric and general environment of the roadway.
¾ Even when the facility is experiencing extreme congestion, breakdowns are the result
of internal interactions in the traffic stream, not external causes. Thus even when a
driver is in a traffic jam on a freeway, the facility is still classified as ‘uninterrupted
flow’.
Interrupted flow facilities are those having external devices that periodically interrupt
traffic flow.
¾ Principal device is traffic signal, STOP and YIELD signs
¾ Must deal with the constant stopping and restarting of a traffic stream.
¾ Flow depends not only on the interactions among vehicles and the roadway
environment but also on signal timing.
¾ Because of the periodic interruption of flow on such a facility, flow occurs in platoons.
A platoon is a group of vehicles moving along a facility together with significant gaps
between one such group and the next.
It should be noted that uninterrupted and interrupted flows are terms that describe the
facility and not the quality of flow.
Uninterrupted traffic flow model
C
D
Spacing
Normal Flow
Forced Flow
A
Congestion Capacity
Veh/hr
¾ Several vehicles driven by rational drivers along a section of freeway
¾ As vehicles speed and spacing increases, the speed approaches free speed—drivers
adopt their own speed when uninfluenced by other vehicles in traffic stream (Point C)
45
¾ Point A—represents the maximum traffic density that occurs when traffic has come to
complete stop.
¾ The dashed curve represents the normal flow behavior if all drivers were to have the
same free speed (D)
¾ Drivers are uninfluenced by other vehicles in the traffic lane at flows of about 900
vehicles per hour per lane or less—about half the capacity flow (Point B)
¾ In the forced region, each vehicle adopts its minimum spacing and clearance.
Analysis of speed, flow and density relationship
The travel time per unit length of road is inversely proportional to the speed. If T is the
travel time and V is the speed in kmph
60
T (min/ km) =
V
Total Time T
Speed
At higher speeds, the rate of savings in travel time decreases.

¾ It is hypothesized that a linear relationship exists between the speed of
traffic on an uninterrupted traffic lane and the traffic density (veh/km)
V = A − Bk
Where
V—mean speed of vehicles
k—average density of vehicles
A/B—empirically determined parameters
V=A-BK
A>0,B>0
Mean Speed ,v
A
B
Density, k
Because the flow of an uninterrupted traffic stream is the product of the density
and the speed,
q = kV = Ak − Bk 2
(V − A)V A V2
q = kV = = V−
−B B B
At zero density—mean free speed = A
At zero speed – jam density = A/B
The maximum flow occurs at about half the mean free speed = A2/4B
46
As flow increases, so does the density until the capacity of the highway lane is reached.
The point of maximum flow (qmax) corresponds to optional density (k0). From this point
onwards, s the density increases, flow decreases. At jam density (kj) the flow is almost
zero.
Mean Speed ,v
Mean Speed ,v
A A
B B
C
C
D
Density, k D Flow, q
C
Flow,q
A D
Density, k
Point A—density close to zero—very few vehicles on the road—volume is also close to
zero, vehicles can choose their own individual speeds
Volume
Volume
y
De nsit
-
d p eed De
ee e-S ns
Sp u m ity
Vol ace
f
Sur
De
ed ns
pe ity
S
Capacity analysis
¾ One of the most critical needs in traffic engineering is a clear understanding of
how much traffic a given facility can accommodate and under what operating
conditions?
47
¾ Highway capacity manual—published by TRB

¾ HCM defines the capacity of a facility as the maximum hourly rate at which
persons or vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or uniform
segment of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing
roadway and traffic conditions.
Capacity of a facility depends upon

Prevailing conditions—traffic conditions—mixed traffic conditions
Peaking characteristics
Proportion of turning movements
Roadway conditions—geometric characteristics of the facility, type
of facility, number and use of lanes, lane and shoulder widths, horizontal and vertical
alignments etc.
Control conditions—signals at individual intersections
Capacity is defined for a point or uniform section of a facility.
Capacity is the maximum rate of flow that can be accommodated by the facility segment.
Reasonable expectancy—measuring capacity directly is difficult –measured capacity at a
single location will show moderate to significant variation from day to day, week to week
and year to year. Local driving habits produce a variation in observed capacities for a
given types of facilities in different regions.
Capacity is therefore not the highest flow rate ever observed on a given facility. Rather it
represents a value that can be reasonably expected to exist on a regular basis over time
and in different regions for similar facilities. It is not therefore impossible to observe
actual flow rates that exceed the capacity. Higher values however can not be counted on
to exist at all times and in all locations. Thus as a criteria for both analysis and design,
values are based on what can be reasonably expected with consistency.
Traffic capacity is the ability of a roadway to accommodate traffic volume. It is

expressed as the maximum no. of vehicles in a lane or road that can pass a given pint in
unit time, usually an hour i.e. vehicles per hour per lane or roadway
Volume represents an actual rate of flow and responds to variations in traffic demand
while the capacity indicates a capability or maximum rate of flow with a certain level of
service characteristics that can be carried by the roadway.
Basic capacity: - is the maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a given
point on a lane or roadway during one hour under the most nearly ideal roadway and
traffic conditions which can possibly be attained. (Theoretical capacity)
1000V
C=
S
Where
C – Capacity of a single lane (veh/hour)
V—speed (kmph)
S—average center to center spacing of vehicles when they follow one
behind another in a queue---space headway (m)
S = length of vehicle (average) + clear spacing between the vehicles
It is always found that drivers follow the vehicles ahead at a closer gap at a lower speeds
and the clear spacing is increased at higher speeds of the traffic stream.
Space gap allowed by the driver of a flowing vehicle depends on
¾ Speeds of leading and following vehicles
48
¾ Type and characteristics of two vehicles

¾ Driver characteristics (following vehicles)
¾ Traffic volume to capacity ratio
¾ Proportion of vehicle classes in the stream
¾ Road geometrics
¾ Environmental factors
The space gap allowed by the following vehicle in a traffic stream is sometimes assumed
to be equal to the distance traveled during the reaction time of the driver assuming that
the braking distances of the lead and the following vehicles are approximately equal.
∴ S = 0.278 * V * t + L
As the driver of the following vehicle is quite alert, the average reaction time is low
0.7~0.75 seconds.
∴ S = (0.2V + L ) m
The maximum theoretical capacity of a traffic lane may be obtained if the minimum time
headway H t is known
3600
C=
Ht
Where C is the capacity, vehicles per hour (3600 seconds) and H t is the minimum time
headway in seconds.
Possible capacity
Is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway
during one hour under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
¾ Lower than basic capacity as the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions
are not ideal.
¾ It may approach to zero when the traffic condition is very bad and due to
traffic congestion, the traffic may come to standstill.
¾ Possible capacity varies from zero to basic capacity
Practical capacity
Is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway
during one hour without traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay,
hazard or restrictions to the driver’s freedom to maneuver under the prevailing roadway
and traffic conditions.
¾ Design capacity
Factors affecting capacity

A. geometric conditions affecting capacity
1. horizontal and vertical alignment

If not up to the standard—drivers must slow down and exercise more caution--reduced
speed and reduction in capacity, restriction to sight distance—reduction in capacity
2. lane width and lateral clearance

Narrow lanes force drivers to travel laterally closer to one another than is comfortable.
Drivers compensate by driving slower at similar densities or by leaving longer spacing
between themselves and a lead vehicle in either case reducing the capacity.
Restricted lateral clearance has a similar effect—drivers will shy away from a barrier or
objects at the roadside that are close enough to impose an obvious hazard to the driver.
3. grade
49
The impact of grades on traffic operations and capacity is complex. HCM (97) assumes
that the combination of heavy vehicles and grades creates an impact. It is clear that
grades can and do influence traffic behaviors, HCM has not yet developed a consistent
way of treating this impact.
B. prevailing traffic conditions

a. directional distribution:
Two lane rural highway—passing maneuvers in one direction must take place in the
opposing lane of flow, flow in one direction has an important influence over flow in the
other.
b. lane distribution
Ignore as an explicit factor affecting flow and average per lane flows are used
c. heavy vehicles in the traffic stream

¾ larger than passenger cars and occupy more space
¾ have operating characteristics generally inferior to those of passenger cars
¾ Heavy vehicles often are unable to maintain the same speed as passenger
cars on grades of appropriate length and severity.
¾ Trucks and buses
C. prevailing control factors affecting capacity
1. speed limit—do not directly affect values of capacity but affect the free flow speed
of a facility and therefore the characteristics of flow on the facility.
2. lane use controls—regulation creating separate left and/or right turning lanes—
has a clear impact on flow in those lanes and therefore on the quality of
operation.
3. Traffic signals—signal effectively regulates how much time vehicles on a given
approach or set of lanes can legally move through the intersection. Any change in
signal design and timing has therefore a dramatic impact on capacity and
operations.
4. STOP or YIELD signs—influence the capacity and operation of intersection
approaches subject to control
Design capacity and level of service

The capacity flow or the maximum possible flow on a roadway or a traffic lane is attained
at particular optimum speed, the flow decreases at higher as well as lower speed values.
¾ Level of service describes a range of operating conditions on a particular type
of facility.
¾ 6 levels of service—denoted using letters A to F
¾ Capacity flow is reached when all the vehicles flow as a stream at this
optimum speed with no opportunity for overtaking, at this speed, the level of
service is considered to be fairly low when the volume of the road reaches the
capacity or the volume to capacity ratio approaches a maximum possible
value of 1.0.
¾ A represents the best level of service and generally describes operations of
free flow (on uninterrupted flow facilities)
¾ Level of service F represents the worst operating conditions.
50
Volume to Capacity Ratio , q/qc
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

120
Level of
Service A
100
B
C
80
D
Operating Speed Kmph
60
E
40
Level of Service F
20
400 800 1200 1600 qc

Traffic Volume PCU/hour
Factors to be considered for the evaluation of level of service of a roadway includes the
operating speed, travel time, traffic interruptions, freedom of maneuver, driving comfort,
safety, economy etc.
For each type of facility, levels of service are defined in terms of a single measure of
effectiveness (MOE). An MOE is a parameter that describes traffic operations in terms
discernible by motorists and their passengers. Three primary measures are used in HCM
¾ Speed and travel time
¾ Density—surrogate measure of driver comfort and ease and for the ability to
maneuver within the traffic stream—multilane uninterrupted flow
¾ Delay—describes excess or unexpected time spent in travel—primarily used
on interrupted flow facilities where signals and other interruptions often cause
delay.
The level of service and related operating conditions

LOS Operating characteristics
A Represents free flow conditions. Operating speeds must be higher than 100 kmph.
If overtaking sight distances are always available, volumes may reach 420 PCU per
hour both directions. About 75% of the desired overtaking maneuvers can be
made with little delay.
B This LOS marks the beginning of stable flow with operating speeds 90 kmph or
above. Service volume may reach 750 PCU pr hour, both directions
C The flow is still stable but operating speeds are 80 kmph or above. Service volume
may reach 1200 PCU per hours, both directions.
D Approaching unstable flow, with operating speeds falling down to 60 kmph.
Service volume may reach 1800 PCU per hour, both directions.
E The represents the capacity level with volumes reaching 2800 PCU per hour , both
directions. Operating speeds usually around 50 kmph
F Forced flow condition, operating speeds less than 50 kmph and volumes are under
2000 PCU per hour both directions.
51
Passenger car unit

¾ Different vehicle types use the common roadway facility—mixed traffic flow
¾ Different vehicle classes have wide range of static characteristics (length, width etc)
and dynamic characteristics (speed, acceleration)
¾ Different drivers behavior of the different vehicle classes
¾ Difficult to estimate the traffic volume and capacity of roadway facilities under mixed
traffic flow.
¾ It is common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to
convert the other vehicle classes and this unit is called PCU.
¾ PCU may be considered as a measure of the relative space requirement of a vehicle
class compared to that of a passenger car under a specified set of roadway, traffic
and other conditions.
Factors affecting PCU

¾ Vehicle characteristics—dimensions, power, speed, acceleration and braking
characteristics
¾ Transverse and longitudinal gaps or clearances between moving vehicles, which
depend upon the speeds, driver characteristics and the vehicle classes at the
adjoining spaces.
¾ Traffic stream characteristics—composition of vehicle classes, mean speed and speed
distribution of the mixed traffic stream, volume to capacity ratio etc.
¾ Roadway characteristics—road geometrics including gradient, curve etc. access
controls rural or urban roads, presence of intersections and the type of intersections.
¾ Regulation and control of traffic—speed limit, one way traffic, presence of different
traffic control devices
¾ Environmental and climatic conditions
¾ PCU value of a particular vehicle class may not remain a constant value.
Factors to be taken into account for a simple analysis of PCU

¾ Average speed under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions
¾ Average length and width of vehicle
¾ Average transverse and longitudinal gap
PCU Equivalent—British Practice

S.No. Class of vehicle Urban Rural Round Traffic
standards standards about signals
1 Private car, taxi, motor cycle
combinations, light goods 1.00 1.0 1.00 1.00
vehicle
2 Motor cycle (solo), scooter,
0.75 1.0 0.75 0.33
moped
3 Medium or heavy goods
2.00 3.0 2.80 2.25
vehicle, horse drawn vehicles
4 Bus, coach, trolley bus, tram 3.00 3.0 2.80 2.25
5 Bicycle 0.33 0.5 0.50 0.20
52
PCU equivalents –Indian Practice

S.No. Vehicle type Equivalent
1 Passenger car, tempo, auto-rickshaw and tractor 1.00
2 Cycle, motor cycle, scooter 0.50
3 Lorry, bus and agricultural tractor trailer unit 3.00
4 Cycle ricksaw 1.50
5 Horse drawn vehicle 4.00
6 Bullock cart 8.00
7 Hand cart or small bullock cart 6.00
Traffic flow maneuvers
Transfer of a vehicle from one traffic lane to the next adjacent traffic lane is called lane
change—involves diverging and merging
L R
Diverging
L
R
Merging
Diverging to and merging from left—easy movement causing least problem of the traffic
conflicts.
Diverging to and merging from right—create conflicts and hazard to the traffic moving in
the straight path
R
L Crossing
Crossing—greatest problem in case of road intersections at level.
Weaving
53
When a vehicle moves obliquely across the path of another vehicle moving in the same
direction at relatively small angle of crossing—the action is termed as weaving—involves
merging and diverging.
Origin and Destination Studies
When a new or improved traffic routes and facilities are being planning, it is necessary to
estimate where they should be located so as to attract or relieve most traffic and how
much traffic they will actually carry when constructed. To do this properly, it is necessary
to determine the pattern of the journeys that people make. A basic origin destination
(OD) survey shows what amounts of travel there are between various locations.
While OD surveys can be carried out on existing facilities and within existing towns they
are obviously not practical where new towns are being planned. Instead some method of
predicting the traffic generating potential of houses, factories, commercial
establishments and the multitude of other forms of land use is required. Another major
purpose of comprehensive OD surveys is to determine what relationship do exists
between the amount and type of travel and the traffic generating factors.
OD studies of vehicular traffic determines

¾ Number, origin and destination in each zone under study
¾ Supplementary data—no. of passengers in each vehicle, purpose of trip, intermediate
stops made and reasons etc.
¾ OD gives information line actual direction of travel, selection of routes and length of
the trip
Most essential in improving some of the existing facilities and in planning new highway
facilities.
¾ Example—there can be high percentage of through traffic which may be diverted by
providing a bypass and thus considerable saving in distance and time can be made.
¾ OD survey provides the basic data for determining the desired direction of flow or the
desire lines.
¾ Considered to be one of the important traffic studies needed to solve many traffic
problems in a zone and the most important study to plan the highway system in a
region.
¾ Scientific planning of transportation system and mass transit facilities in cities should
be based on OD data of passenger trips.
Applications
¾ To judge the adequacy of existing routes and to use in planning new network of
roads
¾ To plan transportation system and mass transit facilities in cities including routes and
schedules of operation.
¾ To locate expressway or major routes along the desire lines.
¾ To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicle including by-pass
¾ To locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities.
¾ To locate new bridges as per traffic demands
¾ To locate intermediate stops of public transport.
¾ To establish design standards for all the road bridges and culverts along the route.
Methods of OD survey
Objectives may be
¾ To establish or update general travel parameters
¾ To develop and test models of travel behavior
54
¾ To reveal any particular transport disadvantaged group

¾ To estimate patronage levels on particular modes
¾ To determine attitudes to transport.
Different methods of OD survey are

¾ Roadside interview method
¾ License plate studies
¾ Post card studies
¾ Tag or sticker method
¾ Home interview
Choice of method depends on objective and location.
Road side interview

¾ Direct interview OD method—motorists are stopped and questioned regarding origins
and destinations and other journey data as required.
¾ Collected information may include place and time of origin and destination, route,
location of stoppages, the purpose of the trip, type of vehicle and number of
passengers in each vehicle.
¾ Traffic may be filtered through a prescribed lane by previous warning signs and with
the help of traffic police so that each driver of the selected sample of vehicles may be
interviewed.
¾ Benefits—quick data collection, simple field organization, team can be trained quickly
¾ Drawbacks—vehicles are stopped and there is delay to the vehicular movement,
resentment is likely from the road users.
¾ The exact questions asked at the interview vary with the needs and objectives of the
survey. Considerable attention should be paid beforehand to the framing of
unambiguous questions.
License plate method

¾ The entire area under study is cordoned out and the observers are simultaneously
stationed at all points of entry and exit on all the routes leading to and out of the
area.
¾ The observers with synchronized watches records the passage time and vehicle
registration number as the vehicle passes the observer.
¾ After the end of the survey, the records at all the observation sites are compared and
each vehicle’s trip through the survey area is traced.
¾ For purpose of the study, the vehicle’s origin is assumed to be where it is first
observed while its destination is assumed to be its last observation point.
¾ Principal advantage—it can be used where traffic is very heavy and it is not desired
to stop vehicles for questioning. Since the motorist is unaware of being scrutinized,
the results obtained will not be biased because of poor motorist cooperation. Quite
easy and quick as far as field work is concerned as field organization can be trained
quickly but lots of office computation is involved.
¾ Disadvantage—large numbers of stations are required to take observation so as to
get the information of the routes followed by the vehicles hence large number of
survey personnel are required—suitable for small survey areas with few exits and
entrances. All observation sites have to be staffed for the same day and observations
must be continuously carried out at every entrance and exit point.
Post card studies

¾ Return stamped post cards with return address are either handed out to the
motorists as they pass slowly by the selected sites or posted to all registered motor
vehicle owners within the survey area.
55
¾ The questionnaire to be filled in by the road user is printed on the card along with the
request for co-operation and purpose of the study.
¾ Success depends upon the willingness of motorists to complete and return the
questionnaire.
¾ Advantage—all data are obtained at the one time for the one period of travel.
Untrained personnel can be used to hand out or send the questionnaire by post.
There is little interference to traffic at congested road locations.
¾ Only a part of road users may return the cards promptly after filling the desired
details properly and correctly. Should consider the chances of result distortion.
Tag or sticker method

¾ An observer stops each vehicle briefly at the entrance to the survey area and places
a pre coded tag or sticker bearing the time and place of entry under the windscreen
wiper. As the vehicle leaves the survey area, the tag is reclaimed and the time,
station, direction of travel and any other possible information are recorded on it.
¾ Advantages—path of a vehicle can be traced through the survey area by having
intermediate observers note the color and/or shape of the tag on each vehicle.
¾ Useful where the traffic is heavy and moves continuously.
Home interview method

¾ Utilized a sampling process in which a representative sample of homes within the
survey area is selected and the inhabitants questioned regarding their travel during a
particular weekday usually the day before the interview.
¾ Household structure data and household travel data: size of household, gross
income, age, sex, occupation/ employment status of each resident and number of
cars available to members of the households. Travel data collected for each person
normally include the origins and destinations of all trips, start and finish times of
journeys, journey purpose, mode of travel, number of occupants in car, public
transport route and cost, details of car parking utilized.
Presentation of OD data
¾ OD tables—shows the number of trips between zones—can be classified by vehicle
groups
¾ The basic results of an OD survey are usually expressed in the form of desire line
graphs—desire lines are straight lines connecting the origin point with destinations.
The width of such desire lines is drawn proportional to the number of trips in both
directions. The desire line density map easily enables to decide the actual desire of
the road users and then helps to find the necessity of a new road link, a diversion a
bypass or a new bridge. These desire lines may be compared with the existing flow
pattern along the existing routes.
Parking study
Parking is an important urban transportation element.
¾ Parking affects mode choice—more use of private automobile if parking is available
and convenient and the parking cost is reasonable. Inexpensive (free) and plentiful
parking is an incentive for using private automobiles where as scarce, inconvenience
and/or expensive parking is a substantial disincentive for using private automobiles.
¾ Parking control is now in many towns, the key to proper traffic control and transport
policy implementation.
¾ Parking policy affects how people will travel—and good parking management and
control can lead to some or all of the following—higher car occupancies, decreasing
person trips, faster travel times and less travel delays, greater public transport
usage, decreasing congestion and reduced air and noise pollution.
56
Some definitions
Parking accumulation: the total no. of vehicles parked in an area at a specified moment.
Parking volume: the number of vehicles parking in a particular area over a given period
of time. Usually measured in veh/day.
Parking load: the area under the parking accumulation curve during a specified period.
Parking duration: the length of time spent in a parking space.
Parking index: percentage of parking bays actually occupied by parked vehicles as

compared to the theoretical number available.
No. of bays occupied
Parking index = * 100
Theoretical number of bays available
Parking turnover: rate of usage of the available parking space. If there were 10 parking
spaces used by 100 vehicles in a period of 6 hrs. Then the parking turnover would be
100
vehicles per space in a period of 6 hrs.
10
Parking surveys are carried out in order to obtain the information necessary to provide
an assessment of the parking problem in the area being studied. The objective of any
such study is to determine facts which will provide the logical point of departure in
relation to indicating parking needs—parking supply and parking usage surveys.
Parking supply survey—concerned with obtaining detailed information regarding whose

on and off street features which influence the provision of parking space, the existing
situation with regard to parking space and how it is controlled.
¾ An inventory of the on street accommodation and of all off street car parks
and parking garages serving the traffic area being studied.
¾ An on street space inventory, a street regulation inventory and an off-
street space inventory.
On street
¾ Footpath crossings and accesses to premises
¾ Loading bays
¾ Bus stops
¾ Taxi stands
¾ Pedestrian crossings
¾ Visibility splays at junctions
¾ One way streets
¾ Private streets
¾ Service and rear access alleys
¾ Vacant or unused land suitable for temporary or permanent parking space
¾ Carriage way widths
¾ Other local factors (areas of special amenity)
Street regulatory inventory

¾ Controlled parking
By regulation
By meters
¾ Parking prohibited
o Always
o During peak hourly only
¾ Controlled loading and unloading
57
¾ Uncontrolled parking
Off street parking

¾ Type—surface only
Multistory
Underground
¾ Ownership and use
Publicly owned for public use
Privately owned for public use
Private use only
¾ Commercial vehicles only
¾ Payment
Fee charging
Free
¾ Time limit
¾ Number and spaces provided
¾ Size of parking space
¾ Number and location of entrances and exits
Parking usage survey

Usage reflects the desire to park close to the destination but within the limitations
imposed by the available supply as well as the desire to park at a reasonable cost.
Demand is a constant reflecting the desire to park at the trip destination where as usage
is a variable that depends upon the conditions at the terminal area and upon the
characteristics of the trip as well as of the trip maker.
Concentration survey—is to determine not only where vehicles do park but also the
actual number parked at any given instant at all locations (on and off street) within the
survey area.
Duration survey—to determine the lengths of time that vehicles are stored within the
survey area.
Parking policies
The formulation of parking policies is one of the most difficult tasks with which a planner
has to contend. The difficulty lies in co-coordinating parking policies with several other
planning objectives. Following considerations may be taken into account.
¾ Compromise between amount of curb space devoted to parking spaces and that
devoted to moving vehicles
¾ To make provision for parking of delivery vehicles and for short and long turn
parkers.
¾ To design parking lots and their approaches so that street traffic is not adversely
affected by the ingress and egress of vehicles.
¾ To ensure the interest of business establishments along the street is enhanced by
good parking arrangements.
¾ To ensure that parking policies and public transit policies are complementary
¾ To preserve the character of the neighborhood by restricting parking and enforcing
land use controls.
¾ To control parking and demand through the pricing mechanism.
Parking demand analysis

The demand for parking is an area is generated by the land use pattern in the vicinity.
Another issue related to the demand for parking is the duration of parking. This is an
58
important variable because the average duration of parking gives an idea as to how
frequently the same parking space can be used for parking different vehicles.
IRC (1988) 1 parking space for 80 sq. m of floor area shops and markets
50~99 sq. m. –two flats apartment houses
• Parking demand analysis is a difficult task because the various factors affecting
demand are interrelated. Some significant factors are
o Growth in population and motor vehicle registration
o Trends in CBD growth such as floor space and retail sales
o Public policies regarding parking supply, public transit and parking pricing
structure.
Simplified flow chart for parking analysis
• The supply of parking is derived by assessing potential sites for parking facilities,
including the possibilities of utilizing any on street parking. The demand for
parking can be conveniently derived from trip ends to relevant zones derived
from the urban travel demand model.
• The average duration that a vehicle is parked in a facility and the numbers of
arriving vehicles per unit time are indicators of the traffic load placed on the
facility.
If A = Q * Td
Where A—Traffic load
Q—number of vehicles arriving per unit time
Td—mean parking duration in time
Erlang Formula
AM M !
PL =
1 + A + A 2 2 + ................... + A M M !
Where PL—probability of rejection
A—traffic load
59
M—number of bays
The value of PL increases with the traffic load and decreases with the
number of parking spaces.
Probability of Rejection for Selected Traffic Loads and Parking

Spaces
Number of Parking Spaces
Traffic Load A
M=1 M=5 M=10 M=50 M=100
1 0.5 0 0 0 0
2 0.67 0.04 0 0 0
3 0.75 0.11 0 0 0
4 0.8 0.2 0 0 0
5 0.83 0.28 0.02 0 0
10 0.91 0.56 0.21 0 0
50 0.98 0.9 0.8 0.1 0
100 0.99 0.95 0.9 0.51 0.08
Different methods of parking demand analysis

• Cordon counts of the selected area—accumulation of vehicles during peak hour
• Counting the number of vehicles parked in the area under study during periods of
the day –useful when parking demand is less than the space available for parking
–can find the duration of parking of each vehicle at the parking area.
• Interviewing the drivers of the parked vehicles, shop owners and other vehicle
owners in the locality—useful when the parking demand is higher than the
available parking space.
Parking characteristics
Study is directed to note the present parking practices prevalent in the area under
consideration and the general problems in parking. In case of curb parking, it is also
necessary to study the parking pattern, interference to smooth flow of traffic and the
accidents involved during parking and unparking operations.
Parking space inventory

The area under study is fully surveyed and a map is prepared showing all places where
curb parking and off street parking facilities can be provided to meet the parking
demand.
Types of parking facilities

• On street or curb parking
• Off street parking
On street parking
• Whether requirement for on street parking exists in a particular location
• Whether the capacity of the roadway will be enough (after providing on street
parking) to cater to the traffic on the road.
• Whether on street parking will increase safety hazards.
Depending on parking duration, space occupancy and the distribution of vehicle size, it is
possible to determine curb parking geometry.
• Parallel parking
• Angle parking 30°, 45°, 60°, 90°
• Parallel parking—safety
60
• Angle parking—accommodates more vehicle for unit length of curb—more

convenient for the motorists but produces much more obstructions to the through
traffic resulting in more accidents.
Kerb
N=L/6.6
N=L/6.75
PARALLEL PARKING
K erb
N = (L-0.85)/5.1
30° A ngle Parking
K erb
N = (L-2.0)/3.6
60° A ngle Parking
2 .5
K e rb
9 0 ° P a r k in g
Off street parking
• Facilities built solely for the purpose of parking vehicles
• Open paved space (surface parking garage), multi stored parking garage, park
and ride facility, mechanical garage, attendant parking
61
• The capacity and spacing of access point to parking facilities must be sufficient to
accommodate incoming vehicles without a backup on the surface streets. The
discharge of out going vehicles should pose no problems—important where the
approaches are close to street intersections.
• Both in parking lots and garages, the basic traffic operations consists of five steps
namely entrance, acceptance, storage, delivery and exit. Hence some definite
space is required in front of the parking lot or garage for vehicles during
entrance, acceptance and exit operations. This space provided is called reservoir
area, the size of which depends on the average rate of arrival of vehicles to be
parked during peak hour, the average time required to dispose off one car and
the number of attendants employed for storage operations.
Accident study
• The problem of accident is very acute in highway transportation due to complex
flow patterns of vehicular traffic, presence of mixed traffic and pedestrians.
• Highway travel seems to be the most problematic of all the modes.
• Not easy to describe highway safety problem—combination of engineering
problem, an education problem and an enforcement problem—problem is much
more complex because one could consider it to be a social problem because of its
profound effect on society.
• Objective of traffic engineering—safe movement of traffic
Therefore accident studies are carried out to investigate the causes of accidents
and to take preventive measures in terms of design and control.
• Objectives of accident studies are
o To study the causes of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at
potential location
o To evaluate existing designs
o To support proposed designs
o To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement
in the problem
o To give economic justification for the improvements suggested by traffic
engineer.
• Persons responsible for the administration of highway system have a very strong
influence over the safety of the system. Safety may begin or and with the
decisions made in the planning process. The safety of a facility depends to a great
degree on how well the designer utilizes existing technology and how a priority is
given to safety criteria.
Causes of accidents
• Basic elements
o Road users
o Vehicles
o The road and its conditions
o Environmental factors—traffic and weather etc.
The main road user factors are

• Perceptual errors—failure to see or understand the traffic situation, sign or signal
due to lack of attention, distraction, misjudgment of speed or distance
• Lack of skill—inexperience, wrong action or decision
• Manner of execution—excessive speed and rash driving, improper overtaking,
deficiency in behavior—carelessness, violation of rules and regulations—
irresponsible, frustrated, aggressive
• Temporary effects due to alcohol, fatigue, drugs, sleeps, illness, emotional stress
62
Road environment deficiencies

• Adverse road design—unsuitable layout and junction design, poor visibility due to
layout
• Adverse environment—slippery road surface, lack of maintenance (pot holes, ruts
etc.)
• Inadequate road markings, inefficient and/or unclear road signs and road
markings, poor street lighting etc.
• Unexpected obstructions—road works, parked vehicles, other objects
Vehicle defects
• Defective tires and brakes are prominent factors, failure of steering system,
lighting system etc.
• Lack of regular maintenance by the user of the vehicle
Environmental
• Unfavorable weather conditions like fog, snow, dust, smoke or heavy rainfall—
restrict normal visibility—unsafe driving
• Animals on the road
• Advertising boards—distraction in driving
Accident inventory and analysis

• Must have information and data on the location, frequency, severity and types of
accidents that are occurring so as to improve the safety of highway system.
• Accident occurs relatively infrequently and at unpredictable times and locations—
can not be objectively observed as they occur.
• Accident data come from secondary sources—motorist and police accident
records.
Six basic steps recommended for a detailed accident study are

• Obtain adequate vehicle accident records
• Select high accident frequency location in order of severity
• Prepare collision diagrams and sometimes physical condition diagrams for each
selected locations
• Summarize the facts
• Supplement accident data with field observations during the hours when most
accidents have been reported.
• Analyze the summarized facts and field data and prescribe remedial measures.
Collection of accident data

• General—date, time, persons involved in the accident and their particulars,
accident classification (fatal, serious, minor etc.)
• Location—description and details of the location of accident
• Details of vehicles involved—registration number, loading details, vehicular
defects
• Nature of accident—nature of vehicles involved, details of collision, pedestrian or
objects involved, damages, injuries, causality etc.
• Road and traffic conditions—details of road geometrics, surface characteristics,
traffic condition
• Primary cause of accident
• Accident cost—total cost of various involvements like property damages, personal
injuries, causalities
Reporting
Should be reported to police—take legal actions
63
Accident repot is prepared with all facts which might be useful in subsequent analysis
claims for compensation etc.
Accident records
• Gives all particulars of the accidents, location and other details
• Location files—to keep a check on the location of accident and to identify point of
high accident incidence—should be maintained by each police station for the
respective jurisdictions.
• Spot maps—each time an accident report is filed, a color coded pin or other
symbols are placed on the map of the jurisdiction at the appropriate location—
accident spot map. Color and symbol codes indicate the type and severity of
accidents.
Condition diagram
• Describes all physical and environmental conditions at the accident site under
study.
• Must show all geometric features of the site, the location and description of all
controls (signs, signals, markings, lighting etc.) and all relevant features of the
road side environments such as location of objects, driveways, land uses and so
on.
Collision diagram
• Is a schematic representation of all accidents showing the approximate paths of
vehicles and pedestrians involved in the accident.
• Most useful to compare the accident pattern before and after the remedial
measures have been taken.
ROA
D D
C
AD
RO
TS3
TS2
ROAD A
ROAD B
Before Study
64
TS3
TS4
PS3
PS3 TS2
TS4
PS2
TS3
TS1
TS4
ROAD A PS1
ROAD B
PS1 TS1
Analysis of speed from skid resistance

Basic equation
W 2
(v1 − v 22 ) = W * f * s i.e. reduction in kinetic energy is equal to the
2g
work done against the frictional force
f—average friction factor or skid resistance developed
W—weight of vehicle
v12 − v 22 V12 − V22
⇒s= if V1, V2 are in kmph s =
2 gf 254 f
Case (i)
Collision of moving vehicles with parked vehicles
Vehicle A------v1 m/s----skids through s1 after the application of brakes—collides
with parked vehicle B ---two vehicles skid together a distance s2 before coming to a
stop—find the initial speed of vehicle A
Solution
(1) before collision
Vehicle A v12 = v 22 + 2gfs1
(2) at collision with stationery vehicle B----weight WB-------both moves with speed v3
Perfectly plastic impact is assumed
WA W + WB W + WB
v2 = A v3 ⇒ v 2 = A v3
g g WA
2
⎛ W + WB ⎞ 2
⇒ v = ⎜⎜ A
2
1
⎟⎟ v3 + 2gfs1
⎝ WA ⎠
After collision of vehicle
Vehicles A and B skid through distance s2 before coming to a stop
v32 − v 42
s2 = v4 = 0
2 gf
∴ v32 = 2gfs 2
65
2
⎛ W + WB ⎞
⇒ v = ⎜⎜ A
2
1
⎟⎟ 2 gfs 2 + 2 gfs1
⎝ WA ⎠
2
⎛ W + WB ⎞
⇒ v1 = ⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟ 2 gfs 2 + 2 gfs1 v in m/s
⎝ WA ⎠
⎡ ⎛ W + WB ⎞
2
⎤
V1 = 254 f ⎢ s1 + s 2 ⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟ ⎥ V in kmph
⎢⎣ ⎝ WA ⎠ ⎥⎦
Two vehicles approaching from right angles collide

If SA2, SB2 are the skid distance of vehicles after the collision the speed of vehicles
VA3, VB3 just after collision may be found from the relation
V A3 = 254 fS A 2
VB 3 = 254 fS B 2
Assumption—momentum before collision = momentum after collision
Case (a)
A' B'
SA
2
2
B
SB
A
A
SA1
SB1
WA W W
V A 2 = B V B 3 sin B − V A3 cos A A
g g g
W
⇒ V A 2 = B V B 3 sin B − V A3 cos A
WA
66
Case (b)
A'
B'
A A
B
SA1
SB1
WB
V A 2 = V A3 cos A + V B 3 cos B
WA
WA
VB 2 = V A3 sin A + V B 3 sin B
WB
Case (c)
A'
A A
B
SA1
SB1
B
WB
V A 2 = V A3 cos A + V B 3 cos B
WA
WA
VB 2 = V A3 sin A − V B 3 sin B
WB
Measures of preventing accidents

Can be divided into 3 groups
• engineering
• enforcement
• education
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Engineering measures
(1) Road design—geometric elements of the road (sight distance, width of pavement,
horizontal and vertical alignment) are checked and corrected if necessary. Pavement
surface characteristics (skid resistance)—suitable measures—construction of by-
passes to separate through traffic, design and construction of grade separated
intersections—minimize delay and conflicts
(2) maintenance of vehicles—periodic maintenance of braking, steering and lighting
system of vehicles –heavy penalties for defective vehicles
(3) before and after studies—collision and condition diagrams of accidents—collect and
maintain the record of accidents after making the necessary improvements in design
and enforcing regulation.
(4) Road lighting—accidents in night can be decreased---important at intersections,
bridge sites etc.
Enforcement measures
(1) speed control—surprise check on spot speed of vehicles—legal actions for fast
moving vehicles
(2) Traffic control devices—introduction of signal control system, redesign of signal
timings, installation of proper traffic control devices—signs, markings and
channelization.
(3) Training and supervision—strict testing and issuing of driving license, testing of
driving skill while renewing
(4) Medical check—test of vision and reaction time at prescribed intervals
(5) Heavy vehicles—have an attendant on heavy commercial vehicles
(6) Observance of law and regulation—study group to check whether the traffic
regulations are being followed by the road users, enforce the necessary and essential
regulations
Educational measures
(1) Road users---for passengers and pedestrians should be taught the rules of road—
correct manner of crossings, introducing necessary instructions in the schools, poster
exhibition.
(2) Safety drive---traffic safety week, road users should be impressed of what should
and should not be done, driver training courses.
1.6 Traffic operation and management scheme
¾ Necessary to impost adequate traffic regulations and traffic control measures with
traffic control devices so as to provide safe and efficient traffic operations.
¾ Should impress the public that these regulations and control are on the public
interest
¾ Traffic regulations should cover all the elements of traffic system i.e. road user,
vehicle, roads and the environment
¾ Traffic laws and regulations should be rational and should be implemented by
legislative laws so as to make them obligatory to all the road users.
(1) Drivers control (road users control) ---road users are the core part of traffic
problem and the statistics shows that about 80~85% of traffic accidents are due
to road users. Road user control is mainly focused to the driver’s control which
mainly includes driver’s license for different kinds of vehicles tests and minimum
requirements, financial responsibility and civil liability.
(2) Vehicles control:-
¾ Vehicle registration
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¾ Requirements of vehicles—equipment and accessories

¾ Inspection of vehicle
¾ Disposal of old vehicle
(3) flow regulations
¾ Segregation of vehicle flow—lane separation depending upon direction,
turning and overtaking.
¾ One way streets, regulatory signs
¾ Speed limit, prohibitory signs
¾ Driving regulations—safe spacing between vehicles, U turning etc.
¾ Pedestrian controls
(4) general controls
¾ accident reporting
¾ recording and disposing traffic violation cases
¾ Unauthorized occupation of road space by street shops, vehicle parking,
storing construction and other materials or any other activities disturbing
traffic flow.
¾ Removal of obstructions like trees, hoarding boards, pipe lines crossing
the roadway etc.
¾ Coordination between different concerned authorities while digging the
road surface for other construction purposes.
Traffic control devices

¾ Various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic
¾ Are the main media that traffic engineers sue to communicate with drivers
¾ Traffic engineer has a critical responsibility to design control devices that
communicate uncomplicated messages clearly in a way that encourages proper
observance.
¾ General requirements of traffic control devices
o Fulfill a need
o Command attention
o Convey a clear, simple meaning
o Command respect of road users
o Give adequate time for proper response
¾ Three broad categories
• Traffic signs
• Traffic signals
• Traffic markings
• Islands and road lights—useful in guiding traffic during night
Traffic signs
Traffic signs are any object or device (whether fixed or portable) for conveying to traffic
on roads or any specified description of traffic, warnings, information, requirements,
restrictions or prohibitions of any descriptions specified by regulations.
¾ Should be backed by law in order to make them useful and effective.
Principles
¾ Should be placed in such a way that they could be seen and recognized by the
road users easily and in time.
¾ Signs should contain only essential information and their significance should be
clear at a glance so as not to distract driver’s attentions.
¾ Signs should be effective by day and night.
¾ 3 main types of signs
o Regulatory signs
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o Warning signs
o Informatory signs
Regulatory signs
¾ Convey information about a specific traffic regulation with which drivers must
comply—meant to inform the road users of certain laws, regulations and
prohibitions
¾ Violation of these signs is a legal offense.
¾ Six different categories
1. right of way series—stop and give way signs (yield signs)

Stop signs—all vehicles must come to a complete stop and wait for a safe gap in the
major street traffic stream to proceed—octagonal shape---red color---white border---
‘STOP’
yield (give way) sign---used to control the vehicles on a road so as to assign right of
way to traffic on other roadways ---requires drivers to slow to a maximum speed of -
------------and yield the right of way to any vehicle approaching on the major street
that would present a hazard to the minor street. ---triangular in shape, apex
downward, white in color and red border
2. speed studies (speed limit and vehicle control signs)

Speed limit—meant to restrict the speed of all or certain classes of vehicles on a
particular stretch of a road. ---Circular in shape---white background, red border and
black numerals
Vehicle control signs—black symbols instead of numerals----width limit, height limit,
length limit, load limit, axle load limit etc.
3. movement series (compulsory direction control signs)

¾ Wide variety of signs affecting specific vehicle maneuver.
¾ Includes turn prohibition signs, signs related to roadway alignment and required
vehicle maneuver, exclusion signs and one way street signs
¾ Turning prohibitions and lane use controls—circular, white in color, red border
¾ Alignment signs—bus lanes, HOV lanes
¾ Exclusion signs---specific vehicles, pedestrians excluded from using a particular
facility or portion of a facility.
¾ One way signs
4. parking series ( no parking and no stopping signs)

Parking prohibition—no parking---circular shape, blue background, red border, oblique
red bar at 45°
No stopping/ standing---prohibit stopping of vehicles at that place
Circular—blue background, red border, two oblique red bars at 45°
and right angle to each other.
5. pedestrian series
Legend and symbol signs prohibiting hitch hiking, pedestrian prohibition sign, signs
requiring pedestrians to use cross walks.
6. miscellaneous series
¾ restriction end signs---indicates at which all prohibitions notified by prohibitory
signs for moving vehicle cease to apply---circular with white background ---broad
diagonal black band at 45°
¾ road closure signs
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¾ Signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous cargo or substances.
Warning signs
¾ provides drivers with information on impending conditions that are or may be
hazardous
¾ Call attention to conditions that generally require additional vigilance, a decline in
speed or a maneuver on the part of the driver.
¾ Over use should be avoided—use is most valuable where a condition is not likely
to be observed without calling attention to it.
¾ Equilateral triangle—apex upward—white background, red border and black
symbols
¾ Commonly used---right/left hand curve, hair pin bend, narrow bridge/road ahead,
steep ascent/descent, slippery road, school zone, pedestrian crossing, cross road,
T intersection, major road ahead etc.
Informatory signs
¾ Utmost important to road users unfamiliar with a roadway system.
¾ Provide information to assist drivers in selecting approximate routes to their
desired destinations.
¾ Information signs do not lose effectiveness by well use and should be erected
when ever there is any doubt.
¾ Direction and place identification signs---rectangular, white background, black
border, black arrows and letters---route markers---used to identify and mark all
numbered highways, destination signs
¾ Facility information signs---rectangular, blue background, white/black letters or
symbols---public telephone, petrol pump, hospital, lodging, food etc.
¾ Mile posts
¾ Parking signs are set up parallel to the road using square sign board with blue
background and white colored letter ‘P”. Additional definition plate may be used
to indicate category of vehicle for which parking space is reserved, direction of
parking space etc.
¾ Flood gauge signs---at causeways/submersible bridges---culverts—to indicate to
the road users the height of the flood above the road level.
Traffic signals
¾ A traffic signal as any power operated traffic control device other than a barricade
warning light or steady burning electric lamp by which traffic is warned or
directed to take some specific action.
¾ The most familiar type of signal is the traffic control signal used primarily at
intersections to direct traffic alternately to stop and to move.
¾ Other types of signals include pedestrian signals, lane use signals.
Advantages
¾ Provide for the orderly movement of the traffic. If proper physical layouts and
management measures are used, they can increase the traffic handling capacity
of a congested intersection.
¾ Reduce the frequency of right angled and pedestrian accidents.
¾ Under conditions of favorable spacing, they can be coordinated to provide for
continuous or nearly continuous vehicle progression in linked or area wide traffic
control schemes.
¾ Automatic signal control is impartial in assigning right of way.
¾ Economical than police control.
¾ Can be used to interrupt heavy traffic at given intervals in order to permit other
vehicles or pedestrians to cross speedily and in safety. As they are confident of
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eventually gaining the right of way, drivers are willing to tolerate longer delays at
a red light than STOP signs.
Disadvantages
¾ Increase total vehicle delay at intersections---noticeable during off peak hours
¾ Increase in the frequency of rear end collisions
¾ Normally not capable of gaining right of way to emergency vehicles such as
ambulances
¾ Failure of signal (due to power failure) may lead to serious and widespread traffic
difficulties especially during peak traffic periods.
Road marking
¾ Are made of lines, patterns, words, symbols or reflectors on the pavement, curb,
sides of islands or on the fixed objects within or near the roadway.
¾ Provided to control, warn, guide or regulate the traffic.
¾ Used to supplement the regulations (or warnings) of traffic signs or signals.
¾ Are made using paints in contrast with color and brightness of the pavement or
other background
¾ Gives a continuing message to the road users. They can be used to guide drivers
in the correct positioning of their vehicles so that the traffic flows smoothly and
safely.
¾ Improved road marking is often the most cost effective solution to traffic and
accident problem.
¾ Have limitations to their effectiveness. They may be obliterated by snow or dirt,
obscured when the volume of traffic is heavy and same are not readily visible
when the carriageway is wet. Durability depends on the amount of traffic wear.
They can not be utilized at unsurfaced carriageways.
¾ Extensive use of road markings is essential for congested traffic conditions to
ensure full use of available road space.
¾ Light reflecting paints are also used for traffic markings.
Types of markings
¾ Longitudinal markings
¾ Transverse markings
¾ Object markings and delineators
Longitudinal----center lines/ lane lines/ no parking zone marking/ turn marking etc.
¾ Yellow lines---separation of traffic flows in opposing directions/ mark the left edge
of the pavement of divided highways or one way streets
¾ White lines---separation of traffic flows in the same direction/ mark the right edge
of the pavement
¾ Broken lines—permissive in character
¾ Solid lines--- restrictive in character
¾ Double lines---maximum restrictions
Transverse markings
¾ Placed across travel lanes
¾ Stop lines—solid while lines
¾ Cross walks---two solid white lines as its boundary, adding diagonal solid white
markings to the boundary lines or vertical should white lines with no boundary
lines
¾ Parking space markings—improve efficiency in the use of parking spaces. Assist in
the management of curb space by clearly marking parking stalls and marking
loading zones, bus stops, taxi stands
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Word and symbol markings

¾ Arrows symbolizing lane use restrictions are frequently used
¾ STOP etc.
Intersection markings
¾ Use of wide variety of markings at both signalized and un-signalized intersections.
¾ Provide for a safer and more orderly flow through the intersection.
¾ Dashed white markings—to guide vehicles through the intersection lessening the
opportunity for sideswipe accidents as vehicle traverse the offset.
¾ The judicious use of transverse and longitudinal markings at intersections
provides both drivers and pedestrians with movement paths that are intended to
minimize conflict and maximize safety. At the same time, they encourage efficient
traffic movement in an orderly fashion by delineating vehicle paths and placement
on the pavement. Without the kind of guidance presented by transverse and
longitudinal markings, drivers tend to behave more like pedestrians moving in
staggered patterns and not systematically following any particular path.
Object marker and delineators.

¾ Object markers are reflectorized devices mounted on obstructions within or
adjacent to the roadway.
¾ Typical obstructions are supports for bridge, signs and signals, level crossing
gates, traffic islands, narrow bridges, culvert headwalls etc.
¾ Roadway delineators are reflectorized devices mounted at the roadside to demark
roadway alignment. Delineators are aids to night driving and are considered to be
guidance devices not warning devices.
Traffic islands
¾ Are raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels
through which the vehicular traffic may be guided
¾ Divisional islands, channelizing islands, pedestrian refugee islands, rotary
¾ Divisional islands—intended to separate opposing flow of traffic on a highway ---
head on collision can be eliminated—width should be large if the head light glare
is to be reduced during night driving. The curb should be high enough to prevent
vehicles from entering into the islands.
¾ Channelizing islands is used to guide the traffic into proper channel through the
intersection area—size and shape depend upon the layout and dimensions of the
intersections.
¾ Pedestrian islands—provided at regular bus stops and similar places for the
protection of passengers
¾ Rotary Island is the large central island of a rotary intersection.
One way street

Vehicle movement on any given carriageway within the system is limited to one direction
¾ Is considered to be one of the simplest and most economical tools available for
the relief of traffic congestion without expensive reconstruction or excessive
policing.
¾ Most effective is in and about the central areas of cities and towns where the
feasibility of applying more extensive and expensive road construction is usually
limited.
¾ Primary reason is to improve traffic movement. Although one way operation is
normally accompanied by a reduction in accidents, safety is rarely the main
reason for its introduction
¾ Increased capacity, increased speed, increased safety
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¾ Economic savings—arise from a reduction of motorist journey times and saving

delays
CONTRAM (computer based traffic assignment and queuing model) ----continuous
traffic assignment model---used to predict the economic and environmental
effects of introducing traffic management schemes such as one way street system
or street closure.
¾ Improved parking---driving across opposing traffic in a two way street in order to
park on the wrong side of the street is eliminated with one way operation.
¾ Increased travel distance
¾ Loss of amenity
¾ Loss of business
¾ Increased severity of accidents
¾ Possible confusion.
Tidal flow lane
It refers to the traffic management process whereby the total carriageway width is
shared between the two directions of travel in near proportion to the flow in each
direction. As a result, the lanes assigned to a given direction of travel vary with the time
of the day i.e. use is made of under utilized lanes to provide extra capacity in the peak
direction of flow during peak periods.
¾ Used overhead traffic signals, movable barriers
Bus only lanes---are traffic lanes reserved for bus usage where the buses continue to
operate in the same direction as the normal traffic flow. The reserved lane is normally
the curb lane.
¾ Two important considerations---beginning and end of the lane
Pedestrianization---streets only for pedestrians

HOV lanes--- high occupancy vehicle lanes
1.7 Road intersections

A road or street intersection can be defined as the general area where two or more roads
joins or cross including the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movement within it
(AASHTO 2001). Intersection should be designed with great care taking into
consideration of efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity. Each
intersection involves through or turning traffic and these traffic movements can be
handled with various geometric designs and traffic control measures depending upon the
intersection type.
As an intersection involves conflict between traffic movement in different directions, its

scientific design can control accidents and delay and it can lead to orderly movements of
traffic. It is to be noted that about two third of all urban accidents and one third of all
rural accidents occur within 18 m of an intersection hence it should be designed with
great care.
Design considerations and objectives
The objective of intersection design is to reduce the severity of potential conflicts

between vehicles (including pedestrians) while providing maximum convenience and
ease of movement to vehicles. Basic elements needed to be considered in the design of
intersection are
(1) human factors---driving habits, decision and reaction time, pedestrian use and
habits, natural paths of movement
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(2) traffic consideration---capacities, turning movements, size and operating

characteristics of vehicles, distribution of vehicles, variety of movements
(diverging, merging, weaving and crossing)
(3) Physical elements---characteristics and use of abutting property, sight distance
and geometric features, traffic control devices, lighting equipment, cross walks,
conflict area etc.
(4) Economic factors---cost and benefit, energy consumption, effects of controlling
or limiting various types of movement.
Basic requirements
• reduce the number of conflict points (it increases significantly with intersection
type)
• control the relative speed---particularly to merging traffic streams
• control high speeds---maneuvers accomplished at high speeds are unsafe
• Provide protection for vehicles leaving or crossing the main traffic stream---
vehicles leaving a main road should decelerate and if necessary stop in road
space separate from that used by through traffic—minimizes the potential for rear
end collision.
• Reduce area of conflict---excessive intersection area causes driver confusion and
ineffective operations.
• Favor predominant or high speed traffic flows---priority of movement should be
given to the major traffic movement.
• Provide proper and safe locations for traffic control devices
• Control or restrict access in the vicinity of an intersection
• Clearly define the travel paths to be followed
• Protect pedestrians and bicyclists
• Provide reference points for drivers---STOP, GIVE WAY signs lines etc
• Illuminate intersection---for night use
Classification of road intersection

¾ In general 3 types of intersections
o Intersection at grade, grade separations without ramps and interchanges
o Intersection at grade is one where two or more roads join with each road
radiating from an intersection and forming part of it---referred as
intersection legs.
o When two highways or streets cross each other at a different grade with
no connections the arrangement is called as a grade separation.
o When it is necessary to accommodate high volumes of traffic safely and
efficiently through intersections, one resort to through traffic lanes
separated in grade and this is generally referred to as an interchanges.
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Unchanellized T Flared T T with turning roadways
Y with turning roadways

Unchannelized Y
3-Leg intersections
Channelized
Flared
Unchannelized
4-Leg Intersections
Multileg Intersection Roundabout
Intersection at grade
¾ Seven basic forms
T Y
Scissor
Cross
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Staggered T Staggered and Skewed Multiway
¾ Choice of particular intersection layout depends on cost, capacity, delay to

vehicles, aesthetic and safety.
¾ Unchannelized, channelized of rotary
¾ Unchannelized intersections---lowest class of intersection, easiest in the design
but most complex in traffic operations resulting in maximum conflict area and
more number of accidents unless adequately controlled.
¾ If no additional pavement width is provided for turning movement---plain
intersection. When the pavement width is increased at the intersection area by a
traffic lane or more—flared intersection.
unchannelized T
very light traffic -minor level roads
Flared T
additional lanes for left turn vehicles
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To facilitate right turn movements for

heavy right turning vehicles
Channelized intersections
¾ Channelization design intersection refers to the situation where directional islands
are used to divert vehicles into definite travel paths so that the safe movement of
traffic is facilitated, vehicle conflict points are reduced and traffic friction points
are minimized.
¾ Channelizing islands of proper shape and size with suitable entrance and exit
curve radius are placed suitably on the selected intersection area that help to
channelize turning traffic, control their speed and angle of approach and to
decrease the conflict area.
¾ Channelization may be either partial or complete with divisional and directional
islands and medians
¾ From traffic operation viewpoint, there is better control on the traffic entering and
leaving the intersection
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Advantages
¾ Vehicles can be confined to definite path
¾ Merging angle can be forced to be flat
¾ Conflict area within the intersection can considerably be decreased
¾ Angle between intersecting streams of traffic may be kept as desired in a
favorable way
¾ Speed control can be established over vehicles entering the intersection.
¾ Refuse inlands can be provided for pedestrian within the intersection area
¾ Points of conflicts can be separated
¾ Channelization islands provide proper place for the installation of signs and other
traffic control devices
Basicprinciples in designing channelized intersections are

¾ Motorists should be provided with channel lines that are easy to follow.
¾ Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be avoided.
¾ Areas of vehicles conflicts should be reduced as much as possible.
¾ Traffic stream that cross without merging should interact at or near right angles.
¾ Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible.
¾ Traffic streams that cross without merging or weaving should interact at or near
right angles.
¾ Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible.
¾ Over Channelization should be avoided as it has proved to be counter productive.
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Conflict areas at intersections
For regular two lanes, two way, four leg intersection

There are 16 potential crossing conflicts
8 merging and 8 diverging conflicts
Staggered T intersection—four leg

But only 6 potential crossing conflict points
3 diverging and 3 merging conflicts
Is the staggered T intersection superior to the four leg intersection?
There are no internationally accepted criteria which indicate exactly whether or not or
how particular intersections should be channelized. Hence every intersection should be
considered on its own merits when determining whether the use of these techniques is
advantageous.
Auxiliary lanes
Speed change lanes are provided at intersections in order to allow through vehicles to
proceed relatively unhindered by turning vehicles. The extra carriageways widths serve
to reduce accident severity by enabling turning vehicles to merge with diverge from the
main traffic streams at low relative speeds.
In urban areas, the carriageway is often flared at an intersection to provide storage

space for vehicles waiting to turn thereby increasing capacity.
Full lane width
Full lane width Taper
Deceleration lanes
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Taper Full lane width
Acceleration Lanes
Acceleration lanes
Acceleration and deceleration lanes are essential on high speed, high volume roads. They
are desirable at intersections on all roads but economics may prevent their application
except in special circumstances.
Deceleration lanes normally have a priority of construction over acceleration lanes since
without them vehicles leaving the through carriageway would have to slow down within a
high speed traffic lane, this movement is well recognized as a cause of rear end collision.
The length of a deceleration lane is dependent upon the speed at which vehicles can
maneuver onto it from the main carriageway, the rate of safe deceleration and the
turning speeds of vehicles after traversing the lane.
Acceleration lanes permit entering vehicles to increase speed in order to enter upon the
main carriageway at the speed of its traffic. If the main road traffic is very heavy, a long
acceleration lane also provides the entering traffic with space to maneuver while waiting
for merging gaps in the main traffic stream.
Closing side streets

In many urban areas where there are lightly traveled side streets along an important
route, traffic flow often can be eased by closing the no. of side streets to vehicular
traffic.
Advantages
¾ Improvements in journey time and running speed
¾ Reduction in number of accidents
¾ Usage of linked signals
¾ Usage of parking
¾ Usage of pedestrian precincts
Disadvantages
¾ Congestion at intersections
¾ Increased parking on main roads
¾ Interference with other management measures---sometimes useful as a part of
right turn diversion
¾ Non availability as an alternative route
¾ Non availability of quick access for emergency vehicles
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Rules of the road

¾ Apply at any intersection where right of way is not assigned through the use of
traffic signal, STOP or YIELD sign
¾ In absence of control devices, the driver on the right must yield the right of way
to the driver on the left when the vehicle on the left is approaching in a manner
that may create an impending hazard to the vehicle on the right. The
responsibility for avoiding conflicts falls to the driver on the right.
¾ Through vehicles have the right of way over turning vehicles in the absence of
control devices
¾ Advance intersection warning signs and directional signs do not constitute ‘control
devices’ and don not change the application of the basic rules of the road in any
way they may contribute to the safety of operation by focusing drivers attention
on both the existence and location of intersection.
Rotary intersection
Rotary intersection can be considered as a form of channelized intersection in which

vehicles are guided onto a one way roadway and required to move in a clockwise
direction about a central island. The main objectives of providing a rotary are to
eliminate the necessity of stopping even for crossing streams of vehicles and reduce the
area of conflict. The crossings of vehicles is avoided by allowing all vehicles to merge
into the streams around the rotary and then to diverge out to the desired radiating road.
Thus the crossing conflict is eliminated and converted into weaving maneuver or a
merging operation from the right and a diverging to the left.
Advantages
¾ Orderly movement of vehicles about the central island
¾ Possibility of having vehicle conflicts can be considerably reduced—since all traffic
streams merge and diverge at small angles, accidents which do occur rarely have
fatal consequences, damage being usually confined to vehicles only.
¾ For moderate traffic, rotary intersections are self governing and hence no need of
control by traffic police on signal timings
¾ The variable cost of operation of vehicle is less as compared to signalized
intersection where the vehicles have to stop and proceed.
¾ A rotary intersection is suited when the number of intersecting roads is more than
four.
Limitations
¾ Requires relatively large land area—total cost may be high such as at built up
areas where space is limited and costly.
¾ As the flow increases and reaches the capacity, weaving generally gives way to a
STOP and queue behind them. Under such conditions vehicles once having got
into the rotary may not be able to get our of it because of vehicles across their
path and rotary may lock up and it has to be sorted out by traffic police.
¾ Where pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself can not control the traffic and
hence has to be supplemented by traffic police.
¾ When the angle of intersection of two roads is too acute or when there are more
than seven intersecting roads, rotaries are unsuitable (difficult to provide
adequate weaving length)
¾ When provided at close intervals, they make travel troublesome
¾ Rotary intersections are not as easily adoptable as are traffic signal controlled
intersections to the long term stage development of a highway. If constructed to
meet the long term needs, they usually result in over design when compared with
the immediate traffic requirements
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¾ At night the central island and the entrances should be well lit.
¾ Aesthetically pleasing central island landscaping is required.
¾ Rotaries are most suitable where volumes of entering traffic from all approaching
legs are approximately equal.
¾ When the approach leg widths are restricted and it is impossible to provide
separate lanes for through and turning traffic, a rotary may be desirable.
¾ Rotaries are not generally warranted for intersections carrying very light traffic.
The shape and layout of rotary island depends upon the layout of the intersecting roads
and the traffic flow pattern.
Design factors for rotary intersection
Various design factors to be considered are speed, shape of Central Island, radius of
rotary roadway, weaving angle, weaving distance, width of rotary roadway, radius of
entrance and exit curves, channelizing islands, camber and super elevation, grade,
lighting and signs.
¾ Design speed—design speed of approaching vehicle should be reduced

30 kmph for urban areas
40 kmph for rural areas
Governs the various elements such as radii and weaving lengths.
¾ Central Island—shape of central island depends upon the number and layout of
the intersecting roads. Various shapes of central island are in use—circular (when
two equally important roads cross at roughly right angles i.e. all four radiating
roads placed symmetrically), elliptical, tangent, turbine shapes.
¾ Radius of Central Island---different radii at different points depending upon the
shape of the central island. This is governed by the design speed. Minimum radius
of central island is taken equal to the radius from calculation for the rotary radius
for easiness and safety. As adequate super elevation can not be provided on the
rotary roads, it is safer to neglect super elevation and consider friction only
V2
R= R—radius of island (m)
127 f
For f=0.43 and 0.47 for speeds 40 kmph and 30 kmph respectively
Minimum radius of Central Island should be greater than 1.33 times radius of
entry curve.
¾ Weaving angle and length—the angle between the path of the entering vehicle
and vehicle leaving the rotary at the adjacent lane. These two vehicles undergo
the merging into one way traffic then weaving and lastly diverging maneuver
from the flow to the required road outlet. This weaving operation including
merging and diverging can take place between the two channelizing islands of the
adjacent intersecting legs and this length of the rotary roadway is known as
weaving length.
For smooth flow of traffic----small weaving angle but should not be less than 15°
as the diameter of the central island required will be too large. For any design
speed, freedom of maneuver and easiness is governed by the weaving length---at
least 4 times the width of weaving section
Minimum recommended weaving length
45~90 m for 40 kmph
30~60 m for 30 kmph
¾ Width of carriageway at entry and exit ---governed by the amount of traffic
entering or leaving the rotary.
Minimum carriageway width at entrance and exit---5.0 m
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Entry width may be increased to 6.5, 7.0 and 8.0m when the carriageway width
of approaching road is 7.0, 10.5 and 14.0 m respectively and the radius at entry
is 25~35 m.
¾ Width of rotary roadway—varies at various sections as the outer edge follows the
entrance and exit road sides. Effective width of rotary roadway (weaving section)
is the width between the edge of Central Island and the adjoining curb. Width of
non weaving section should be equal to the widest single entry (generally less
than the width of weaving section). The width of weaving section should be one
traffic lane wider than the mean width of the entry and non weaving section
should be one traffic lane wider than the mean width of the entry and non
weaving section
e1 + e2
w= + 3.5 m
2
¾ Entrance and exit curves---inner rear wheel determines the radius and shape of
curb line. Radius of entrance curve should be minimum recommended radius of
central island
For 40 kmph entry curve radius 20~35 m
For 30 kmph entry curve radius 15~25 m
Signalization
There is possibility of accidents and disorderly movements of traffic in an intersection

with large volume of turning and crossing traffic. Traffic signals are all power operated
devices (except signs) for regulating, directing or warning motorists or pedestrians. The
use of traffic signals for control of conflicting streams of vehicular and pedestrian traffic
is extensive in most of the towns and cities. The main requirements of traffic signal are
to draw attention, provide meaning and time to respond and to have minimum waste of
time. The main purposes of installing traffic signals at intersections are
¾ To improve overall safety
¾ To decrease average travel time through an intersection and consequently
increase the capacity
¾ To equalize the quality of service for all or most traffic stream
Justification for the installation of traffic signals must be made in terms of safety, travel
times, equity, pollution etc.
Advantages
¾ Provide orderly movement of traffic. Proper physical layouts and management
measures can increase the traffic handling capacity of a congested intersection
¾ They reduce the frequency of right angled and pedestrian accidents
¾ Under conditions of favorable spacing, they can be co-coordinated to provide for
continuous or nearly continuous vehicle progression
Grade separated intersections
At grade intersection the number of vehicles that can pass through it controlled by the
characteristics of the intersection rather than by those of the highways themselves. Not
only do they provide many opportunities for vehicle conflicts, with the resultant expected
accidents but at grade intersections also reduce vehicle speeds and increase operating
costs. It is when these difficulties become unduly great that intersections with grade
separation become most advantageous. Grade separated intersections are those where
the conflict in traffic flow is resolved by duplicating the intersecting space at various
heights. This type of intersection causes least delay and hazard to crossing traffic and is
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the highest form of intersection treatment from the viewpoint of traffic safety and
operating efficiency.
The grade separation may be either by an over bridge or an under pass. Transfer of
route at grade separation is provided by interchange facilities consisting of ramps.
Interchange ramps can be classified as direct, semi direct or indirect as shown in figure.
Direct interchange ramp---diverging to right side and merging from the right
Direct
Semi direct interchange ramp—diverging to left but merging from right
Semi Direct
Indirect interchange ramp—diverging to left and merging form the left---simpler and less
hazardous---more distance to be traversed.
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Indirect
Justification
¾ Highway construction with complete control of access automatically justifies the
use of grade separated structures in order to ensure the free movement of high
speed traffic.
¾ To eliminate existing traffic bottlenecks –inability of an important at grade
intersection to provide the necessary capacity is in itself a justification for a grade
separation on a major highway.
¾ Safety consideration—to eliminate large number of accidents of certain
intersection with high vehicle operating speeds.
¾ Economic considerations—at major at grade road junctions considerable economic
losses can be incurred due to intersectional frictions and the resultant delays to
traffic. These are usually in the form of increased costs for furl, tires, oil, repairs
and accidents as well as the increased time costs of the road users----very
considerable long term economic gain to the community may by far overweigh
the burden of the initial capital costs
¾ Topographic difficulties---the nature of the topography or the cost of land at
certain sites may be such that the construction of at grade intersection is more
expensive.
Grade separation without slip roads

¾ This type of structure is simply a bridge or series of bridges which enable to
traffic streams on the intersecting highways to cross over each other without any
vehicle conflicts taking place.
¾ Constructed in rural areas where a minor road crosses a major road and the
turning movements are not sufficient to justify expenditure on interconnecting
ramps.
¾ In urban areas—used to cut down the total number of intersections on major
streets
¾ Overall traffic safety and efficiency of movement is increased by concentrating
the turning t traffic at a limited number of locations where adequate ramp
facilities can be built.
¾ May also be constructed at locations in urban or rural areas where the site
conditions are so difficult that it is not economically feasible to connect the
roadways.
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Grade separation with slip or link roads

¾ System of interconnecting slip or link roads in conjunction with a grade separation
or grade separations which provide for the interchange of traffic between two or
more roadways on different levels.
Advantages of grade separation

¾ Maximum facility is given to the crossing traffic---avoids necessity of stopping
and avoids accidents while crossing.
¾ Increased safety for turning traffic---even right turn movement is made easy and
safe (indirect interchange ramp)
¾ Overall increase in comfort and convenience to the motorist and saving in travel
time and vehicle operation cost.
¾ Capacity can practically approach to that of the two cross roads.
¾ Possible to adopt for all likely angles and layout of intersecting roads
¾ Stage construction of additional ramps is possible after the grade separation
structure between main roads is constructed.
Disadvantages of grade separation

¾ Costly
¾ Where right of way is limited (built up or urban areas)---difficult and undesirable
¾ In flat and plain terrain---introduction of undesirable crests and sags in vertical
alignment
Structures of grade separation
Different kinds of bridges

Overpass
Underpass
Overpass—when the major highway is taken above by raising its profile above the
general ground level by embankment and an over bridge across another highway.
Underpass---if the highway is taken by depressing it below the ground level to cross
another road by means of an under bridge
The choice of overpass or under pass depends on topography, vertical alignment,

drainage, economy, aesthetic features and preferential aspects for one of the highways.
Advantages of overpass
¾ Troublesome drainage problems may be reduced
¾ For same type of structure when the wider road is taken above the span of the
bridge being small, the cost of bridge structure will be less.
¾ Aesthetic preference to the main through traffic in an over pass and less feeling
of restriction or confinement when compared with the under pass.
¾ Future expansion or lateral expansion or construction is possible
Disadvantages
¾ Vertical gradient will be more--- increased grade resistance may cause speed
reduction on heavy vehicles
¾ Restriction to sight distances unless long vertical curves are provided.
Advantages of under pass

¾ Warning to the traffic in advance due to presence of an under pass
87
¾ Advantageous to turning traffic—traffic from the cross road can accelerate while
descending the ramp to the major highway and the traffic from the major
highway can decelerate while ascending the ramp to the cross roads.
¾ May be advantageous when the main highway is taken along the existing grade
without alteration of its vertical alignment and cross road is depressed and taken
underneath.
Disadvantages
¾ Troublesome drainage problem
¾ Overhead structure may restrict the vertical sight distance even at the valley
curve
¾ Feeling of restriction to the traffic at the sides
¾ No possibility of stage construction
Many types of grade separated interchanges---used in various situations

Basic purpose is to provide an easy and safe means by which vehicles may transfer from
one roadway to another---possible to classify according to the manner in which they
perform the function.
Classification according to number of approach roads on intersection legs
Three way--- one of the intersecting legs of a three way intersection is an approximate
prolongation of the direction of approach of another and if the third leg intersects this
prolongation at an angle between 75°~105°---intersection is called T intersection. The
equivalent interchange is called either T interchange or trumpet interchange.
If one leg of the intersection is a prolongation of the approach of another and the third
leg intersects this prolongation at an angle less than 75°or greater than 105°---called Y
intersection---equivalent interchange is called Y interchange.
88
T or Trumpet
89
Four leg junctions---four way two lane junctions
Consisting of a single bridge and four one way slop roads----particular advantage that it
can be located within a relatively narrow land area since it needs little extra width
beyond that required for the major road itself.
¾ Easily understood by motorists
¾ Greater slip road capacity can be easily obtained
¾ Conflict can occur at intersections where the slip roads meet the crossing minor
road.
¾ If minor road traffic volume is heavy—need a pair of closely spaced traffic signals
with relatively long cycle times.
Diamond Intersection
90
Diamond
Rotary
Cloverleaf---four way, two level---ultimate answer to intersection problems

¾ At intersection of two high speed, heavy volume highways
¾ Requires relatively large area
¾ Right hand turning movement must negotiate 270°semi direct turn
¾ Pedestrian movement along cross streets in urban areas are more difficult to
handle with this type of interchange.
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Cloverleaf
1.8 Analysis of an Isolated Fixed Time Traffic signal

Definition and Types of Traffic Signals and Traffic Signal Systems
Traffic signal may be described as a complete installation at a junction which includes

signal heads (containing different colored lanterns), poles, wiring, control mechanisms
etc. it is also used to refer to an optical device (the signal head) which is operated
electrically by a controller and displays a prescribed message which causes pedestrian
and vehicular traffic to be alternatively directed to stop and go.
Filter signals are normally mounted along side the main signal heads, permit the
movement of vehicles in the direction shown by the green arrow even though the main
signal is showing red.
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Continuous green---vehicular traffic facing a green may enter the intersection to travel
straight through or to turn left or right except when prohibited by signs, lane markings
or design. Turning vehicles must yield to opposing through vehicles, and to pedestrians
legally in a conflicting cross walk. Unless a pedestrian signal is present, pedestrians may
proceed across the roadway within any legal marked or unmarked cross walk.
Continuous yellow---vehicles are warned that the related green movements is being
terminated or that a red indication will immediately follow. Entry on yellow is generally
legal but is prohibited on the red which may follow it. In the absence of pedestrian
signals pedestrians are prohibited from entering the street during a yellow indication.
Continuous red---vehicular traffic is prohibited from entering the intersection and all
vehicles must trop at a stop line or cross walk time (or path if unmarked). Left turning
traffic may turn or proceed cautiously after making a complete stop unless prohibited by
signs. Right turn from one way street to another one way street may also proceed
cautiously after making a complete stop. Vehicles must yield to pedestrians legally
crossing the street.
Flashing yellow--- may proceed through intersection with caution.

Flashing red--- carries the same requirement as a STOP sign---drivers may proceed only
after coming to a full stop.
Signalization is the ultimate form of intersection control. Its use is called for where
vehicular and pedestrian flow are at levels that make it difficult or impossible for drivers
to select gaps in conflicting traffic streams through which to safely execute their desired
maneuvers.
Different types of traffic signals

1. traffic control
¾ pre timed---functions without respect to demand patterns
¾ actuated--- signal operation is affected on a cycle-by-cycle basis by current
demand
2. pedestrian signal
3. special traffic control signal
Pre-timed signals repeat a preset constant cycle. Demand actuated signals have the
capability to respond to the presence of vehicles or pedestrians at the intersection. They
are equipped with detectors and the necessary control logic to respond to the demands
placed on them. Semi actuated signal controls are implemented at intersections of a
major and minor street with the detectors placed only on the minor street approaches to
the intersection. The heavily used major street is given a guaranteed green display
which is interrupted only when either vehicle are detected on the lightly used minor
street or when pedestrians press the push button to cross the major street.
Full actuated signals employ detectors on all legs of the intersection and are applicable
to intersections of streets that carry about equal but fluctuating flows. Special types of
demand actuated signals recognize and give priority to particular classes of vehicles such
as city buses or emergency vehicles.
Traffic signal system—isolated intersection control, arterial system control and network
system control.
In isolated intersections, vehicles arrive at the various approaches randomly.---pre
timed, actuated
93
An arterial system consists of a series of intersections, usually along a major street

system that require time coordination to improve the efficiency of flow---pre timed or
demand actuated
A network system typically takes the form of closely spaced intersection in a grid pattern
such as that found in CBD. Most of the intersections on the grid require signal control.
Because of the considerable interactions between the intersections pre timed signal
control is most prevalent.
Simultaneous system—all the signals along a given road always show the same
indication at the same time.
Alternate system—alternate signals or group of signals show opposite indications in a

route at the same time. This system is also operated by a single controller but by
reversing the red and green indicator connections at successive signal systems.
Pedestrian signal—to give right of way to pedestrians to cross a road during the ‘walk
period’ when the vehicular traffic shall be stopped by red or stop signal on the traffic
signals of the road.
Flashing beacons are meant to warn the traffic
Simple progression system—a time schedule is made to permit a continuous operation of

groups of vehicles along the main road at a reasonable speed. The signal phase
indicating ‘GO’ indications along this road is scheduled to work at the predetermined
time schedule. The phases and intervals at each signal installation may be different but
each signal unit works as fixed time signal with equal signal cycle length.
Flexible progressive system

Possible to automatically vary the length of cycle, cycle division and the time schedule at
each signalized intersection with the help of computer.
Warrants for signalization

MUTCD—presents a detailed set of 11 warrants—each justifies the imposition of traffic
signals at an intersection.
Each warrant addresses a different set of condition in which signal control has been
found to be an effective and justifiable measure to ensure safe and efficient
operation of the intersection.
¾ Based on long experience and represent many years of practice and professional
judgment.
¾ The data required to assess need against these criteria is also detailed in MUTCD
and invokes thorough field studies.
1. The minimum vehicular volume warrant is intended for application where the
volume of intersecting traffic is the principal reason for consideration of signal
installation.
a. Each of any 8 hours of an average day
b. Average traffic volume for eight hours on both approaches should be at
least 650 motor vehicles per hour on major streets with single lane and
800 vehicles on the streets with two or more lanes.
c. The number of motor vehicles approaching the intersection on minor
Street (on one direction only) is at least 200 veh/hr. on single lane street
and 250 veh/hr when there are two or more lanes.
94
d. When the average approach speed or 85th percentile speed of major street
traffic exceeds 60 kmph or when the intersection lies within the built up
area, the minimum vehicular volume warrant is 70% of the requirement
above.
2. Interruption of continuous traffic—applies to operating conditions where the
traffic volume on a major street is so heavy that traffic on a minor intersection
street suffers excessive delay or hazard in entering or crossing the major street.
a. Major street 1000~1200 veh/hr, minor street 100~150 veh/hr in one
direction only during any eight hours of an average day
b. An average day is defined as a weekday representing traffic normally and
repeatedly found at a location.
3. Minimum pedestrian volume—150 or more pedestrian per hour cross a major
street with over 600 vehicles per hour on both approaches.
4. School crossing—warrants at an established school crossing when the number of
adequate gaps in the traffic stream during the period when the children are using
the crossing is less than the number of minutes in the same period.
5. Progressive movement—requires traffic signal intersections where they would not
otherwise be warranted in order to maintain proper grouping of vehicles and
effectively regulate group speed.
6. accident experience—adequate trial of less restricted remedies with satisfactory
observance and enforcement has failed to reduce the accident frequency
a. five or more reported accidents have occurred within a 12 month period
(involving Rs 2000 due to injury and damage)
b. The signal installation will not seriously disrupt the traffic flow.
7. System warrants—to encourage concentration and organization of traffic flow
networks.
8. Peak hour delay—intended for application where conditions traffic are such that
for one hour of the day, minor street traffic suffers undue delay in entering or
crossing the major street.
9. peak hour volume—intended for application when traffic conditions are such that
for one hour of the day, minor street traffic suffers undue traffic delay in entering
or crossing the major street.
Definition of terms
A no. of key terms and definitions should be understood before undertaking any
substantive discussion.
Cycle: a signal cycle is one complete rotation through all the signal indications provided.
Generally every legal vehicular movement receives a ‘green’ indication once within each
cycle.
Cycle length: it is the duration of time in which the whole set of phases at a signalized
intersection takes place once.
Interval: is a period during which none of the lights at a signalized intersection

changes.
Change interval: the yellow indication for a given movement—each movement at the
intersection receives such an interval between the green and red indications for that
movement.
All red intervals: the display time of a red indication for all approaches
Green interval: green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
95
Red interval: red indication for a particular movement or a set of movements

Phase: phasing is a sequence by which the various movements of both vehicles and
pedestrians are being served at a signalized intersection. Phase is a set of intervals that
allows a designated movement or a set of movements to flow and to be safely halted
before release of another set of movements.
Green ratio: the ratio of effective green time to the cycle length.
Different modes of traffic signal operation

Pre timed: the cycle length, phases and all intervals are preset
Semi actuated: detectors are placed on the minor approaches

Signal is green for the major screen at all times, until and unless one of
the minor street detectors is activated indicating the presence of a vehicle waiting for
service.
Full actuated: every intersection approach has a detector. Green time is allocated based
up on detector actuation.
Permitted/ protected right turns
Phasing scheme:
¾ Objective is to minimize the potential hazards arising from the conflicts of
vehicular and pedestrian movements, while the efficiency of flow through the
intersection.
¾ A large number of phases may be required if all conflicts are to be eliminated.
¾ Typical conflicts are
o Right turning vehicles conflict with opposing through traffic as well as with
pedestrians
o Left turning vehicles conflict with pedestrians
¾ Increase in number of phases promoted safety but hinders efficiency because it
results in increasing delays.
¾ Delay increases because
o Start-up times increases (the time between the display of green and the
discharge of the first vehicle in the queue)
o Phase change intervals increase (number of yellow and red clearance
intervals required for transition from one phase to the next increase)
o Minimum phase duration requirements have to be met—based on
minimum pedestrian crossing times.
N 3 2 1
¾ a group of N number of vehicles at a signalized waiting for the green indication

¾ The first headway is the time between the initiation of green and the crossing of
the first vehicle over the curb line.
¾ The second headway is the time between the first and second vehicles crossing
the curb line
96
¾ The first headway is relatively long as it must include the first driver’s reaction
time and the time necessary to accelerate.
¾ The level headway is saturation headway –can be achieved by a stable moving
platoon of vehicles passing through a green indication
Headway
Vehicle in queue
¾ If every vehicle consumes h seconds of green time and if the signal were always
green, the s vehicles could enter the intersection
3600
Saturation flow rate s =
h
¾ Start up lost time ll = ∑ e(i)
e(i ) = (actual headway – h) for vehicle i
¾ Effective green time—sum of actual green time plus the yellow and all red times
minus applicable lost times---also includes clearance lost time.
Lost time—total time during the cycle which is not effectively used for vehicle
movement.
Made up of the time when all signal heads show red or red amber plus a
waste allowance of 2s per change of phase to allow for the tailing off of vehicle
movement during the amber period and the starting delays at the beginning of the
green period. At each change of phase, lost time amounts to one second less than the
inter green period.
Elements of signal timing system

Signal phase—is a period during which one or more movements concurrently are shown
a green indication.
Phase I Phase II
Safety considerations dictate that a phase may be shared only by those traffic streams
whose paths do not intersect. In practice some conflicts are tolerated.
97
In the above figure, pedestrian and right and left turning vehicles enjoy concurrent
green. Left turns are allowed to clear an intersection through gaps in the traffic streams
moving along the same street but in the opposite direction.
Pedestrian
Phase A
Vehicle
Phase B
Two Phase System
Phase A
Phase B
Pedestrian
Phase C
Vehicle
Three Phase System
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Phase A
Phase B
Phase C
Phase D
Four Phase System

• Right turn protected in phases A and C
• Right turn permitted in phase B
• Right turn prohibited in phase D
When the pedestrian and turning vehicles are numerous, it may be advantageous to
provide a special phase where all pedestrian movements are permitted while all vehicles
are stopped. Subsequent phases are meant for vehicles only.
Design of signal phases specifies a sequence of various phases flowing each other.
The time between the end of a green indication for one phase and the beginning of a
green for another is called inter green time. An amber indication is shown through the
inter green period followed by red. When the computed inter green time is long, a
combination of amber and an all red interval may be used instead.
Design of signal phases specifies a sequence of various phases following each other. A
phasing diagram is developed by jointly considering intersection geometry (no. of lanes
at each approach) and desired lines of movement through an intersection. Safety is the
sole criteria in computing inter green times. Factors affecting the length of inter green
include safe stopping distance, approach speeds of vehicles, walking speeds of
pedestrians and pavement widths.
Total green time per cycle—cycle time minus the sum of inter greens over all phases
Selection of green time depends

¾ Whether to minimize the overall average travel time through an intersection
¾ To equalize demand and capacity over a given time period
¾ To minimize the maximum individual travel time through an intersection.
Each objective results different cycles times and green indications.
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Principles of signal design

(1) Stop or red phase (R1) of a signal—sum of go and clearance interval or green and
amber phases for the cross flow (G2 + A2)----------pedestrian crossing time may
also be incorporated.
(2) At the end of red phase, there may be a short duration when the amber lights
are put on along with red light signal in order to indicate get set to go ---is the
last part of red phase itself and may be called ‘red amber’ or initial amber---
vehicles are not supposed to cross the stop line during the red amber period.
(3) Amber time—provided just after the green phase before the red phase to fulfill
two requirements
¾ Stopping time for approaching vehicle to stop at stop line after the signal
changes from green to amber and not to cross the line by the time the
signal changes to red phase.
¾ Clearance time for the vehicle which is approaching to stop line at legal
speed while the signal changes from green to amber allowing sufficient
time for the vehicle to cross the intersections area as it may not be
possible for the vehicle to stop before the stop line at that stage.
¾ 2~5 seconds
(4) Green time is decided based on the approach volume during peak hour and to
enable the queued vehicles to clear off in most of the cycles.
Trial cycle method

Let n1 and n2 ----15 minutes traffic counts on roads 1 and 2 during the design peak hour
flow
C1—assumed trial cycle (seconds
15 * 60 900
No. of cycles in 15 minutes = =
C1 C1
Suppose average time headway = 2.5 seconds
G1 and G2 –green periods of roads 1 and 2 respectively.
2.5 * n1 * C1 2.5 * n2 * C 2
∴ G1 = and G2 =
900 900
Amber time A1 and A2 –either calculated or suitably assumed (3~4 seconds)
Cycle length C1' = G1 + G2 + A1 + A2
If C1' ≈ C1 ---accepted as design cycle length otherwise repeat the same process.
Example
The 15 minutes traffic counts on a cross roads 1 and 2 during peak hour are observed as
178 and 142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching the intersection in the direction
of heavier traffic flow. If the amber times required are 3 and 2 seconds respectively for
two loads based on approach speeds, design signal timings by trial cycle method.
Assume average time headway of 2.5s during green phase.
Solution:
Assume C1 = 50 secs
900
No. of cycles in 15 min = = 18
50
Green time for road 1, allowing average time headway of 2.5 secs per vehicle
178 * 2.5
G1 = = 24.7
18
142 * 2.5
G2 = = 19.7
18
Amber times A1 and A2 are 3 and 2 secs (given)
100
Therefore C = 24.7 + 19.7 + 3 + 2 = 49.4 secs

Lower than assumed cycle length ----lower the cycle length
Let C2 = 40 secs
900
No. of cycles in 15 minutes = = 22.5
40
178 * 2.5
G1 = = 19.8
22.5
142 * 2.5
G2 = = 15.8
22.5
Total cycle length C = 19.8 + 15.8 + 3 + 2 = 40.6 secs
Greater than C2---increase the cycle length
Assume C3 = 45 secs and repeat the same process
On a cross roads A and B the 15 minutes traffic volume during the design hour were 700
and 400 vehicles. The approach speeds were 50 and 30 kmph for roads A and B. the
width of road A is 14 m and that of road B is 10 m. design the signal timings.
Solution:
SSD Road A and Road B
dA = 0.278*V*t = 0.278*50*0.5 = 6.95 m say 7 m
dB = 0.278*V*t = 0.278*30*0.5 = 4.17 m say 4.2 m
7 + 10 + 6.1
Amber time for road A AA = = 1.66 seconds say 2 seconds
0.278 * 50
4.2 + 14 + 6.1
Amber time for road B AB = = 2.91 seconds say 3 seconds
0.278 * 30
Assume a trial cycle C = 90 seconds

900
No. of cycles in 15 minutes = = 10
90
700 * 2.5
Green time for road A GA = = 175 seconds
10
400 * 2.5
Green time for road B GB = = 60
10
Total cycle length = C1 = G1 + G2 + A1 + A2 = 175+60+2+3 = 240 seconds
'
Approximate method
¾ Suitable amber periods are selected based on approach speeds of vehicles: 2, 3
and 4 seconds for low, medium and fast approach speeds.
¾ Clearance for pedestrian (time) based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m/s.
¾ Minimum red time of traffic signal—pedestrian clearance time for crossing plus
initial interval for pedestrians to start crossings.
Red time = (minimum green time + amber time) for the cross road
¾ Minimum green time –based on pedestrian criteria
Pedestrian clearance time for cross road plus an initial interval when
pedestrians may start to cross minus amber time.
Red time for cross road – amber time
With pedestrian signal the initial interval is the WALK period—should not be less
than 7 seconds.
Where no pedestrian signal is used—minimum period of 5 seconds is used as
initial interval.
101
¾ Actual green time needed based on the ratio of approach volume for the
heaviest traffic volume per hour per lane. The cycle length so obtained is adjusted
for the next higher 5 seconds interval. The extra time is then distributed to green
timings in proportion to the approaching volumes of traffic.
¾ The values so obtained are calculated on percentage basis if the controller
settings are in percent of cycle.
¾ The timings so obtained are installed in the controller and the operations are then
observed at the site during peak traffic hours. Corrections or modifications are
carried out if needed.
An isolated signal with pedestrians indication is to be installed on a right angled

intersection with road A 18 m wide and road B 12 m wide. The heaviest volume per hour
for each lane of road A and B are 275 and 225 respectively. The approach speeds are 55
and 40 kmph for road A and B respectively. Design timings of traffic and pedestrian
signals.
Road A
18 m
PSA
TSA
PSB
TSB
Road B
12 m
(1) amber periods

AA = 4 secs (55 kmph)
AB = 3 secs (40 kmph)
(2) pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m/s
Pedestrian clearance time
18
For road A = = 15
1.2
12
For road B = = 10
1.2
Add 7 secs for initial walk period
Minimum time for road A = 15 + 7 = 22 secs
Minimum time for road B = 10 + 7 = 17 secs
(3) minimum green time bases on pedestrian criterion
Road B = 22 – 3 = 19 secs
Road A = 17 – 4 = 13 secs
(4) based on approach volume, green time calculated is increased for road A with
higher traffic volume
GA nA
= GB = 19 secs
GB nB
102
nA 275
GA = * GB = *19 = 23.2 secs
nB 225
Total cycle length = GA + AA + RA
= GA + AA +GB + AB
= 23.2 + 4 + 19 + 3 = 49.2 secs
Adopt C = 50 secs
Additional period = 0.8 secs is distributed to green timings in proportion to
approach traffic volume
GA = 23.2 + 0.44 = 23.64 RA = GB + AB = 16.36 + 3 = 22.36
GB = 19 + 0.36 = 19.36 RB = GA + AA = 23.64 + 4 = 27.64
Pedestrian signal
Do not walk (DW) period for pedestrian signal
For PSA DWA = RB = 27.64 secs
For PSB DWB = RA = 22.36 secs
Pedestrian clearance intervals 15 and 10 seconds for roads A and B respectively.

Walk time (WT)
For PSA WA = 50 – 27.64 – 15 = 7.36 secs
For PSB WB = 50 – 22.36 – 10 = 17.64 secs
Webster method
¾ Optimum signal cycle C0 corresponding to least total delay to the vehicles at the
signalized intersection has been worked out.
¾ Find the saturation flow S per unit time on each approach of intersection and
¾ Find the normal flow q on each approach during design hour.
q1 q
¾ Based on the higher values of normal flow, the ratio y1 = and y 2 = 2 are
S1 S2
determined on approach roads 1 and 2.
¾ For mixed traffic—necessary to convert all the normal flow and saturation flow
values in terms of suitable PCU values
¾ Saturation flow is to be obtained by noting the no. of vehicles in the stream of
compact flow during the green phases and the corresponding time intervals
precisely.
¾ On the absence of data, approximate value of saturation flow –160 PCU per 0.3 m
width of approach.
¾ The normal flow of traffic is also determined on the approach roads from the field
studies for the design period
1.5 L + 5
C0 =
1−Y
Where L—total lost time per cycle (secs) L = 2n + R
n—no. of phase and R – all red time
Y = y1 + y2
y1 y
Then G1 = (C 0 − L) and G 2 = 2 (C 0 − L)
Y Y
Same procedure –when more number of signal phases.
Arm Actual flow fa (veh/h) Saturation flow fs (veh/h) Ratio y=fa/fs Critical ratio
N 600 2400 0.25 0.25
103
S 450 2000 0.225

E 900 3000 0.300
0.300
W 750 3000 0.25
Lost time –starting delays 2s per phase
All red periods—3s at each change of right of way
Red-amber period—3s at each change of right of way
Minimum overall delay to vehicles.
The length of fully utilized green phase for an approach to an intersection can be
considered to consist of an effective green period during which saturation flow occurs
and the lost time during which no flow takes place.
The saturation flow can be defined as the flow which would be obtained if a continuous
queue of vehicles was given 100% green time. If the ratio of the actual flow to the
saturation flow on the critical arm of each phase is denoted by y, then
1 .5 L + 5
C0 = (TRRL—transport and road
1 − y1 − y 2 − ..... y n
research laboratory)
C0—optimum cycle length for minimum intersection delay

Y1, y2,……..yn---maximum ratios of the actual flow to saturation flow for phases 1,2,…n
L—total lost time per cycle (secs) L = n*l+R
n—no. of signal phases
l—average lost time per phase due to the starting delays (secs)
R—time during each cycle when all signals display red including red plus amber
simultaneously (secs)
(if lost time and saturation flows are both different for the different approaches of the
same phase, then each arm of the phase should be considered in turn as the
predominant one and the longest cycle deduced is then the optimum one)
When the cycle length is varied within the range of 0.75 C0~1.5 C0, the minimum delay
is never exceeded by more than 10~20%.
Total time per cycle when red or red amber aspects are shown to all phases = 12 secs
Total lost time L = nl+R = 2*2+12 = 16 secs
1 .5 L + 5 1.5 * 16 + 5
C0 = = = 64 secs
1 − y1 − y 2 1 − 0.25 − 0.3
Total effective green time = 64-16=48 secs
Steps
¾ Calculate or measure the saturation flow qs for each approach.
¾ Find the design volume for each approach q (count the peak hour volume in
mixed traffic with known percentage composition and percentage turns, divide by
the peak hour factor, convert to design volume in straight through passenger car
per hour using the rough coefficients.)
¾ Calculate q/qs ratio for each approach. If q and qs are per lane rather than per
approach, choose the critical lane q/qs ratio. For each street, choose larger q/qs
for design.
¾ Calculate the two inter green period.
¾ Calculate the minimum green indications based on pedestrian requirements
¾ Calculate Coptimum
¾ Split the available effective green time between the two phases.
104
¾ Check if the minimum green indications required by pedestrians are satisfied, if

not adjust upward.
¾ Develop a table of all signal indication lengths according to the following rules
o The minimum length of any green indication is 15 seconds
o The cycle length should be adjusted to the nearest highest length divisible
by 5 seconds (if C < 90 secs) or 10 (if C > 90 secs). Redistribute the extra
green as earlier
o All intervals should be integer percentage points of the cycle length.
A four leg intersection needs a fixed time signal. The critical flows in the N-S and E-W
directions are 600 and 400 vehicles per hour. Saturation flow is 1800 veh per hour and
the lost time per phase is observed to be 1.2 seconds. Determine the cycle length and
distribution of green
Solution
Assume an amber period of 4 seconds
observed flow
yi =
saturation flow
600
y1 = = 0.333
1800
400
y2 = = 0.222
1800
∑ yi = 0.333 + 0.222 = 0.555
1.5L + 5 1.5 * (2 * 5.2) + 5
C0 = = = 46.3 secs
1 − ∑ yi 1 − 0.555
Use C0 = 50 secs
G= C0 – A1 – A2 – nl = 50-4-4-2*1.2 = 39.6 secs
∑ Critical Lane Volumes = 600+400=1000
600 * 39.6
GN −S = = 23.76
1000
400 * 39.6
G E −W = = 15.84
1000
Phase N-S = green + yellow + lost time = 23.76 + 4 + 1.2 = 30 secs
Phase E-W = 15.84 + 4 + 1.2 = 20 secs
Cycle length = 30 + 20 = 50 secs
50 secs
0 26 30 50
R G A R G
Phase N-S
46
A R G A
Phase E-W
Consider the signalized intersection as shown in figure
105
13.5m
17 m
Phase I Phase II
Two phase—width of each approach lane –3.0 m

Design vehicle length = 6.0 m
Approach speed 45 kmph and 12.5 m/s
Perception reaction time = 1.0 s
Start up lost time = 2 s
Movement lost time –half the amber time
No all red time
Two phase—width of each approach lane = 3.0 m

Traffic volume
East bound –425 pcu
West bound – 375 pcu
North bound – 540 pcu
South bound – 400 pcu
Amber time
12.5 13.5 + 6
t a ( I ) = 1 .0 + + = 4.6 ≈ 5 (s)
2+4 12.5
12.5 17 + 6
t a ( II ) = 1.0 + + = 4.9 ≈ 5 (s)
2 + 4 12.5
Pedestrian crossing time
13.5
t p ( I ) = 7 .0 + = 18.25 ≈ 18 (s)
1 .2
17
t p ( II ) = 7.0 + = 21.2 ≈ 21 (s)
1 .2
Saturation flow rate
525 * 6 = 3250 pcu per hour green (IRC)
Critical flow ratios
106
Phase Flow ratio Critical flow ratio Remarks

I 425 375 Max {0.135,0.119} 0.135 ≈ 0.14
,
3150 3150
II 540 400 Max {0.17,0.13} 0.17
,
3150 3150
∑ (l )
p
Total lost time L=
i
s + l mi + l ri
i =1
⇒ L = (2+0.5*5) + (2+0.5*5) = 9 secs
1.5 L + 5
C0 = = 26.8 secs
1 − 0.17 − 0.14
Let first estimate of C0 = 30 secs…..
Determine phase length and check for their adequacy with regard to pedestrian crossing
times (if green time + amber time + all red time for a phase is greater than or equal to
the pedestrian crossing time required for that particular phase, then the green time for
that phase is considered to be adequate.)
Total green time available (without amber time) for the distribution among the two
phases = 30 secs
Phase Green (s) Amber tp Is green adequate for tp

(s) consideration?
I 0.14 5 18 14 + 5 > 18 OK
* 30 = 13.55 ≈ 14
0.14 + 0.17
II 0.17 5 21 16 + 5 > 21 NOT OK
* 30 = 16.45 ≈ 16
0.14 + 0.17
Therefore increase cycle length to 35 seconds
Phase Green (s) Amber tp Is green adequate for tp

(s) consideration?
I 0.14 5 18
* 35 = 15.81 ≈ 16 16+ 5 > 18 OK
0.14 + 0.17
II 0.17 5 21
* 35 = 19.2 ≈ 19 19 > 21 OK
0.14 + 0.17
107
13.5m
PSB
A I
13.5/1.2=11
Phase I
PSA
17.0m
17/1.2=14
Phase II
C = 45 secs legends
16 5 24 Green
TSA
WB=10 CI=11 DWB=24 Red

PSB
Amber
21 19 5
TSB
DWA=21 WA=10 CI=14 Clearance interval

PSA
108
A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection having four arms. The
design hour traffic and saturation flow are as under:
North (N) South (S) East (E) West (W)

Design hour flow 800 400 750 600
Saturation flow 2400 2000 3000 3000
The time lost per phase due to starting delays is 2 seconds. Calculate the optimum cycle
time. Allocate the green times to the two phases.
Solution:
qN 800 q 400
= = 0.33; S = = 0.20
S N 2400 S S 2000
Therefore, maximum value of q/S in N-S direction = 0.33
qE 750 q 600
= = 0.25; W = = 0.20
S E 3000 SW 3000
Therefore, maximum value of q/S in E-W direction = 0.25
L= time lost due to delays = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8 sec [ 2 + 2 seconds for yellow
time]
1.5L + 5 1.5 * 8 + 5 17
Optimum cycle length C0 = = = = 40 seconds
1−Y 1 − (0.33 + 0.25) 0.42
Effective green time per cycle = C0 – L = 40 – 8 = 32 seconds
Effective green time per phase can be calculated as under
y NS
g NS = (C0 − L ) = 0.33 * 32 = 18 seconds
Y 0.58
y
= EW (C 0 − L ) =
0.25
g EW * 32 = 14 seconds
Y 0.58
2 18 secs 2 18 secs
NS Phase A Green A Red
22 secs 2 14 secs 2
EW Phase
Red A Green A
Design methods as per IRC guidelines

¾ Pedestrian green time required for major and minor roads are calculated based on
walking speed of 1.2 m/s and initial walking time of 7 secs.---minimum green time
required for the vehicular traffic on the minor and major roads respectively.
¾ Green time required for the vehicular traffic on the major road is increased in
proportion to the traffic on the two approach roads.
¾ The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2 seconds each.
¾ The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving during a cycle is
determined for each lane of the approach road assuming that the first vehicle will
take 60 seconds and the subsequent vehicle (PCU) of the queue will be cleared at a
tare of 2.0 secs. The minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on any of
the approaches is limited to 16 secs.
109
¾ The optimum cycle time is calculated using Webster formula.

The saturation flow values may be assumed 1850,1890,1950,2250,2550 and 2990
PCU per hour for approach roadway widths (curb to median or center line) of
3.0.3.5.4.0.4.5.5.0 and 5.5m/
For width more than 5.5 m—saturation flow 5.5 PCU per hour per meter width.
The lost time is calculated from the amber time; inter green time and the initial delay
of 4 secs for the first vehicle on each leg.
¾ Revise the signal cycle time and phases keeping in view the green time required for
clearing the vehicles and the optimum cycle length.
1.9 Street lighting
The road accident rate at night is higher than the rate during the day. Numerous before
and after studies have shown that where good road lighting is properly installed,
accident rates on most roadways are reduced, particularly at intersections and on road
sections where the night to day accidents ratio is high and standards of design are low.
The greatest beneficiary of good road lighting in urban areas is very often the pedestrian
i.e. the percentage reduction in pedestrian accidents is normally greater than the
reduction in other types of injury accidents. Road lighting has advantages like feeling of
security and protection. Installation of proper road lighting system improves traffic flow
during evening peak periods and at night since drivers are more confident in their
movements and can more easily observe traffic management intensions. The
development of late evening shopping is partly due to the commercial centers being
attractively and well lit. Good street lighting is a powerful weapon in the fight against
crime in urban areas.
Factors influencing night visibility

¾ Amount and distribution of light flux from the lamps
¾ Size of object
¾ Brightness of object
¾ Brightness of the background
¾ Reflecting characteristics of the pavement surfaces
¾ Glare on the eyes of the driver
¾ Time available to see an object
The basic objective of road lighting is to make motorist able to discern clearly the
presence and movements of any object on or adjacent to the roadway which may be a
potential hazard. This is achieved not by having an even illumination on the road and its
surroundings but by appearing to have an even luminance on the road surface as it is
seen by the motorist. An object is visible to a driver if there is sufficient contrast of
luminosity or color between the object and its background or between different parts of
the object.
When an un-illuminated object in the carriageway is discerned by a driver because its

luminosity is less than its background, then it is said to be seen by silhouette.
The luminosity of an object is sometimes greater than that of the surface and then
visibility is by means of reverse silhouette.
When a high amount of illumination is directed on the side of an object facing the
motorist but discernment is by means of variations in luminosity within the object itself
110
rather than in contrast with its background, the discernment is said to be by surface
detail.
Light distribution requirement

When designing a lighting system on inter junction sections of a major traffic route, the
visibility criterion is that of discernment by silhouette. The general aim with respect to
lighting main roads in urban areas is to provide a sufficient contrast between the object
and the carriageway so that the results in most situations are at least adequate for safe
driving without headlights. On residential and other non traffic routes the motorists are
expected to use headlights to help to achieve the desirable level of visibility. On these
roads lighting is intended to suit the needs of the pedestrian rather than the needs of the
motorists.
Each lantern in a lighting installation contributes a single ‘bright patch’ on the

carriageway and in the ideal case; the lanterns are sited so that the patches link up to
cover the entire road surface. The shape and luminance of their bright area depend upon
the following six main factors
¾ The reflection properties of the surface.
¾ The distribution of light from the lantern
¾ The power of the lantern
¾ The height of the light source
¾ The distance of the light source from the observer
¾ The height of the observer
Design of lighting system

Various factors needed to be considered in the design of road lighting are
¾ Lamps
¾ Luminaire distribution of light
¾ Spacing of lighting units
¾ Height and overhang of mounting
¾ Lateral placement
¾ Lighting layouts
The choice of lamp, its type, size and color depends upon several considerations in
addition to distribution of light flux on the pavement surface.
¾ Economical to use the largest lamp size which will provide sufficient uniformity of
pavement brightness.
¾ Various types of lamps—tungsten filament lamp, sodium vapor lamp, fluorescent
and mercury gaseous lamp
¾ The choice of lamp for street lighting involves many considerations such as life,
lumen maintenance, lumen efficacy, capital costs, annual operating costs, color
appearance, color rendering qualities, reliability and available lamp ratings.
¾ Low pressure sodium vapor lamps—most efficient source of public lighting.
Luminaire distribution of light

¾ Necessary to have proper light distribution so as to best utilize the light source
¾ Distribution should be downward so that high percentage of lamp light is utilized
for illuminating the pavement and adjacent area.
¾ Should produce maximum uniformity for pavement brightness
¾ Should cover the pavement between the kerb and provide adequate lighting on
adjacent area i.e. 3~5 m beyond the pavement edge.
¾ Five typical luminaire distribution
¾ Average level of illumination on road side
20~30 lux—on important roads carrying fast traffic
111
15 lux—other main roads carrying mixed traffic and in arterial roads

4~8 lux—secondary roads
180°
Parallel to
90° 90° pavement edge
0°
90° 180°
90°
0°
25°
180°
90° 90°
0°
45
°
III
90° 180°
90°
0°
IV
180°
90° 90°
V
0°
112
Spacing
The distance measured parallel to the center line of the carriageway between successive
lanterns in an installation. The successive lanterns may not be arranged on the same
side of the carriageway.
¾ Large lamps with high mountings and wide spacing are preferred from economic
point of view.
¾ The spacing of lanterns depends upon the length of the bright patches produced
by beams and the extent to which it is desired that they should overlap.
Height of overhand of mounting

¾ The distribution of light, shadow and the glare effect from streen lamps depend
on the mounting height.
¾ The glare on eyes from the mounted lights increases with the power of the lamp
directed towards the dye and decreases with increase in height of mounting
¾ Usual mounting height 6~10 m—higher values preferred
¾ Minimum vertical clearance required for electric power lines upto 650 volts—6 m
above the pavement surface (IRC)
¾ Provided that the spacing, overhang and effective width dimensions do not
exceed certain values which are proportional to the mounting height, then the
light output required from each lantern in order to achieve a given level of
illumination can be assumed to vary approximately as a square of the mounting
height.
¾ Lanterns are very often located so as to overhand the traffic lane—presents
pleasing roadway appearance to the motorist.
¾ On wide roads with side lighting overhanging the lanterns may be necessary in
order to light the centre of the carriageway which would otherwise appear unduly
dark.
¾ Overhangs on the lighting poles would keep the poles away from the pavement
edges but still allow the lamp to be held above the kerb or towards the pavement
---better distribution of light towards the pavement and less glare on eyes of road
users.
¾ Overhang distance should not exceed 1.8 m on columns up to 9 m height—
otherwise footpaths and kerb may be in undesirable shadow—another
consideration of limiting the amount of overhang is that the lantern should be
easily accessible for maintenance purposes.
113
OVERHANG
C
B
A
Height of Mounting
C' C' B' A'

B'
Length of Shadow
Lateral placement (outreach)

¾ The amount of outreach is governed by the extent of the overhang and by safety
considerations affecting the location of the lighting columns.
¾ A lighting column close to the edge of carriageway is a potential cause of
accidents to vehicles which leave the roadway—obstruction to the free movement
of traffic decreasing the capacity of the roadway.
¾ IRC
Minimum 0.3 m and desirable 0.6 m from the edge of raised kerb For roads with
raised kerb
Minimum 1.5 m from the edge of the carriageway subjected to a For roads without
minimum 5.0m from the centre line of the carriageway raised kerb
Lighting layouts
On straight roads: single side, staggered, central, opposite
s
s s
s s
Staggered Single side Opposite plus central
s s s s
s
Oppsite Central on single carriageway Twin central on dual carriageway
114
25
Cross Roads
Y-Intersection
Lighting Layout for Intersections
Single—lanterns are placed only on one side of the carriageway—economical to install—

suitable only for narrow roads.
Staggered—lanterns are located alternately on either side of the carriageway
Opposite—lanterns are placed on either side but opposite each other
Central—the lanterns are sited in an axial line close to the center of the carriageway
Special care while locating lights on curves

¾ Installed at closer spacing
¾ Located on the outer side of the curve to provide better visibility
¾ More illumination at intersections—due to potential conflicts of vehicular and
pedestrian
Design of highway lighting system

From various types of luminaries distribution, the utilization coefficient charts are
available for determination of average lux of intensity over the roadway surface where
lamp lumen, mounting height, width of paved area and spacing between lighting poles
are known
lamp lumen * coefficient of utilization * maintenance factor
Spacing =
average lux * width of road
Coefficient of utilization—obtained from the appropriate chart
Coefficient of utilization is the function of ratio. As the calculated value of ratio increases
coefficient of utilization also increases.
width of road
ratio =
mounting height
Maintenance factor—decrease in efficiency of lamp with age—average value of 80% may

be assumed.
20~30 lux ---an important urban roads carrying fast traffic.

About 15 lux for other main roads carrying mixed traffic.
4~8 lux for secondary roads
The lower the mounting height, the shorter will be the tail of the T and greater will be
the luminance of the central part of the patch. This also causes a reduction in the
115
luminance of the darker regions of the road since they are normally lit by the edges of
the T shaped patches. If the lanterns are very low, the center of the carriageway may be
so dark that silhouette discernment will be practically impossible.
The basic dimension used in the design of highway lighting is the mounting height of the
lantern. Provided that the spacing, overhand and effective width dimension do not
exceed certain values which are proportional to mounting height, the light output
required from each lantern in order to achieve a given level of illumination can be
assumed to vary approximately as the square of the mounting height.
Staggered spacing = 2.2*h2/W maximum spacing = 3.0h maximum

effective width = 1.5h
Calculate the spacing between the lighting units to produce a lux equal to 7.0 from the
following data
Width of road = 14 m
Mounting height = 8 m
Lamp size = 7000 lumen
Luminaire type II
pavement width 14
Ratio = = = 1.75
mounting height 8
Coefficient of utilization =
Assume a maintenance factor = 0.8
7000 *
Spacing = * 0 .8 =
7 * 14
116
Chapter Two: Road Pavement

2.1 Definition and Types of pavement
It can be said as a relatively stable layer constructed over the natural soil for the
purpose of supporting and distributing the wheel loads and providing an adequate
surface for the movements of vehicles with certain speed safely, comfortably and
economically. One main objective of a well designed pavement is to keep temporary
deformation of the pavement with in the permissible limits so that the pavement can
sustain a large number of repeated load applications during design life.
Main functions:
¾ To support and distribute wheel load of vehicle over a wide area of the underlying
subgrade soil and permitting the deformation within the range.
¾ Consists of one or more layers—subgrade, sub base, base, surface or wearing
course.
Pavement layers
Surfacing—to provide a smooth, abrasion resistant, dust free, reasonably water proof
and strong layer.
Base—the medium through which the stresses imposed are distributed evenly
Sub base layer—additional help in distributing the loads.
Sub grade—compacted natural earth—top of the sub grade level is also known as the
formation level
Surface
Surface Binder
Base Base
Sub Base Sub Base
Sub Grade Sub Grade
Indian Practice American Practice
Wearing
Base
Road Base
Sub Base
Sub Grade
British Practice
Types of Pavement:
Based up on the structural behaviour of the materials used in the construction,
pavements are classified as
- Flexible pavement
- Rigid pavement
- Semi rigid pavement
117
Flexible Pavement:
• The pavements which have very low flexural strength and are flexible in their
structural behaviour under the load are called flexible pavements. The flexible
pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface of
the layer. Thus if lower layer somehow gets deformed the surface of the
pavements also gets deformed.
• Soil subgrade, sub base layer, base layer, surface layer.
• The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical loads to the lower layers by
grain to grain transfer through their point of contact in the granular structure.
The load spreading capacity of the flexible layer depends on the type of material
and the mix design factors. The materials which fall in the category of flexible
pavement layers are soil aggregate mix, crushed aggregate, WBM, granular
materials with bituminous binder, bituminous concrete. The top layer has to be
the strongest as the highest stresses are to be sustained by this layer. They also
have to withstand the wear and tear due to traffic. As the lower layers have to
sustain lesser intensity of stresses and there is no direct wearing action, therefore
inferior materials with lower cost can be used.
Low flexural strength—external load is transmitted to the sub grade by the lateral
distribution with increasing depth.
Pavement deflects momentarily under load but rebounds to its original level on removal
of load.
The pavement thickness is so designed that the stresses on the sub grade soil are kept
within its bearing power and the sub grade is prevented from excessive deformations.
Rigid Pavement:
• Rigid pavements are those which posses considerable flexural strength. The rigid
pavements are made of cement concrete which may be either plain, reinforced or
pre stressed. The rigid pavements have a slab action and are capable of
transmitting the wheel loads stresses through a wider area below. The main
difference between rigid and flexible pavements in the structural behaviour is that
the critical condition of stress in rigid pavement is the maximum flexural strength
occurring in the slab due to the wheel load and the temperature changes where
as in flexible pavement it is the distribution of compressive stress to the lower
layers and lastly over the soil subgrade. The rigid pavement doesn't get deformed
to the shape of the lower surface as it can bridge the minor variations of lower
layers.
• Usually the rigid pavement structure consists of a cement concrete slab, below
which a granular base or sub-base course may be provided.
• A good base or sub base course under the cement concrete slab increases the
pavement life considerably and therefore works out more economical in the long
run.
•
Derives its capacity to withstand loads from the flexural strength or beam strength
(modulus of elasticity)
Slab bridges minor irregularities in the sub grade, sub base or base upon which it rests.
Semi rigid pavement:

• When bonded materials like pozzolanic concrete (lime-fly ash-aggregate mix),
lean cement concrete or soil cement are used in base or sub-base course layer
the pavement layer has considerably higher flexural strength than the common
flexible pavement layers. However these bonded materials do not posses as much
flexural strength as the cement concrete pavements. These pavements are called
semi rigid pavements. These semi rigid pavement materials have low resistance
118
to impact and abrasion and therefore are usually provided with flexible pavement
surface course.
• Intermediate between the flexible and the rigid pavement.
• Much lower flexural strength compared to concrete slabs but derives the support
by the lateral distribution of loads through the pavement depth as in a flexible
pavement.
Composite pavement
- Comprises of multiple, structurally significant layers of different composition.
- Brick sand
- witched concrete pavement—India—top and bottom layers of cement concrete
with a brick sand witched in the neutral axis zone---still infancy.
2.2 Differences between the flexible and rigid pavement structures
Rigid pavement Flexible pavement

1. Flexible pavements under heavy loads yield A rigid pavement under heavy load ruptures
to excessive stresses resulting in the local thereby producing a crack to the surface
depression of the surface.
2. A flexible pavement with subgrade of A rigid pavement with the subgrade of varying
varying thickness will adjust itself to the strength will not adjust the irregularities due
irregularities due to different settlements to different settlement but acts as a beam or
cantilever.
3. flexible pavements under load worsened A rigid pavement instead is capable of bridging
condition in subgrade will get depression in the the small weakness and depressions in the
pavement subgrade
4. temperature variations due to atmospheric Temperature variations produce heavy
conditions do not produce stresses temperature stresses
5. the flexible pavement has self healing The rigid pavement doesn't have self healing
properties ( recoming to shape ) properties
6. strength of flexible layer is a result of Strength of rigid layer is rather by bending
building up thick layers and thereby action
distributing the load over subgrade
1. design precision—cement concrete pavement –much more precise structural analysis

because flexural strength of concrete is well understood
Flexible pavement—designs are mainly empirical.
2. life—well designed concrete slab—a life of about 40 years
Flexible pavements—10~20 years (with extra maintenance input)
3. maintenance—a well designed cement concrete pavement –needs very little
maintenance—joints
Bituminous surfaces—need great inputs in maintenance
4. Initial cost—argument is made that cement concrete slab is much more costlier than
flexible pavement.
If higher specification of bituminous pavement is selected, the argument that a
cement concrete specification is costlier than a flexible pavement should no longer be
valid.
5. stage construction—stage construction is possible on bituminous pavement—initial
outlay is minimum and additional outlays are in keeping with traffic growth thus at
no stage the investment made in advance of the actual requirement.
Cement concrete slab—do not fit such scheme of stage construction.
6. availability of material—
Bitumen—scarcity—import involves foreign exchange
Cement—manufactured with in the country
7. surface characteristics—
Cement concrete—smooth, free from rutting, potholes and corrugations—good riding
quality
Asphalt concrete—comparable riding quality
119
Well constructed cement concrete pavement—permanent non skid surface but faulty
design may become very smooth—extremely costly to restore the non skid
characteristics.
8. penetration of water—cement concrete—practically impermeable—except at joints—
mud pumping
Bituminous surface—not impervious—water enters through pores and cracks—impair
stability of pavement
9. Utility location—no digging up the pavement for water supply pipes, telephone lines,
electric poles etc.
10. glare and night visibility—cement concrete—grey color—glare on the sun lights
Bituminous roads—need more street lighting.
11. traffic dislocation during construction—
Cement concrete pavement—28 days for setting
Bituminous surface—can be opened to traffic shortly after it is rolled—traffic will
facilitate its compaction.
Concrete pavement cause longer dislocation of traffic if the work is done on
existing pavement.
12. environmental considerations during construction—heating of aggregates and
bitumen—hot mix plants—can prove to be much more hazardous
Use of cutbacks can also prove to be environmentally hazardous due to evaporation
of volatile constituents into the atmosphere.
13. Overall economy on a life cycle basis—on overall economic considerations, rigid
pavement is far more economical than flexible pavement n the long run.
Rigid pavement;
¾ Advantages
1. High strength: compressive, abrasion, compression-tension
2. Good stability: water, heat stability, strength increases with increase in
time
3. Durability: 20~40 years
4. Low maintenance cost, large economic gain: big initial investment but long
design period therefore maintenance cost per year is low.
5. Suitable for night driving
¾ Disadvantages
1. Necessity of cement and water is large: for 20cm depth, 7 m wide cement
concrete pavement for every 1000 m needs about 400~500t cement and
250t water. Not included water necessary for curing. Difficult where these
materials are very hardly available
2. Have joints: increases difficulty in construction and maintenance, easily
causes vibration on vehicle. If not handled properly, damages may occur
3. Pavement is quite lately available for vehicle operation: needs of 15~20
days
4. Difficult to repair: repairing work big, influence the traffic movement
Functions of Pavement structure:

Soil subgrade
The soil subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of pavement
materials placed over it. Traffic load moving on the surface of the road is ultimately
transferred to the subgrade through intermediate layers. The pressure transmitted on
the top of the subgrade should be with in the allowable limit so as not to cause
excessive stresses condition or deform the same beyond the elastic limit. The top
layer of the subgrade soil should be well-compacted under controlled condition of
optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. It is necessary to evaluate the
strength properties of soil subgrade. If the strength properties are inferior, suitable
treatment should be given to impart improvements in the performance of soil
subgrade.
120
Sub base and Base layer:

These layers are made of broken stones bounded or unbounded. Sub base layer may
sometimes be constructed by stabilised soil or selected granular soil. At sub-base
course, it is desirable to use smaller size graded aggregates or soil aggregate mixes
or soft aggregates instead of large boulder stone. Sub base course primarily has the
similar function as that of the base course and is provided with inferior materials than
of the base course.
Base and sub base courses are used under flexible pavement primarily to improve
the load supporting capacity by distributing the load through a finite thickness. Base
courses are used under rigid pavement for
1. Preventing the mud pumping
2. Protecting the subgrade against frost action
The fundamental purpose of a base and sub base course is to provide a load
transmitting medium to spread the surface wheel loads in such a manner as to
prevent shear and consolidation deformation.
Wearing course:
Wearing course performs the following functions:
1. Provides smooth and dense riding surface
2. Resists pressure and takes up wear and tear duo to traffic
3. Provides water tight layer against the filtration of surface water
4. Provides hard surface which can withstand the pressure exerted by tyres of
vehicle
In flexible pavement, wearing surface is generally made of bituminous material. In
cement concrete pavement, the cement concrete slab is used as wearing course.
There are many types of surface treatments employed as wearing course. The type
of surface depends upon the availability of materials, plants and equipments and
upon the magnitude of surface loads.
There is no test for evaluating the structural stability of the wearing course. However
the bituminous mixes used in the wearing courses are tested for their suitability
(Marshall Stability test--optimum content of bitumen binder is worked out based on
stability, density….)
2.3 Loads and other factors Controlling Pavement Design

1. traffic factors
Wheel loads—pavement wheel load causes stresses and strains in pavement layers
and sub grade. The tire pressure determines the area of application.
Higher wheel loads—needs thicker pavement provided other design factors remain
same.
Effects of total static load on each wheel, multiple wheel load assembly, contact
pressure, load repetition and the dynamic effects of transient loads are to be taken
into account.
4m
Maximum wheel load—
1.8m
Single Axle with Dual Tires
121
Tandem axle with double tires
¾ Toto know the way in which the loads of a given vehicle are applied on the
pavement surface.
¾ A vehicle can have no. of axle. The weight of individual axles are called axle load.
¾ In practice the weights of the rear and the front axles are not equal—they depend
on the position of the load the vehicle carries.
¾ For design purpose—the weight of rear axle of a vehicle is taken into account.
¾ The damage caused by different axle loads are of different magnitudes
If a damage is caused by N1 no. of repetitions for an axle weight of W1 and the
same extent of damage is caused by N2 no. of repetitions—AASHTO’s
experimental data gives the following equation
4
N 1 ⎡W 2 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥ Fourth power damage formula
N 2 ⎣ W1 ⎦
Difficulty arises in assessing the no. of repetitions of load since the traffic consists
of a mixture of axle loads of varying magnitudes
¾ Express the traffic in terms of an equivalent no. of standard axles.
¾ Fourth power rule—the structural damage caused by an axle load varies as
fourth power of its ratio to the standard axle load if F is equivalent factor
for an axle load L and if Ls is the standard axle load (80 KN)
4
⎛ L ⎞
F = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Ls ⎠
¾ Standard axle load is that axle load based on which all the calculations related to
pavement damage have been standardized.
Country Standard wheel load (t)

India 8.16
UK 10.17
Japan, Netherlands and Sweden 10.00
European community 11.5
Belgium, France, Greece, Luxemburg 13.0
Italy 12.0
AASHTO 9.8
Impact—imperfections in surface and at joints cause additional loads due to impact.

Repetition of wheel loads—very important in causing pavement distress—necessary to
select the design vehicle and assess the total number of repetitions of axle loads during
the pavement life.
• the cumulative load applications during the design life cause plastic and elastic
deformation.
Position of wheel loads—concentration of wheel load at a localized width of the pavement
can cause extra distress.
Contact area
Low pressure tire---contact pressure is greater than the tire pressure
Wall of tires is in compression
122
Wall of tire in compression Wall of tire in tension
Tire Tire
Pressure Pressure
Contact Pressure Contact Pressure

Cp>tp as Cp = tp + wall tire pressure Cp<tp as Cp = tp - wall tire pressure
Low Pressure Tire High Pressure Tire
High pressure tire—contact pressure is smaller than tire pressure
In pavement design, the contact pressure is assumed to be equal to tire pressure

Heavier axle loads—high tire pressure—more destructive effects on pavements
Load
Contact area A c =
Tire pressure (t p )
If Ac is small, tp is higher—load constant
If Ac is higher, tp is small—load constant
0.3L 0.4L 0.3L
A=0.5227 L*L
0.6L
L 0.8713L 0.6L
Actual Area Equivalent Area
Ac = π (0.3L ) + 0.4 L * 0.6 L = 0.5227 L2

2
Ac
⇒L=
0.5227
Vehicle speed—the resilient modulus of some pavement materials and subgrades

depends upon the rate at which they are loaded with the modulus increasing with
increased rates of loading.
As the speed increases—rate of application of stress also increases—reduction in the
pavement deformation—but for uneven pavement, the impact increases with speed.
¾ Reflected in a decrease in pavement deflection with increasing vehicle speed
¾ Twin tired moving at creep speed indicate 5% change in deflection for each 1
km/h change in speed.
¾ Speed effect also suggests that for a given volume of traffic greater thickness
and/or higher qualities of paving materials may be required for pavements in
urban areas than for those in rural areas because of the lower average speeds.
¾ Similarly pavement requirements for uphill gradients may be more demanding
than for downhill gradients.
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Environmental factors
Rainfall—affects pavement drainage
Frost—can disrupt pavement structure
Temperature—variation causes stresses
Road geometry—extra stresses on horizontal curves, extra forces on pavements on

grades due to acceleration, deceleration and braking.
Materials
Sub grade soil—strength, soil type and compacted density affects the pavement design
Drainage—surface or sub surface drainage of pavement and from the adjoining land
affects the sub grade strength.
Failure criteria
Flexible pavements—fatigue cracking, rutting and thermal cracking
Fatigue cracking—horizontal tensile strength at the bottom of HMA. The failure criteria
relates to the allowable no. of load repetitions to the tensile strain based on the
laboratory fatigue test on overall HMA specimens
Rutting—occurs on flexible pavements—indicated by the permanent deformation or rut

depth along the wheel paths. Two design methods have been used to control rutting.
¾ One to limit the vertical compressive strain on the top of the sub grade
¾ Second as to limit the rutting to a tolerable amount 0.5 inch (13 mm)
Thermal cracking—includes both low temperature cracking and thermal fatigue cracking
Low temperature cracking—colder regions
Thermal fatigue cracking—milder regions if an excessively hard asphalt is used or the
asphalt becomes hardened due to aging. Thermal fatigue cracking is similar to the
fatigue cracking caused by repeated loads. It is caused by the tensile strain in the
asphalt layer due to daily temperature cycle.
Rigid pavement
Fatigue cracking has long been considered the major or only criteria for rigid pavement
design. Only recently has pumping and erosion been considered.
Other criteria in consideration includes—faulting and joint deterioration of jointed plain

cement pavement (JPCP), jointed reinforced cement pavement (JRCP), continuous
reinforced cement pavement (CRCP)
Fatigue cracking –most likely caused by the edge stress at the mid slab. The allowable
no. of load repetitions to cause fatigue cracking depends on the stress ratio between
flexural tensile stress and concrete modulus of rupture.
Pumping or erosion—permanent deformation are not considered

Resilient deformation under repeated wheel loads will cause pumping of slabs.
Consequently corner deformations have been used in the later version of PCA method
as an erosion criterion in addition to the fatigue criteria.
Pumping is caused by many factors such as types of sub base and sub grade,
precipitation, drainage—more rational method is needed.
Other criteria—faulting, spalling, joint deterioration—difficult analyze mechanistically and

hence a great effort has been made recently to develop regression models.
124
2.4 Design methods for flexible pavements

Theoretical methods (Mechanistic methods)
A pavement structure is not so easily amenable to accurate structural analysis because
the materials forming the flexible pavement layers and the soils supporting the
pavement are not materials exhibiting uniform properties.
Stresses in homogeneous mass: Boussinesq’s theory

The soil mass is assumed to be semi-infinite elastic, isotropic and homogeneous
The vertical stress under a load at any horizontal section decreases from the maximum
at the point located directly beneath the load to zero at a very large distance from this
point.
2a
σz
σx
σy
Stresses below a circular

loaded plate
The vertical stress ( σ z ) at any point below the surface due to a uniformly distributed
load on a circular area, the point being located on the vertical axis passing through the
center of the circle is given by
⎡ ⎤
⎢ z2 ⎥
σ z= p 1 −
⎢ ⎥
( )
3
⎣ a2 + z2 2
⎦
The radial (horizontal stress)
⎡ ⎤
2(1 + µ )z z3
σx =σy =
p⎢
(1 + 2µ ) − + ⎥
2⎢ ⎥
( ) ( )
1 3
⎣ a +z
2 2 2
a2 + z2 2
⎦
Where
σ z -- Vertical stress on a point on the z axis
σ x = σ y -- Radial or horizontal stress
p -- applied pressure per unit area
a— radius of circular loaded plate
z—depth
µ -- Poisson’s ratio
125
2a
p=maximum
applied pressure
σ=
σ=
a
σ=
a
σ=
a
σ=
µ --ratio of the strain normal to the applied stress to the strain parallel to the applied
stress (around 0.5 for soils)
The vertical displacement at the surface (z=0) under the center of the applied load is
given by
∆=
2 pa
E
(1 − µ 2 )
E—modulus of elasticity of soil—ratio of unit stress to the unit strain in the region of
elastic behaviour.
Putting µ =0.5 (for soils)
∆=
2 pa
E
(
1 − 0.5 2 ) ⇒ ∆ =
1.5 pa
E
Applicable for flexible plate
1.18 pa
For rigid plate ∆=
E
1.5 pa
Equation ∆ = can be used for a pavement by limiting the value of ∆ , the
E
deformation of the pavement to a desired value.
Example
Calculate the deflection at the surface of a pavement due to a wheel load of 40 KN and a
tire pressure of 0.5 MN/m2. The value of E of the pavement and subgrade may be
assumed to be uniformly equal to 20 MN/m2.
Solution:
Radius of contact area a is given by
Wheel load
Tire pressure =
πa 2
wheel load 40 * 1000
⇒a= = = 0.1595m = 15.95cm
π * Tire pressure π * 0.5 * 10 6
pa 40 *10 3 0.1595
Deflection ∆ = 1.5 = 1.5 * * = 0.005986 = 0.6cm
E π * 0.1595 20 *10 6
2
∴ ∆ ≈ 6mm
Drawbacks
126
¾ Assumption that soils are perfectly elastic and homogeneous is not true. Soil may
be elastic only up to a certain limit.
¾ The pavement consist number of layers, each with its own modulus of elasticity.
Hence the assumption of one constant property of the entire mass is not justified.
¾ The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be correct.
In spite of the drawbacks, application of Boussinesq’s theory was the first attempt in
analytical solution to the pavement design.
Stresses in layered systems: Burmister’s theory

Burmister proposed an analysis of a two layer system, the top layer of finite thickness
and the bottom layer of semi infinite mass. The top layer represents the surfacing, base
and sub base where as the bottom layer represents the subgrade soil.
The following equation gives the deflection at the surface
2a
p
Pavement layer of Modulus
of Elasticity E1
Sub grade layer of Modulus of
Perfectly rough Elasticity E2
surface
1.5 pa
∆ = Fw For flexible plate
E2
1.18 pa
And ∆ = Fw for rigid plate
E2
Where
∆ -- Deflection at the surface
p—load intensity on the circular plate
a—radius of plate
E2—modulus of elasticity of the lower layer
Fw—displacement factor
The displacement factor Fw can be obtained from graphs presented by Burmister.
Burmister suggested that the displacement under the wheel load can be limited to 5.0
mm for flexible pavement.
Example:
Design the thickness of a flexible pavement by Burmister’s two layer analysis for a wheel
load of 40 KN and a tire pressure of 0.5 KN/m2. The modulus of elasticity of the
pavement material is 150 MN/m2 and that of the subgrade is 30 MN/m2. The value of Fw
the displacement factor can be taken from the graph
Solution:
Radius of circular area a is given by
Wheelload 40 *10 3
Tire pressure = ⇒ 0.5 *10 =
6
πa 2 πa 2
⇒ a = 15.95cm say 16 cm
Select a thickness of pavement of 2a = 32 cm
127
E1 150
= =5
E2 30
E1
From graph for = 5 and pavement thickness 2a
E2
Fw = 0.43
1.5 pa 1.5 * 0.5 *10 6 * 0.16
∴ ∆ = Fw = 0.43 * = 0.00172m = 0.172 cm ≈ 0.2 mm
E2 30 *10 6
Allowable settlement is 0.5 cm. hence the design is safe. A slight reduction in thickness
can be attempted by performing calculations on similar lines.
Semi empirical method

Tri-axial method—Kankas state highway department
L.A. Palmer and E.S. Barber in 1910 proposed the design method based on Bossinesq’s
displacement equation for homogeneous, elastic single layer. This department employs
equation along with empirical modification for (a) traffic coefficient X and (b) saturation
coefficient Y
2
⎛ 3P ⎞
T = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − a 2 -- Thickness design equation based on elastic theory
⎝ 2πE s ∆ ⎠
The recommended values of coefficients of X and Y based on ADT of design traffic and
rainfall can be taken from the charts.
Final form of the equation
⎧ ⎛ 3PXY ⎞
2 ⎫⎛ ⎞
1
3
⎪ ⎪ E
T p= ⎨ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − a 2 ⎬⎜ s ⎟ Stiffness-----stiffness factor
⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ 2πE s ∆ ⎠ ⎪⎭⎝ E p ⎠
Where
Tp – thickness of pavement
P—wheel load (Kg)
Es—modulus of elasticity of sub grade from tri-axial test results (Kg/cm2)
a— radius of contact area (cm2)
∆ -- design deflection (0.25 cm)
Ep—modulus of elasticity of pavement materials (Kg/cm2)
Traffic coefficients X = 1.5
Rainfall coefficient Y = 0.9
Recommended values of coefficients X and Y based on ADT of design traffic and rainfall
are as:
Traffic Coefficient (X) ADT (number)
½ 40-400
2/3 401-800
5/6 801-1200
1 1201-1800
7/6 1801-2700
8/6 2701-4000
9/6 4001-6000
10/6 6001-9000
11/6 9001-13500
12/6 13501-20000
Rainfall coefficient (Y) Average annual rainfall, cm

0.5 38-50
0.6 51-64
0.7 65-76
0.8 77-90
0.9 91-100
1.0 101-127
128
The relation between pavement layers of thickness t1 and t2 of elastic modulus E1 and E2
is given by
1
t1 ⎛ E 2 ⎞ 3
=⎜ ⎟
t 2 ⎜⎝ E1 ⎟⎠
Example:
Design the pavement section by semi empirical method using the following data:
Wheel load = 4100 Kg
Radius of contact area = 15 cm
Traffic coefficient X = 15
Rainfall coefficient Y = 0.9
Design deflection ∆ = 0.25 cm
E for subgrade soil Es = 100 Kg/cm2
E for base course material Eb = 400 Kg/cm2
E for 7.5 cm thick bituminous concrete surface course = 1000 Kg/cm2
Solution:
Assuming the pavement to consist of single layer of base course material only
⎧ ⎛ 3PXY ⎞
2 ⎫ 1
⎧⎪ ⎛ 3 * 4100 *1.5 * 0.9 ⎞ 2 ⎫ 1
⎪ 2 ⎪⎛ E s ⎞ 2 ⎪⎛ 100 ⎞
3 3
Tb = ⎨ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − a ⎬⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎨ ⎜ ⎟ − 15 ⎬⎜ ⎟ = 104.64 * 0.63
⎪⎩ ⎝ 2πE s ∆ ⎠ ⎪⎭⎝ Eb ⎠ ⎪⎩ ⎝ 2π *100 * 0.25 ⎠ ⎪⎭⎝ 400 ⎠
= 65.9 cm CM
Let 7.5 cm bituminous concrete surface with Ec = 1000 Kg/cm2 be equivalent to the
thickness tb of base course. the equivalent replacement tb is obtained from the equation
1 1
tb ⎡ Ec ⎤ 3
⎛ 1000 ⎞ 3
=⎢ ⎥ ⇒ t b = 7.5 * ⎜ ⎟ ⇒ t b = 10.2cm
t c ⎣ Eb ⎦ ⎝ 400 ⎠
Therefore required base course thickness 65.9-10.2 = 55.7 cm
Hence the pavement section consists of 55.7 cm thick WBM base course and 7.5 cm
thick bituminous concrete surface course.
Bituminous Material
7.5 cm
Ep = 1000 Kg/cm2
Base Course
55.7 cm
Eb = 400 Kg/cm2
Soil Subgrade Es = 100 Kg/cm2
Fatigue cracking model

Rutting cracking model
Empirical method
Group Index Methods:
Group index value is an arbitrary index assigned to the soil types in numerical equations
based on the percent fines, liquid limit and plasticity index.
The traffic volume in this method is divided into three groups
129
Traffic volume (commercial vehicles) Number of vehicles per day

Light Less than 50
Medium 50 to 300
Heavy Over 300
GI = 0.2* a + 0.005 *a*c + 0.01 * b * d

Where GI= group index number
A= that portion of material passing 75 µ sieve greater than 35 and not
exceeding 75 (expressed as a positive whole number 0 ~ 40)
B= that portion of material passing 75 µ sieve greater than 15 and not
exceeding 55 (expressed as a positive whole number 0 ~ 40)
C= that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and not exceeding 60
(expressed as a positive whole number 0 ~ 20)
D= that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30
(expressed as a positive whole number 0 ~ 20)
Minimum GI = 0
Maximum GI =20
Higher value of group index --- poor subgrade soil
To design the pavement thickness by this method, first the GI value of the soil is found.
The anticipated traffic is estimated and is designated as light, medium or heavy as
indicated. The appropriate design curve is chosen and the total thickness of pavement
(surface, base and sub base course) is found from the group index design chart
corresponding to the GI values of the soil.
Discussion:
The GI method of pavement design is essentially an empirical method based on
physical properties of the subgrade soil. This method does not consider the strength
characteristics of the subgrade soil and therefore is open to question regarding the
reliability of the design based on the index properties of the soil only.
Example:
Soil subgrade sample collected from the site was analysed and the results obtained are
as given below:
Soil portion passing 0.075mm sieve, percent = 50
Liquid limit percent = 40
Plastic limit, percent = 20
Design the pavement section by GI method for the anticipated traffic volume of over 300
commercial vehicles per day
Solution:
The GI value could be calculated
Plasticity index = LL- PL = 40-20 = 20
a = 50-35 = 15
b = 50-15 = 35
c = 40-40 = 0
d = 20-10 = 10
GI = 0.2*15+0+0.01*35*10 = 3+3.5 = 6.5 say 7
Pavement thickness determination
The subgrade soil may be rated as poor as the GI = 7. Traffic volume may be taken as
heavy. The pavement layers may be designed using the design chart
1. thickness of sub base for GI of 7 = 17 cm
2. combined thickness of surface, base and sub base course (using the curve for
heavy traffic) = 47 cm
Hence thickness of base and surfacing = 47 – 17 = 30 cm
CBR method:
• is the simplicity of test procedure.
130
• Based on the extensive CBR test data collected on pavement which behaved
satisfactorily and those failed, an empirical design chart was developed
correlating the CBR value and the pavement thickness.
• The basis of design chart is that a material with a given CBR required a certain
thickness of pavement layer as a cover. A higher load needs a thicker pavement
layer to protect the subgrade. Design curves correlating the CBR value with total
pavement thickness cover were developed by the California State Highway
Department of wheel loads of 3175 kg and 5443 kg representing light and heavy
traffic. Later the design curve for 4082 kg wheel load was obtained by
interpolation of medium traffic.
• Studies carried out by US crops of engineers have shown that there exists a
relationship between pavement thickness, wheel load, tyre pressure and CBR
value within a range of 10 to 12 percent. Therefore it is possible to extend the
CBR design curves for various loading conditions using the equation:
1 1
⎡ 1.75 1 ⎤ 2 ⎡1.75 P A ⎤ 2
t = P⎢ − ⎥ = ⎢ CBR − π ⎥
⎣ CBR pπ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
However these expressions are applicable only when the CBR value of the
subgrade soil is less than 12 percent.
t = pavement thickness cm
P = wheel load Kg
CBR = California Bearing Ratio, percent
p = tyre pressure kg/cm2
A = area of contact cm2
Pavement thickness determination

• The soaked CBR value of the soil subgrade is evaluated.
• Appropriate design curve is chosen by taking the design wheel load or by taking
the anticipated traffic into consideration.
• Thus the total thickness of flexible pavement needed to cover the subgrade of the
known CBR value is obtained.
• in case there is a material superior than the soil subgrade such that it may be
used as sub base course then the thickness of construction over this material
could be obtained form the design chart knowing the CBR value of the sub base.
Thickness of the sub base course is the total thickness minus the thickness over
the sub base.
Thus CBR method of flexible pavement design is based on strength parameter of
subgrade soil and subsequent pavement material.
IRC Recommendations
• The CBR tests should be performed on remoulded soils in the laboratory. In situ
tests are not recommended for design purposes. The specimens should be
prepared by static compaction wherever possible and otherwise by dynamic
compaction. The standard test procedure should be strictly adhered to.
• For the design of new roads, the subgrade soil sample should be compacted at
OMC to Proctor density whenever suitable compaction equipment is available to
achieve this density in the field otherwise the soil sample may be compacted to
the dry density expected to be achieved in the field. In the case of existing roads,
the sample should be compacted to field density of subgrade soil (at OMC or
at field moisture content).
• In nre constructions the CBR test samples may be soaked in water for four days
period before testing. However in areas with arid climate or when the annual
rainfall is less than 50 cm and the water table is too deep to affect the subgrade
adversely and when thick and impermeable bituminous surfacing is provided, it is
not necessary to soak the soil specimen before carrying out CBR test. Wherever
possible the most adverse moisture condition of the subgrade should be
determined from the field study.
• At least three samples should be tested on each type of soil at the same
density and moisture content. If the maximum variation in CBR values of the
131
three specimens exceeds the specified limits the design CBR should be average of
at least six samples. (The specified limits of maximum variation in CBR are 3%
for CBR values up to 10% 5 values 10 to 30 and 10 % for values 30 to 60%)
• The top 50 cm of subgrade should be compacted at least up to 95 to 100 percent
of Proctor density.
• An estimate of the traffic to be carried by the road pavements at the end of
expected life should be made keeping in view the existing traffic and probable
growth rate of traffic. Pavements of major roads should be designed at least for
10 years life period and the following formula may be used in such cases for
estimating the design traffic.
IRC guidelines
• Thickness of given by 7 curves
• Traffic is in terms of commercial vehicles per day—laden weight of vehicles
exceeding 3 tonnes
• The traffic is the total no. of vehicles in both directions (irrespective of whether
the design is for a two lane or a dual carriageway)
• The future traffic is estimated on the basis of the existing traffic and probable
growth rate
• A growth rate of 7.5% can be assumed in the absence of accurate data
• For single lane roads, because of the concentration of traffic on one lane only, the
design traffic intensity is taken to be twice that for two lane roads.
Revised IRC guidelines-1984

• A new set of curves for determining pavement thickness relating the cumulative
standard axles and the CBR value to the thickness
• Revised curves relating the commercial vehicle traffic and the CBR value to the
thickness
• Recommendations on types of pavement materials suitable for various layers.
Revised IRC guidelines-2001

• Design catalogue is based on the results of the Ministry of Surface Transport
Study Analytical Design approach for flexible pavements
• The flexible pavement has been designed as a four layer structure
• The catalogues covers soils having CBR values in the range of 2~10
• Traffic upto 150 million standard axles (msa) has been considered.
• The damaging effect of axle loads can be taken from the table
• Separate figures for the thickness for loads upto 10 msa and 10~150 msa
• The design catalogues are given separately for each CBR
AASHTO method of flexible pavement design

AASHO road test—1958~1960---27 million $
• Largest and most comprehensive highway research project
• Most ambitious attempt ever made to solve the perplexing problems that face
designers of modern highway pavements
Objectives
• To determine the significant relationships between the no. of repetitions of
specified axle loads of different magnitude and arrangement and the performance
of different thickness of uniformly designed and constructed asphaltic concrete,
plain Portland cement concrete and reinforced Portland cement concrete surfaces
on different thicknesses of bases and sub bases when laid on a basement of soil
of k known characteristics
• To determine the significant effects of specific vehicle axle loads and gross vehicle
axle loads when applied at known frequency on bridges of known design and
characteristics
132
Pavement
• Flexible and rigid—constructed in short section of widely varied structural
design—836 test sections—368 rigid and 468 flexible
Present serviceability index

• Measurement of serviceability of the pavements with time on load application
• Three elements about which measurements were recorded were the slope
variance (a measure of longitudinal roughness), rutting in the wheel paths and
the cracking and patching.
( ) ( )
PSI = 5.03 − 1.19 log 1 + SV − 0.01 C + P − 1.38 RD 2
PSI—present serviceability index which is a measure of the serviceability
SV -- Average slope variance in both wheel paths measured by the AASHO
profilometer
C—area cracking in sq. ft. per 1000 sq. ft. of surface area which has progressed
into a definite pattern jointed in both directions
P—repair of the surface wither by skin patching or deep patching in sq. ft. per
1000 sq. ft. of the surface area
RD -- Rut depth in inches measured at the centre of a 4 ft. span in the deepest
part of the rut. This is obtained by averaging 40 to 50 evenly spaced samples for
a 1000 ft. section
The approximate correlation between the PSI values determined as above and the
objective rating determined from visual and other sensory observation is
PSI Objective rating
4-5 Very good
3-4 Good
2-3 Fair
1-2 Poor
0-1 Very poor
Performance of pavements
From the voluminous data pertaining to different sections subjected to various axle
loads, the no. of repetitions and the PSI values at various stages, it has been possible to
predict the performance of pavements by means of performance curves which gives the
relationship between the axle loads, the no. of repetitions, the thickness of pavements
and the PSI values
⎡ 4.2 − p ⎤
log ⎢
log W = log ρ + ⎣ 2.7 ⎥⎦
β
Where
W—no. of repetitions required to reduce the serviceability level from 4.2 to p
ρ & β --both positive functions of the design and load variables
ρ -- is the estimate application at which p = 1.5 and β determines the
shape of the serviceability tend with time
log ρ = 5.93 + 9.36 log(D + 1) + 4.33 log L2 − 4.79 log(L1 + L2 )
D—thickness index (also known as structural number)
D = 0.44 D1 + 0.14 D2 + 0.11 D3
D1, D2, D3—are thickness in inches of surfacing, base and sub base respectively.
L1—nominal axle load (single or tandem) in kips
L2—a two value constant with value 1 for single axles and 2 for tandem axles
log(β − 0.4) = 3.23 log(L1 + L2 ) − 5.19(D + 1) − 3.23 log(L2 − 1.09)
Exercise on pavement design

Design the pavement for a given stretch of a single lane road with the following data
133
1. the results of subgrade soil in CBR at seven locations obtained in a certain stretch
of a road are given below
S.No. Chainage Test CBR results in %
1 0+50 11
2 0+350 8
3 0+500 7
4 0+650 7.5
5 0+800 6
6 0+950 5
7 1+500 4
You are required to adopt subgrade CBR values as 87.5 percentile.

2. The existing traffic counted on that stretch of road on 16 hrs. 7 days count are as
Traffic categories Nos. Equivalency factors in 82 KN single axle loads (ESAL)
Trucks (loaded) 20 5.67
Trucks (empty) 20 0.02
Bus (loaded) 40 0.1
Mini tata truck (empty) 10 0.001
Mini tata truck (loaded) 20 0.63
Mini bus (loaded) 19 0.05
Cars 20 0.0005
Others 50 0
3. assume traffic growth rate = 7%

4. design period = 10 years
5. construction period from last date of traffic counts = 2 years
You are requested to design the pavement as per Road Note 31, CBR and IRC
methods
Solution
Road Note 31
Expected traffic in terms of 82 KN ESAL at base period
= 20*5.67+20*0.02+40*0.1+10*0.001+20*0.63+19*0.05+20*0.0005 =
131.37 ≈ 132 of 82 KN ESAL at base period
The cumulative number of 82 KN equivalent single axles over the design life
= estimated traffic at base period* growth factor*no. of working days * no. of
axles * lateral displacement
Growth factor =
(1 + r )n + y − 1 = (1 + 0.07 )10+ 2 − 1 = 17.89
r 0.07
Cumulative wheel loads = 132 * 17.89 * 365 * 2 * 2
= 3.45 * 106 ESAL
134
Subgrade CBR values as 87.5 percentile

S.No. Test CBR result in % No. equal or greater than % equal to or greater than
1 11 1 1 * 100 = 14
7
2 8 2 2 *100 = 29
7
3 7.5 3 3 *100 = 43
7
4 7 4 4 *100 = 57
7
5 6 5 5 * 100 = 71
7
6 5 6 6 * 100 = 86
7
7 4 7 7 * 100 = 100
7
Draw the graph of above values
87.5 Percentile CBR values
100
% Equal to or greater than
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 8.0 11.0
CBR(%)
From the graph, 87.5 percentile value = 4.95 ≈ 5%

From Road Note 31,
Traffic class = T5 (3~6*106) and subgrade strength in CBR = S3
Traffic Classes (106 ESAL) Subgrade strength classes (CBR %)

T1 ≤ 0.3 S1 = 2
T2 = 0.3~0.7 S2 = 3~4
T3 = 0.7~1.5 S3 = 5~7
T4 = 1.5~3.0 S4 = 8~14
T5 = 3.6~6.0 S5 = 15~29
T6 = 6.0~10.0 S6 ≥ 30
T7 = 17~30
Catalogue method
Granular sub base 325 mm CBR ≥ 30%
Granular road base 200 mm GB1~GB3 CBR ≥ 80%
Surface course- surface dressing
135
CBR method
Estimation of traffic
Number of commercial vehicles (> 3 tonnes laden weights) = 129 commercial vehicles
per day (20+20+40+10+20+19 = 129)
A = P (1+r) n+y = 129*(1+0.07)10+2 = 291 commercial vehicles per day at the
end of design period
87.5 percentile CBR value of subgrade = 5%
Curve D
Total depth of pavement over subgrade irrespective of material properties = 380 mm
30 PC Bituminous Surfacing 30 PC Asphalt
100 GB CBR ≥ 80% 100 GB CBR ≥ 80%
380 mm 170 GS CBR ≥ 30%

250 Sub Base GS
CBR ≥ 30%
80 Compacted soil CBR ≥
Compacted natural ground and Option II

subgrade
IRC method
For single lane roads, because of concentration of traffic on one lane only, the traffic
intensity is taken to be twice that for two lane roads.
Current Indian practice on the distribution of commercial traffic

Single lane road (3.75m)
• design should be based on the total no. of commercial vehicles per day in both
directions multiplied by 2
Intermediate width roads (5.5m)
• design should be based on total no. of commercial vehicles per day in both
directions multiplied by 1.5
Two lane single carriageway
• the design should be based on 75% of the total no. of commercial vehicles in
both directions
Four lane single carriageway
• the design should be based on the 40% of the total no. of commercial vehicles in
both directions
Dual carriageway roads
• design should be based on the 75% of the no. of commercial vehicles in each
directions. The distribution factor may be reduced by 20% for each diection.
Estimated traffic at the end of design period
Ns =
[ n
]
365 * A * VDF * (1 + r ) − 1 * (1 + r )
y
r
Assume lateral displacement = 2 and VDF = 2.5
VDF—multiplier for converting the no. of commercial vehicles to the no. of standard axle
loads repetitions.
Initial traffic volume in terms of no. of commercial vehicles per day Terrain
Rolling/plane Hilly
0~150 1.5 0.5
150~1500 3.5 1.5
> 1500 4.5 2.5
136
Ns =
[ ]
365 * 129 * 2.5 * 2 * (1 + 0.07 ) − 1 * (1 + 0.07 )
10 2
= 3.72 * 10 6 ESAL
0.07
Subgrade CBR = 5% (87.5 percentile)
Solution:
Total thickness of pavement = 480 mm
Surfacing 20 mm PC/MS/SDC over 50 mm/75 mm BM
Base 250 mm CSB CBR ≥ 80%
Sub base T – 300/325
T – 300 = 180 mm of CRM material CBR ≥ 30%
2.5 Details of the Asphalt Institute Method of Design of Flexible Pavements

Design principles:
• Pavement is regarded as multi layered elastic system
• Established theory, experience, test data and a computer program DAMA were
used to develop a comprehensive pavement design procedure
• Materials in each layer are characterized by modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s
ratio.
• Traffic is expressed in terms of repetitions of an 80 KN single axle load applied to
the pavement on two sets of dual tires.
• Can be used to design asphalt pavements composed of various combinations of
asphalt concrete surface and base, emulsified asphalt surface and base, untreated
aggregate base and sub base.
• Full depth asphalt layer—3 layer system
• Untreated aggregates—four layer system
• Subgrade layer (the lowest layer) infinite in the vertically downward and
horizontal directions.
• Other layers—finite thickness—infinite in horizontal directions
• Full continuity (full friction) is assumed at the interfaces between each of the
layers.
This method is based on an elastic analysis of the pavement system. Fig. below shows
elastic solutions for stresses under uniform load due to a vehicle wheel.
Design criteria
• Two critical strains
o Horizontal tensile strain εt on the under side of the lowest asphalt bound
layer.
o Vertical compressive strain εc at the surface of the subgrade layer.
• If εt is excessive—cracking of the treated layer—fatigue failure
• If εc is excessive—permanent deformation
• To develop design criteria, εt and ε c were calculated using computer program
DAMA.
• Elastic modulus of asphalt mixes is estimated from pavement temperature
loading frequency and the mix properties.
• 3 types of emulsified asphalt mixes
o type I – with processed dense-graded aggregates
o type II – semi processed, crusher run, pit run aggregates
o type III – with sands or silty sands
6 months of curing
• Resilient modulus of untreated granular material varies with stress conditions.
137
Elastic stresses and strains in flexible pavements.
The AI design method focuses on the horizontal tensile strain at the base of the asphalt
layer(s) and on the vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade as shown in
below. The horizontal tensile strain causes fatigue cracking that starts at the base of the
asphalt and propagates upward through the asphalt layer(s). The vertical strain at the
top of the subgrade results in permanent deformation (rutting) of the pavement.
The traffic loading for the AI method is the ESAL anticipated over the design life of the
pavement.
The elastic analysis requires that the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio be known for
the components of the pavement system. Poisson’s ratio is conventionally taken as 0.4
for hot mix asphalt.
The material property required for the subgrade is the resilient modulus, MR. The triaxial
test is the preferred method for determining this modulus, however it can be determined
indirectly from CBR or R-value tests. Design limits on MR are imposed based on the
number of tests run and on the anticipated ESAL as shown in Table below. AI
recommends that from 6 to 8 test be run, and that a statistical analysis be applied to the
data. Specifically, the test results are ranked in percentile order such that the percent of
tests results equal to or greater than a given result is tabulated.
138
Strains of concern in the AI design method.
Selection of design subgrade resilient modulus

• Individual subgrade test values (6~8 tests) are used to find a design subgrade
resilient modulus (Mr)
• For higher traffic volume, Mr is adjusted to a lower value—to ensure more
conservative design for a larger traffic volume.
• Design subgrade resilient modulus is defined as the subgrade resilient modulus
value that 60, 75 or 87.5 percent of all test values in the section are equal to or
greater than.
Design percentile for various ESALs.
Procedure for determining the design subgrade resilient modulus Mr

• Select the design traffic EAL
• Test 6~8 samples of subgrade—convert CBR or R value test data to subgrade
resilient modulus value.
• Arrange all test values in numerical order
• For each change in test value, beginning with the lowest value compute the
percentage of the total number of values that is equal to or greater than
• Plot the results on cross section paper
• Draw a smooth, best fit curve through the plotted points
• Read from the curve the subgrade strength value at the appropriate percentile
value—this is the design subgrade strength value.
139
Example resilient modulus test results.
Fig. showing plots these test results and shows an appropriate curve.
As an example, if the ESAL was 105, the appropriate percentile from Table would be 75.
Entering the plot of Fig. 6 at 75 percentile, moving across until the curve is encountered,
and moving downward yields an MR value of 9,300 psi.
The AI design method places further minimum requirements on untreated aggregate

base and on subbase quality as shown in Table below.
Untreated aggregate base and subbase quality requirements.
140
The AI design procedure is based on a series of charts that were produced from
computer programs for layered elastic systems. Reasonable properties were assumed for
the properties of the wearing layer and of the base and subbase courses. Thus, the
design variables treated in the analysis of a given pavement type are subgrade resilient
modulus, MR, and traffic ESAL. The design charts are given in Design Charts VI-11
through VI-20.
As a design example, consider a pavement to be made of full depth asphalt concrete. It

is to be constructed on a subgrade having MR = 1x04, and the ESAL is 1.5x105. The
appropriate design chart is VI-11. Enter at MR = 1x104 on the vertical axis and ESAL =
1.5x105 on the horizontal axis. These intersect at a point that is closest to a pavement
thickness of 6 inches. Because this is a full depth asphalt pavement, the combine asphalt
subbase, base, and wearing courses should be 6 inches. From a practical perspective,
this pavement would have at most a base and wearing course.
As a second example, consider a pavement to be constructed on an untreated aggregate

base 4 inches thick. The subgrade resilient modulus, MR, is 6x103, and the ESAL is
1x106. The appropriate chart is VI-15. Entering at the specified MR and ESAL, the
thickness is determined to be 9 inches.
Environmental considerations:
• increased subgrade resilient modulus to represent the freezing period
• Reduced subgrade resilient modulus to represent the thaw period.
Design charts
• Determine thickness for the two strain criteria.
• Two thicknesses were obtained for each condition, one for each critical strain
value and the larger of the two used to prepare the design charts.
Thickness determination for full depth asphalt concrete pavements

• Thickness selection can be made using design chart
• Approximate traffic EAL values and subgrade design Mr values may be entered.
• Thickness of full depth asphalt concrete pavement may be read directly to the
nearest 25 mm or less.
Example: design a full depth asphalt concrete pavement for the following conditions
Subgrade modulus Mr = 41.4 MPa or 6000 psi
Design traffic: EAL = 106
From chart—full depth asphalt concrete design thickness equal to 240 mm
Asphalt concrete surface and base.
Thickness determination for emulsified asphalt base pavement

3 types of emulsified asphalt base courses
• Design charts are based on assumed curing periods of 6 months
• Curing period up to 24 months will be having significant influence on design
thickness requirements.
• Chart gives combined thickness of asphalt concrete surface and base or
emulsified asphalt surface with surface treatment and emulsified asphalt base.
Example:
Assume the following conditions
Subgrade modulus Mr = 41.4 MPa (6000 psi)
Design traffic EAL = 106
From the appropriate asphalt base design charts, the following total thicknesses are
obtained.
Type I 240 mm
Type II 290 mm
Type III 370 mm
141
The minimum thickness of asphalt concrete or type I emulsified asphalt mix with a
surface treatment is to be 75mm for EAL = 106. The difference between the total
thickness and 75mm determines the thickness of emulsified asphalt base
Emulsified asphalt Total Minimum thickness Thickness of emulsified

base type thickness mm asphalt concrete mm asphalt base mm
II 290 75 215
III 370 75 215
If type I is selected only a surface treatment is required.
Thickness determination for pavements with asphalt concrete and untreated aggregate
base
• Both base and sub base quality aggregate may be used
• A minimum thickness of 150 mm of higher quality base material should be place
over lower quality sub base materials
• Design charts for six different thicknesses of untreated aggregate are included
100, 150, 200, 250, 300 and 450 mm.
• Thicknesses of asphalt concrete surface and base required over each thickness of
untreated aggregate may be read directly from the charts.
Minimum thickness of asphalt concrete over untreated aggregates base

Traffic EAL Traffic condition Minimum thickness of
asphalt concrete
104 Light traffic, parking lots, driveways and 75mm*
light traffic rural roads
104 but less Medium truck traffic 100mm
than 106
106 Medium to heavy truck traffic 125mm
• for full depth asphalt concrete or emulsified asphalt pavements a minimum
thickness of 100mm applies in this
Example
Design a pavement using untreated aggregate base for the following conditions
Subgrade modulus Mr = 34.5 MPa (5000 psi)
Design traffic EAL = 100,000
Prepare two designs: one for a 150 mm and one for a 300 mm base
The alternative designs are
1. 140 mm asphalt concrete
150 mm untreated aggregate base
290 mm total thickness


150 mm untreated aggregate sub base
Structural design procedure

• Determine the thickness of pavement structures consisting of asphalt concrete
surface, emulsified asphalt surface (with surface treatment), asphalt concrete
base, emulsified asphalt base and untreated aggregates base or sub base.
142
• Resulting thicknesses satisfy two different strain criteria—the vertical compressive

strain at the surface of the subgrade and horizontal tensile strain on the under
side of the lowest asphalt bound layer.
• Traffic levels from EAL = 5*103 to EAL in excess of 107 are included in the design
charts
Design procedure
• Select or determine input data
o Traffic volume EAL
o Subgrade resilient modulus Mr
o Surface and base types
• Determine design thicknesses for the specific conditions described by the input
data
• Prepare stage construction design, if appropriate
• Make and economic analysis of the various solutions arrived at for the design
problem.
• Select final design.
Environmental factors
• Necessary to remove and replace soils susceptible to frost heave or take other
precautions prior to pavement construction.
• In hot climates, asphalt mixes should be designed to resist rutting and maintain
stiffness at high temperature.
• Different asphalt grades—for different temperature conditions.
Minimum thickness of asphalt concrete surface and base

• All design charts in the manual were prepared using asphalt course composed of
asphalt concrete or emulsified asphalt mixtures
• When asphalt concrete is used over emulsified asphalt base type II or type III,
the minimum thickness of asphalt concrete recommended in table apply
Traffic level EAL Type II and type III

mm In
104 50 2
105 50 2
106 75 3
107 100 4
>107 130 5
Asphalt concrete or type I emulsified asphalt mix with a surface treatment, may
be used over type II and type III emulsified asphalt base course.
Thickness determination for pavements with emulsified asphalts mixes over untreated
aggregate base:
• Design charts for thickness design of pavements with emulsified asphalt mixes
used for all or part of the asphalt mixture required for untreated aggregate bases
have not been prepared
• Following method is recommended
• Design a full depth asphalt concrete pavement for the appropriate traffic and
subgrade conditions. Assume a 50mm surface course and calculate the
corresponding base thickness.
• Design a pavement for the same traffic and subgrade condition using the selected
emulsified mix type. Assume a 50mm surface course and calculate the
corresponding base thickness.
• Design a pavement for the same conditions using asphalt concrete and untreated
aggregate base.
• Divide the thickness of asphalt base (step 2) by the thickness of asphalt concrete
base (step 1) to obtain a ratio.
143
• Select the portion of the thickness of asphalt concrete obtained in step 3 that is to
be replaced by the emulsified asphalt mix.
• Multiply this thickness times the ratio obtained in step (4) to obtain the thickness
of the emulsified asphalt mix to be used.
Example:
Design a pavement with asphalt concrete surface, emulsified asphalt mix type III base
course and a 150 mm untreated base course having Mr of the subgrade = 55.2 MPa
(8000 psi) and EAL = 105
From design chart
1) full depth asphalt concrete = 150 mm
AC surface = 50 mm assumed
Therefore, AC base = 100 mm = 150 – 50
2) from design chart VI-4 (chart VI-14)
Thickness of asphalt surface and type III base = 215 mm
AC surface = 50mm assumed
Therefore emulsified asphalt base = 215-50=165 mm
3) from design chart VI-6 (chart VI-16)
Thickness of asphalt surface and base = 100mm
AC surface = 50mm
AC base = 50 mm
Untreated aggregate base = 150 mm
4) obtain the ratio of two base courses found in steps (1) and (2)
165
= 1.65
100
5) select 50 mm AC base (step 3) to be replaced by emulsified asphalt mix type III
6) obtain thickness of emulsified asphalt base
50*1.65 = 82.5 say 85 mm
The final design
50 mm asphalt concrete
85 mm emulsified asphalt mix type III
285 mm total thickness.
Design based on road note 29

Original 1960-----revised 1970
a) it covers axle loads repetitions as against the old method of expressing traffic in
terms of number of commercial vehicles per day.
b) It utilizes materials such as rolled asphalt and bituminous macadam, lean
concrete soil cement and wet mix and dry bound macadam for road base and
surfacing courses.
Estimation of traffic
• Traffic data is obtained from actual surveys
• Suitable growth rate is assumed
• Flexible pavements are designed for a 20 year life and a rigid pavement is
designed for a 40 year life.
• Number of axles are converted to standard 8160 Kg axles as per table
144
Axle load conversion factors
Axle load KN Conversion factor

5 0.000015
9 0.000157
10 0.000240
20 0.00384
27 0.0127
30 0.019
40 0.061
44 0.090
50 0.15
60 0.31
62 0.35
70 0.58
80 1.00
90 1.57
100 2.40
110 3.51
120 4.98
130 6.85
140 9.22
150 12.15
160 15.73
170 20.05
180 25.19
190 31.28
200 38.40
• Different curves have been provided for
o Sub base thickness based on CBR values
o Rolled asphalt and dense macadam road base and surfacing
o Lean concrete, soil cement bound granular materials in road base
o Wet mix and dry bound macadam road bases
The minimum thickness of the top courses

Recommendation for bituminous surfacing in road note 29 traffic (cumulative standard
axles, 106)
Over 11 2.5~11 0.5~2.5 Less than 0.5
1. wearing Wearing course Wearing course Wearing course of minimum
course of of minimum 40 of minimum 20 20 mm thickness and suitable
minimum 40mm mm thickness mm thickness base course in a two course
thickness construction
OR
2. base course of base course of base course of Single course construction of
60 mm thickness suitable suitable 60mm bituminous or tar
thickness thickness macadam
Example:
Design a two lane flexible pavement for a road expected to carry 1100 commercial
vehicles per day at the time of construction with an expected growth rate of 3%. Assume
each commercial vehicle to contribute 0.72 standard 80KN axles. The design life is 20
years and the subgrade CBR is 5. Design the flexible pavement as per road note 29.
Solution:
Traffic on each lane = 1100/2 = 550 commercial vehicles per day
Cumulative repetitions at the end of 20 years = (1 + 0.03) * 550 * 365 * 20 = 7 milliions
20
145
No. of standard axles = 7*0.72 = 5.04 millions

For CBR of 5 and 5.04 million axles – thickness of sub base = 240 mm with minimum
CBR value 30%
Thickness of rolled asphalt base – 110 mm or that of dense macadam is 130 mm
Thickness of surfacing = 90 mm using combination of materials
Alternatively
Thickness of lean concrete road base = 180 mm with a surfacing = 100 mm using
combination of materials
Another alternative
Thickness of wet mix or dry bound macadam road base = 200, with a surfacing = 100
mm using any combination of materials.
2.6 Design Methods for Rigid pavement

• Rigid pavements are those which contain sufficient beam strength to be able to
bridge over localized sub grade failures and areas of inadequate support.
• Cement concrete pavement
• Should be analysed by the plate theory
• Plate theory is simplified version of the layered theory that assumes the concrete
slab to a medium thick plate with a plane before bending and to remain a plane
after bending.
• If the wheel load is applied in the interior of a slab either plate or layered theory
can be used and both should yield nearly the same flexural stress or strain.
• If the wheel load is applied near to the slab edge (say less than 610 mm from the
edge) only the plate theory can be used for rigid pavements.
• The reason is that the layered theory is applicable for flexible pavements but not
to rigid pavements is that PCC is much different than HMA and distributes the
load over a much wider area.
• Therefore a distance of 610mm form the edge is considered quite far in a flexible
pavement but nor far enough in a rigid pavement.
• The existence of joints in rigid pavements also makes the layered theory
inapplicable.
• Rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared subgrade on a single
layer of granular or stabilized material
Types
• Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
• Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
• Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
• Pre-stressed concrete pavement (PCP)
Stress consideration
Stem from a variety of sources
• Applied wheel loads
• Changes in the temperature (warping and frictional stresses)
• Volumetric changes in the sub grade soil (heave and shrinkage including frost
action)
• Lack of continuity of subgrade support (due to mud pumping)
As the pavement section has a finite length and width, the intensity of maximum stress
induced by the application of a given traffic load is dependent on the location of the load
on the pavement surface.
• Three critical loading positions—interior, edge and corner
Interior loading
When the load is applied in the interior of the slab surface at any place remote from all
the edges.
146
a=radius of circle
σ i -- tensile stress at the bottom of the slab (psi) due to interior loading
If
3(1 + µ ) P ⎡ l ⎤
⇒ σi = 2 ⎢
ln + 0.6159⎥
2π h ⎣ b ⎦
Where l -- radius of relative stiffness (m)
b— radius of equivalent distribution of pressure at the bottom of the slab (in)
b = a when a ≥ 1.724 h
b = 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h when a < 1.724h
For µ = 0.15 and in terms of 10 base log
σi =
0.316 P
h2
[ ( )
4 log 10 l + 1.069
b
]
The deflection equation due to interior loading
P ⎧⎪ 1 ⎡ ⎛a⎞ ⎤⎛ a ⎞
2
⎫⎪
∆i = ⎨1 + ⎢ln⎜ 2l ⎟ − 0.673⎥⎜ l ⎟ ⎬
8kl 2 ⎪⎩ 2π ⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎝ ⎠ ⎪⎭
Corner loading
When the center of load application is located on the bisector of the corner angle formed
by two intersecting edge of the slab and the loaded area is at the corner touching the
two corner edges
If σ c -- tensile stress at the top of the slab (due to corner loading)

3P ⎡ ⎛ a 2 ⎞ ⎤
0. 6
⇒ σ c = 2 ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
h ⎢ ⎝ l ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
147
The deflection equation

P ⎡ ⎛ a 2 ⎞⎤
∆c = ⎢1.1 − 0.88⎜⎜ ⎟⎥
⎟
kl 2 ⎣⎢ ⎝ l ⎠⎦⎥
Edge loading
When the load is applied on an edge of the slab at any place remote from a corner
a
If σ e --tensile stress at the bottom of the slab due to edge loading
3(1 + µ ) P ⎡ ⎛ Eh 3 ⎞ 4µ 1 − µ (1 + 2µ )a ⎤
⇒ σ e (circle) = ⎢ln⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1.84 + + + 1.18 ⎥
π (3 + µ ) h 2 ⎣ ⎜⎝ 100ka 4 ⎠ 3 2 l ⎦
The deflection equation due to edge loading
2 + 1.2µP ⎡ 0.76 + 0.4µ ⎤
∆ e (circle) = 1− a⎥
Eh 3 k ⎢⎣ l ⎦
When µ =0.15
⎡ ⎛l⎞ ⎛a⎞ ⎤
0.803P ⎢4 log10 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.666⎜ ⎟ − 0.034⎥
σ e (circle) = ⎝a⎠ ⎝l⎠
h2 ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
⎡ ⎛l⎞ ⎛a⎞ ⎤
0.803P ⎢4 log10 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.282⎜ ⎟ + 0.650⎥
σ e ( semicircle) = ⎝a⎠ ⎝l⎠
h2 ⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
And
0.431P ⎡ ⎛ a ⎞⎤
∆ e (circle) = ⎢1 − 0.82⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ l ⎠⎦
2
kl ⎣
0.431P ⎡ ⎛ a ⎞⎤
∆ e ( semicircle) = ⎢1 − 0.349⎜ ⎟⎥
⎝ l ⎠⎦
2
kl ⎣
Requires trial and error solution to find the slab thickness for a given allowable value of
stress
σe =
0.572 P
h2
[ ( )
4 log l + 0.359
b
]
Modulus of subgrade reaction
The modulus of subgrade reaction k is proportional to the displacement. The
displacement level ∆ is taken as 0.125 cm in calculating k. if p is the pressure sustained
in N/mm2 by the rigid plate of diameter 750 mm at a deflection ∆ = 0.125 cm, the
modulus of subgrade reaction k is given by
148
p p
k= = N/mm3
∆ 1.25
Temperature gradient
The temperature gradient ∆t is defined as
Tt − Tb
∆t =
h
Where
Tt—temperature (ºC) at the top of the concrete layer
Tb—temperature (ºC) at the bottom of the concrete layer
h—thickness (mm) of the concrete layer
( W < 0.8 or L W > 1.2)
Long slab L l crit = 200h Eα∆t
Square slab (0.8 ≤ L ≤ 1.2) l crit = 228h Eα∆t
W
Where
l crit -- Critical slab length (mm)
h—thickness (mm) of the concrete slab
E—Young’s modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) of concrete
α --coefficient of linear thermal expansion (/ºC)
∆t -- Temperature gradient (ºC/mm)
L—slab length (mm)
W— slab width (mm)
Furthermore, Eisenmann takes into account that near the edges, the concrete slab in
supported over a certain distance, the ‘support length’ C. this means that the span L’ of
the concrete slab is always less than the slab length L
L' = L − 2 C
3
h
C ≈ 4.5 if C << L
k∆t
Where C—support length (mm)
k—modulus of subgrade reaction
∆t -- Temperature gradient (ºC/mm)
In reinforced concrete pavements, the temperature gradient ∆t is of minor importance

because of the small slab dimensions of 1.5~3m (distance between the cracks). However
in reinforced concrete pavements with slab dimensions of 3 to 6 m, the temperature
gradient causes substantial flexural stresses in the concrete slab and thus it is of the
great importance for the structural design of the pavement structure.
Depending on the ratio between the slab span L’ and the critical slab length l crit
Eisenmann distinguishes three different causes
a) When the slab span L’ is for greater than the critical slab length l crit , then the
central part of the concrete slab is resulting on the sub structure. In this central
part, the (normal) wrapping stress
1 h∆t
σt = αE if L’ > 1.1 l crit
1− µ 2
Where
µ -- Poisson’s ratio of concrete
∆t -- temperature gradient (ºC/mm)
E—Young’s modulus of elasticity (N/mm2) of concrete
α --coefficient of linear thermal expansion (/ºC)
149
Westergaard’s analysis
• Rigid pavements are of cement concrete—may or may not have reinforcement
• Failure of rigid pavements usually occurs by overstressing of the concrete and not
by overstressing of the subgrade.
• The thickness determination is generally based on the calculation of stress in the
concrete.
Assumption:
• Concrete slab acts as a homogeneous isotropic elastic solid in equilibrium.
• The reactions of the subgrade are vertical only and are proportional to the
deflections of the slab.
• The reaction of the subgrade per unit of area at any given point is equal to a
constant K multiplied by the deflection at the point. The constant K is termed ‘the
modulus of subgrade reaction’ and is assumed to be constant at each point,
independent of the deflection and to be the same at all points within the area of
consideration.
• The thickness of slab is uniform
• The load at the interior and at the cornet of the slab is distributed over a circular
area of contact. For corner loading, the circumference of this circular area is
tangential to the edge of the slab.
• The load at the edge of the slab is distributed uniformly over a semi circular area
of contact, the diameter of the semi circle being at the edge of the slab.
The slab deflection depends upon the stiffness of the subgrade and the flexural strength
of the slab. Thus the pressure deformation characteristics of a rigid pavement depend
upon the relative stiffness of the slab and the subgrade.
Westergaard defined the radius of relative stiffness as
1
⎡ Eh 3
⎤ 4
l=⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣12 K (1 − µ ) ⎦
l—radius of relative stiffness (mm)
E—modulus of elasticity of cement concrete (N/mm2)
µ -- Poisson’s ratio of cement concrete (0.15)
h—cement concrete slab thickness (mm)
K—modulus of subgrade reaction (N/mm3)
IRC design guidelines for rigid pavements

Design parameters
Design wheel load (5100 kg) with equivalent circular area of 15 cm and tire inflation
pressure ranging from 6.3~7.3 kg/cm2.
Traffic volume is projected for 20 years period after construction using the relation
Ad = P '[1 + r ] n + 20
Where Ad – no. of commercial vehicles per day (laden weight > 3t)
P’—no. of commercial vehicles per day at last count
r—annual rate of increase in traffic intensity
n—no. of years between the last traffic count and the commissioning of new
cement concrete pavement
The traffic intensity so obtained is classified and adjustment for the pavement design
thickness is made.
• Mean daily and annual temperature cycles
• Modulus of subgrade reaction k – minimum 5.5 kg/cm3—if k value is lower, a
suitable sub base course may be provided to increase k value.
• Flexural strength of cement concrete should not be less than 40 kg/cm2
o E = 3 * 10 kg/cm2
5
o µ = 0.15
150
o α = 10 * 10 −6 / o C
Calculation of stresses
• wheel load stresses at edge region is calculated for the designed slab thickness as
per Westergaard’s analysis
• temperature stress at edge region is calculated as per Westergaard’s analysis
using Bradbury’s coefficient
• wheel load stress at corner region as per Westergaard analysis
Design steps
• decide the width of slab based on joint spacing and lane width
• length of cement concrete slab = spacing of contraction joints
2S c
Lc = * 10 4
Wf
Where Lc—spacing between contractions joints (m)
f—coefficient of friction (max. 1.5)
W—unit weight of cement concrete Kg/cm3 (2400Kg/cm3)
Sc—allowable stress in tension in cement concrete Kg/cm2 (0.8
kg/cm2)
200 S s As
Lc =
bhWf
Where As—total area of steel cm2 across the slab width
b—slab width m
h—thickness of slab cm
Ss—allowable tensile stress in steel kg/cm2 (1400)
Slab length should confirm to the recommendations on spacing of joints.

• Trial thickness value of the slab is assumed for calculating the stresses. The
warping stress at edge region is calculated and this value is subtracted from the
allowable flexural stress in concrete to find the residual strength in the pavement
to support edge loads.
• The load stress in edge is found using stress chart or is calculated using equation.
• The available factor of safety in edge load stress with respect to residual strength
is found. If the value of factor of safety is less than 1.0 or is far excess of 1.0
another trial thickness of the slab is assumed and the calculations are repeated
till the factor of safety works out to 1.0 or a slightly higher value for the design
thickness h cm.
• The total stresses at the corner due to wheel load and warping is checked using
stress chart for h cm thick slab. If this stress value is less than the allowable
flexural stress in concrete, the slab thickness h cm is adequate or else the
thickness may be suitably increased (however, usually the stresses due to load
and warping at the corner region would not be higher than that at the edge
region)
• The design thickness is adjusted for the traffic intensity or classification at the
end of design life and using the adjustment value from table to obtain the final
adjusted slab thickness.
Spacing of joints
• Governed by no. of factors
o Temperature variation
o Slab thickness
o Amount of reinforcement
• Maximum spacing recommended for 25 mm wide expansion joints is 140 m.
• Maximum contraction joint spacing may be kept at 4.5 m in un-reinforced slab of
all thickness
151
Maximum spacing of joints (m)

Slab thickness Weight of steel reinforcement kg/m2
Expansion Contraction
200 3.8 45 15
153 2.7 37 13
100 2.2 30 7.5
Design of dowel bars

• Dowel bars are provided in slab of thickness 150 mm or more
IRC recommends 25 mm dia. Dowel bars of length 500 mm to be spaced at
200 mm in case of 150 mm thick slabs and spaced at 300 mm in the case of
200 mm thick slab, design load being 5100 kg.
Design of tie bars

• Maximum diameter 20 mm to permit warping
• Spacing should be less than 75 cm—to avoid concentration of tensile forces
• The calculated length is generally increased by 5~8 cm to account for
inaccuracy during placing.
• Designed for longitudinal joints.
Reinforcement design
• May be placed 5 cm below the surface of the slab and is continued across dummy
groove joints to serve the purpose of tie bars.
• At all full depth joints and edges, the reinforcement is kept at least 5 cm away
from the face of joint or edge.
Design of joints
Concrete pavements are subjected to
• Volumetric changes produced by temperature variations, shrinkage during setting
and changes in moisture content.
• Cracks will develop if no joints.
Types Requirements
Expansion Should permit movement of slabs
Contraction Should not unduly weaken the slab structurally
Warping The load should be transferred from one slab to another
Construction Must be sealed to exclude water, grit etc.
Longitudinal Riding quality of pavement should not be impaired
Expansion joints
• To provide space in the pavement for expansion of slabs
• Normally a transverse joint
• Relieves stresses caused by contraction and warping
• Omitted in modern practice
Construction joints
• Construction induces tensile stresses
• Groove joint (dummy joint) not < 6 mm wide depth = one fourth the
pavement depth.
• When contraction takes place the concrete slab cracks at the predetermined
location in the portion below the groove.
Warping joints
• Also known as hinge joints—to relieve warping stresses
• Permit hinge action but no appreciable separation of adjacent slabs
• Longitudinal or transverse
152
Construction joints
• When work has to be stopped at a point where there would be otherwise no other
joints.
Longitudinal joints
• Provided when pavement width is more –construction of pavement in strips
• Allow for warping and uneven settlement of the sub grade
• Necessary to provide some form of load transferring device—tie bars—fully
bonded
Problem
Design a cement concrete pavement for the following conditions
Design wheel load = 5100 kg
Present traffic = 300 commercial vehicles/day
Design life = 25 years
Traffic growth rate = 7%
o
Temperature variation = 12 C
Modulus of subgrade reaction K = 6 kg/cm3
Flexural strength of concrete =40 kg/cm2
E = 3 * 10 5 kg/cm2
µ = 0.15
α = 10 * 10 −6 / o C
Solution:
Select 22 cm thickness of concrete pavement for a trial
Length of slab is based on contraction joint spacing L = 4.5 m (say)
Lane width = 3.5 m
Eh 3 3 × 10 5 × 22 3
⇒l = 4 = 4 = 82.08cm
12 K (1 − µ 2 ) 12 × 6 × (1 − 0.15 2 )
L 4 .5 ⎫
= = 5.48
l 0.8208 ⎪ L W L
Therefore ⎬ > ,− − − − − is more
W 3 .5 ⎪ l l l
= = 4.26 ⎭
l 0.8208
critical
L
For = 5.5 Bradbury coefficient (C) = 0.82
l
For ∆t = 12 C ,
o
σ te = 14 kg/cm2 from graph
Residual strength of concrete = 40 – 14 kg/cm2
Now there is only 26 kg/cm2 of flexural strength that the concrete slab can mobilize.
For edge load condition and h = 22 cm and K = 6 kg/cm3
σ e = 25 kg/cm2
26
The available factor of safety on edge load stress = = 1.04 ok
25
Again from graph, corner load stress
σ c = 25 kg/cm2 < 40 kg/cm2 ok
The calculated h = 22 cm for only structural point of view.
The total thickness of slab h
h = hs + ht
Where
hs—thickness due to structural point of view
153
ht—thickness due to traffic intensity

Design traffic volume
P = A(1 + r ) n
⇒ P = 300(1 + 0.07) 25 = 1628 Commercial vehicle per day
Adjust the thickness for traffic intensity ht = 0
Therefore the recommended designed thickness of concrete pavement is 22 cm.
154
Chapter Three: Road Construction Technology

3.1 Activities and Techniques used in Road Construction
Introduction to road construction technology
¾ Planning, geometric, materials and structural design of highways are studied

in the previous chapters.
¾ How the highways are built i.e. highway construction.
¾ In fact road construction project can be divided into two phases
∗ E/w and preparation of subgrade
∗ laying of pavement
∗ Protection work like retaining wall, toe wall, parapet wall etc.,
construction of drainage facilities.
¾ That branch of engineering which deals with all kinds of activities and technology
or operation for changing existing ground to the desired shape, slope and to
provide all necessary facilities for smooth, safe and efficient traffic movement and
operation.
¾ Also includes the reconstruction of existing roads.
Various activities includes

1. earthwork and site clearance
¾ site clearance
¾ earthwork in filling for embankment
¾ excavation for cutting
¾ excavation for borrow pit
¾ excavation for structural foundation
¾ disposal of surplus earth
2. drainage works
¾ minor bridges
¾ culverts
¾ causeways
¾ side drains
¾ other surface and sub surface drainage works
3. protection works
¾ earth retaining structures
¾ river training works
¾ gully control works
¾ land slide stabilization
¾ bridge protection works
4. pavement works
¾ sub grade works
¾ sub base works
¾ base works
¾ surface works
5. miscellaneous works
¾ road ancillaries
¾ Traffic signs/signals/markings etc.
¾ bio-engineering works
3.2 Tools, Equipment and Plants used in Road Construction
Highway construction can be carried out either by using mechanical appliances or by

manual labor. Although adoption of mechanical method involves heavy initial investment
but it results superior and economical than those conducted by manual labor. Machines
that can be used in road construction can be classified into following heads.
¾ Earthwork machinery
155
¾ WBM road machinery

¾ Bituminous road machinery
¾ Cement concrete road machinery
In road construction, earthwork has to be done to obtain necessary formation level.

Tractor, dozer, scrapper, grader, shovel, dragline, power rammers, rooters, trucks etc
are the usual mechanical equipment used for earthwork.
Road metal machineries are primary crusher, secondary crusher and tertiary crusher.
Bitumen road machinery consists of bitumen boiler, bitumen sprayer, bitumen mixer and
sprayer, spreader, gritting machine, hot mix plant, bitumen plane etc.
Machinery required for cement concrete road construction is as follows--concrete

batching plant, concrete mixer, concrete pavers, concrete screens, concrete vibrators,
concrete finishers etc.
¾ Small projects—labor intensive works
¾ Big projects—almost impossible without construction equipments
Types of road pavement

1. earth and gravel roads
2. WBM roads
3. soil stabilized roads
4. bituminous or black top roads
a. surface dressing
b. seal coat/prime coat/tack coat
c. grouted or semi grouted macadam
d. premix— bituminous bound macadam
Bituminous carpet
Bituminous concrete
Sheet asphalt or rolled asphalt
Mastic asphalt
5. cement concrete roads
a. cement grouted layers
b. rolled concrete layer
c. cement concrete slab
Construction equipments
1. tools
a. hand shovel
b. chisel
c. peak
d. spade
e. hand rammer
f. brushes
g. trowel
h. Wheel barrows etc.
2. equipments
a. earth moving equipments
i. dozer (bull dozer, angle dozer, tree dozer)
ii. scrapper
iii. loader
iv. excavator (back hoe)
v. drag line
vi. clamshell
vii. trench digger
b. compaction equipment
i. smooth wheel rollers
ii. vibrating rollers
iii. pneumatic rollers
156
iv. sheep foot rollers

v. rammers
c. leveling equipment
i. grader
d. paving equipment
i. binder spreader
ii. heating kettle for binder
iii. aggregate spreader
iv. cement concrete mixer
v. bituminous paver
vi. cement concrete paver etc.
e. lifting equipment
i. backhoe (for low load)
ii. crane (different capacity)
f. transporting equipment
i. dumping trucks (tipper)
ii. trucks (flat body)
iii. mini dumpers
g. plants
i. cement concrete plant
ii. asphalt concrete plant
iii. cold premix mixing plant
iv. aggregate crusher plant
v. screening plant
vi. washing plant
vii. sand blowing plant
Compacting Equipment
Soil compaction can be achieved in the field either by rolling, ramming or by vibration.
Hence the compacting equipment may also be classified as rollers, rammers and
vibrators. Compaction of sands is also achieved by watering, pounding and jetting.
Trucks and heavy equipments do compaction of loose materials to some extent.
Rollers: The principle of roller is the application of pressure, which is slowly increased
and then decreased. The various types of rollers which are used for compaction are
smooth wheel, pneumatic tired and sheep-foot rollers.
Smooth wheel rollers

¾ two types -----
1. three wheel or macadam rollers----gross weight 4~18t
2. tandem rollers ( two wheel ) -------gross weight 1~14t
¾ the compacting efficiency of the smooth wheel rollers depends on the weight,
width and diameter of each roller
¾ useful for finishing operations after compaction of fills and for compacting
granular base course of highways
¾ Used to seal the surface of the fill to provide a smooth surface to quickly drain
off the rainwater.
¾ They are suitable for compacting gravel, sand, crushed rock and any material
where crushing action is required.
Pneumatic tired rollers

¾ Number of pneumatic wheels (9~11 wheels fixed on two axles) are mounted
on two or more axles under a loading platform. Sandbags or some other
weights can be placed over the platform to provide the effective compaction.
¾ Pneumatic tires are so spaced that a complete coverage is obtained with each
pass of the roller.
¾ Compacts the soil by kneading action
157
¾ Effective for compacting both cohesive soils and cohesion less soils
¾ The weight of such roller may be as large as 50t and 2~4 passes are generally
sufficient to achieve compaction of 60cm thick soil layer.
¾ Light rollers (weight up to 20t) for soil layers of small thickness up to 15 cm,
heavy rollers useful for layers of thickness up to 30 cm.
Sheep foot rollers

¾ Consists of hollow steel cylinder with projecting feet.
¾ The weight of the roller can be increased by filling water.
¾ The weight, diameter and width of the roller may be varied and also the shape
and size of the feet.
¾ Efficiency of the sheep foot rollers depends on the weight of the roller and the
number of feet in contact with the ground at a time.
¾ Suitable to compact clayey soils
¾ Combine the soil by the combined action of tamping and kneading
¾ About 24 or more number of passes of the roller may be necessary to obtain
adequate compaction
Rammers
¾ Block of iron or stone attached to a wooden rod
1. Hand operated---3.5 Kg
2. Mechanical
¾ Useful to compact relatively small areas and where the rollers can not operate
due to space limit such as trenches, foundation and slopes
¾ Low output
Vibrators
¾ Suitable for compacting dry cohesionless granular material
¾ Vibratory roller--vibrator mounted roller-- combined effect of rolling and
vibration.
Watering (Jetting and Pounding)

¾ Is considered to be an efficient method of compacting cohesionless sands.
¾ Watering heavily and rolling by smooth wheel of pneumatic tyred roller may
also give adequate compaction of cohesionless sands.
The compaction of roller depends up on the following factors:

¾ Contact pressure
¾ Number of passes
¾ Layer thickness
¾ Speed of roller
Preparation of Road Bed

Site clearance
¾ First operation for fixing road alignment before the commencement of any
earthworks for the road construction.
¾ Major works
o Clearing hedges and shrubs at least covering toe width
o Removal of existing trees, stumps and roots along the alignment
o Removal of existing structures along the alignment
Preparation of subgrade
¾ All operations before the pavement structures could be laid over it and
compacted.
158
¾ Subgrade may be situated on embankment, excavation or at the existing ground

surface.
¾ Should be cleared off and grading is necessary to bring the vertical profile of the
sub grade to the designed grade and camber.
¾ Top of the sub grade should be well compacted before placing the pavement layer
Earthwork: -
It includes all construction operations required to convert the road land from its natural
condition and configuration to the sections and grades prescribed in the plans.
Earthwork, which may be excavation or filling, can be performed manually or using
machines. In order to reduce the cost of construction it is necessary to plan the
movement of materials from cuts to the nearest fills; therefore, it is necessary to decode
the limits of economical haul and lift.
E/W in Excavation:
¾ Process of cutting or loosening and removing the earth including rock from its
original position transporting and dumping it to the site as a fill or spoil bank.
¾ May be needed before preparing the sub grade
¾ Done when the natural ground level is higher the designed grade line level.
¾ The depth of cutting depends up on the height of grade line below natural ground
level and can be calculated from L-section and cross section of the road.
¾ The slope to be provided for excavation depends upon the nature and type of soil
and depth of cutting, construction of side drains also requires excavation along
roadside.
¾ The selection of excavating equipment and cost analysis is made based on the
stiffness of the materials to be excavated. The excavation equipments are
bulldozer, drag line, scrappers, clam shell, hoe etc. The selection of particular
type of equipment depends upon the types of soil, availability of equipment and
cost benefit analysis of the project.
¾ The design elements of highway excavation works are
o Depth
o Stability of foundation
o Stability of slopes
o Accommodation of road side drains
E/W in Embankment:
∗ Is the filling of earth or soil to achieve the desired grade line with the
consideration of vertical alignment. It is necessary when natural ground level
is below the grade line level or formation level. The grade line may be raised
due to any of the following reasons.
To keep the subgrade above the high ground water table.
To prevent damage to pavement due to surface water and capillary water.
To maintain the design standards of the highway with respect to the
vertical alignment.
The design elements of highway embankments are

i. Height of fill: Depends on the formation level and location of natural ground. In
case of weak soils, its bearing capacity and stability control the height of
embankment.
ii. Fill materials: Generally, granular soil is preferred as highway embankment
material. As far as possible organic soils, silts should be avoided. If the foundation
is very weak then light soil as cinder nay also be used as fill material.
iii. settlement of embankment:
The settlement of fill material i.e. embankment may be caused due to
settlement of fill material itself
settlement of foundation
159
both of the above

To reduce the settlement of foundation at high moisture content
sometimes following remedy is taken into account.
The use of vertical drains and sand blanket will reduce the path of flow so that there is
no danger from settlement point of view. Sand blanker is extended beyond the bottom
width. Whatever is the type of settlement it is desirable that the settlement is almost
complete before the construction of pavement.
iv. Stability of foundation: The foundation stability is evaluated and the factor of safety
is estimated by any of the following approaches.
Assuming a certain failure surface such as a circular arc or any other composite
shape and analysing it with Swedish circular arc analysis or method of wedges
as the case may be.
Estimating the average shear stress and strength at the foundation layers by
approximate methods and estimating the factor of safety.
Using theoretical analysis based on elastic theory.
v. Stability of slopes: Embankment slopes should be stable enough to eliminate the
possibility of a failure under adverse moisture and other conditions. The stability of
the slope should be checked by providing minimum factor of safety of 1.5. Flatter
slopes are preferred than in cutting.
Construction of Embankment
The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin layers called
rolled earth method or by hydraulic fills. In rolled earth method each layer is compacted
by rolling to a satisfactory degree or to a desired density before next layer is placed.
While rolling the layers of the soils are maintained at optimum moisture content.
Compaction at optimum moisture content provides the maximum dry density. The
thickness of the layers may vary between 10~30 cm. depending on various factors such
as soil type, equipment specification etc.
The practice of dumping the earth without compacting properly and allowing the fill to
get consolidated under weather during few subsequent seasons should be avoided as the
settlement will continue for a very long period. If pavement is constructed before the
settlement of the fill is almost complete, the pavement is likely to become uneven and
also fail later.
Soil Compaction
Compaction of soil is the process by which the soil particles are constrained to pack more
closely together through a reduction in air voids generally by mechanical means. The
object of compacting soil is to improve its properties and to increase its strength and
bearing capacity reduce its compressibility and decrease its ability to absorb water due
to reduction in volume of voids. The various factors influencing soil compaction include
moisture content, amount and type of compaction, soil type and stone content. There is
optimum moisture content for a soil, which would give maximum dry density for a
particular type and amount of compaction. Hence, it is desirable to compact the soil at
the OMC after deciding the compacting equipment. The moisture content during
compaction must also be specified and carefully controlled during construction to achieve
the maximum density by the selected method of compaction.
Field Control of Compaction

For adequate quality control in construction, it is necessary to have proper field control
in construction. The two field control tests needed are:
160
Measurement of moisture content

Measurement of dry density
Before compaction of earthwork is undertaken, it is always preferred to know the

optimum moisture content for the soil, which can be determined by Proctor's Field
control method. If the moisture content of the soil during compaction is controlled at
OMC then the next control needed is the dry density, the desired value of which may be
achieved by increasing the number of passes for the selected equipment and the
thickness of each later (sand replacement method is widely used.)
In field, it is not possible to achieve 100% results in comparison to standard results
obtained in the laboratory. However, by field checks it is possible to control the
compaction to achieve the best possible results.
Mass haul diagram

• Graphical representation of the amount of earthwork involved in road
construction and the manner in which the earth to be hauled economically.
Characteristics of diagram
• Is plotted below the longitudinal profile
• Horizontal distances are the chainage along the centre line
• The ordinate at any station along the curve indicates the earthwork quantity
accumulated up to that point and is the summation of the differences between cut
and fill.
• The maximum ordinate (+) indicates a change from cut to fill
• The minimum ordinate (-) indicates a change from fill to cut
• A rising curve at any point indicates an excess of excavation over till at that
point. A falling curve indicates the reverse.
• If the curve has steep slopes it indicates heavy cuts or high fills. Flat slopes
indicate small earthwork quantities.
• A convex loop of the mass diagram indicates that the haul from cut to fill is from
left to right. A concave loop indicates that the haul from cut to fill is from right to
left.
• Balance point—a point where the volume in excavation balances the volume in
embankment
• Any line drawn parallel to the base line and intersecting two point within the
same curve indicates a balance of cut and fill between these two points
• The area between a balancing line and the mass diagram is a measure of the haul
between the balance points. This area divided by the maximum ordinate between
the balance line and the curve gives the average distance of haulage of the cut
material to make the fill.
• When the earth excavation and embankment quantities balance at the end of the
section, the mass diagram curve would end at the base line at the zero point.
• Free haul—it is the distance to which the contractor is supposed to move the
earth without any additional charge. The charge for free haul is covered by the
unit rate of earthwork—50m
• Overhaul—distance in excess of free haul for which the contactor will be paid
extra for each unit of haulage
• Economic haul
o When the haul distance area large it may be economical to waste
excavated material and borrow from a more convenient source that pay
for overhauling
o Economic haul distance is a distance to which material from excavation to
embankment can be moved more economically than to get material from
borrow opening
o The economic over haul distance can be determined by equating the cost
of roadway excavation plus overhaul and tipping in embankment with the
cost of borrow pit material (including original cost as well as cost of
excavation, hauling and tipping from borrow pit to embankment) plus
161
excavation, haul and wasting of roadway material within the free haul
distance
Thus if
a—cost of roadway excavation per m3
b—cost of overhaul and tipping per m3 per station
c—cost of borrow mater4ial per m3
L—economic overhaul distance in stations
a+b*L= c+a
L = c/b stations
If the free haul distance is denoted by F stations, then the economic haul
distance is given by
F+L = F + c/b
Shrinkage—when earth is excavated from borrows area and deposited on the

embankment its volume increases. But as compaction is done, the final volume of the
compacted bank becomes less than the borrow area volume. This is known as shrinkage.
Actual shrinkage factor depends on the soil deposit and may vary from 10~20%.
Swell—when rock is excavated and deposited in the bank, the volume of material may
occupy a larger volume. 20~40%
3.4 Construction of Low Cost Roads
A low cost road is a road constructed at a low cost and capable of being maintained at a
low cost. In villages and undeveloped areas, the immediate need is not of good roads
which may serve the traffic needs. As the traffic increases on the road, as a result of the
development existing roads may be improved upon to serve the needs of the increased
traffic. This enables economical use of the funds. Construction of low cost roads is very
preferred in developing countries like Nepal where large length of roads are to be
constructed in the rural area with the limited available funds. Earth roads, Gravel roads
and Soil stabilized roads are the examples of such roads.
Construction of Earthen Roads
¾ the cheapest type of road

¾ The pavement structure is made totally from the available soil at the site. This is
the lowest form of the surface used and is the first stage in the development of a
road which is to be further developed as increasing traffic requires. The
performance of these roads mainly depends upon the effective maintenance and
drainage.
¾ Type of construction largely depends upon the soil type at site
¾ Camber 4~5%
¾ Steep cross slope helps to keep the pavement surface free of standing water
otherwise the water would damage the pavement section by softening it.
¾ Equipment—manually with hand tools or excavation, hauling, compaction
equipment may also be used for fast construction.
Materials Required:
The road structure may have a base course and a wearing course (sand provides
stability and clay imparts binding property but excessively clay content is harmful as it
tends to swell when wet and shrink when dry.). Soil having following properties is
considered satisfactory for constructing earthwork.
162
soil type base course wearing course

clay content < 5% 10~18%
silt content 9~32% 5~15%
sand content 60~80% 65~80%
liquid limit <35% <35%
plasticity index <6% 4~10%
Construction Procedure
⇒ Material:
The soil survey is carried out and suitable borrow pits are located within the
economical haulage distance. The borrow pit is the place from which the soil is
collected. Materials should be free from organic matter, the trees, shrubs, grass roots
and top soil are removed before excavating earth for construction.
⇒ Location:
The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground along the alignment by
driving wooden pegs. To control the vertical profile of the road, reference benchmark
pegs may also be driven which also help to check level of the road during
construction.
⇒ Preparation of Subgrade:
Earthwork may be done manually or mechanically depending upon the available
resources. The various operations involved in the preparation of the subgrade are as
follows
site clearing
Excavation and construction of fills to bring the road to a desired grade.
Shaping of subgrade.
Compaction before placing the pavement material
The subgrade should be graded to the desired camber and profile. If needed, certain
amount of water is added to bring the soil up to OMC and compacted to impart
strength and stability to the subgrade.
⇒ Pavement construction:
Soil to be used in the construction of the road pavement is suitably proportioned and
spread on the prepared subgrade. The field moisture content is checked and
additional water is added if necessary to bring it up to OMC. The soil layer so
prepared is compacted in such a way that the compacted thickness doesn't exceed
10 cm. the type of roller for compaction is decided based on the soil type, desired
amount of compaction and availability of equipment. The camber of the finished
pavement surface is checked and corrected if necessary. At least 95% of dry density
should be achieved.
⇒ Opening to Traffic:
The compacted earth road is allowed to dry out for a few days before opening to
traffic so that the road pavement may acquire sufficient strength and stability.'
Suitable side drains on both edges of the road should be provided slightly away from
the bottom edge of the formation to drain off rainwater from road surface and
adjoining land.
Construction of Gravel Roads
Gravel roads are considered superior to earth roads. Compacting a mixture of gravel and
earth makes the carriageway of these roads. This type of road can cater for about 100 t
of pneumatic tired vehicle or 60 t of iron tired vehicle per day per lane. These gravel
roads can have camber ranging between 1 in 25 and 1 in 30. Gravel roads may be
constructed in the form of trench type or featheredge type patterns.
Feather Edge Type

Trench Type
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The feather edge type is constructed over the subgrade with varying thickness so as to
obtain the desired cross slope for the pavement surface. In the trench type, the
subgrade is prepared by excavating a shallow trench. Since there is better lateral
confinement for the gravel pavement this method of construction is preferred.
⇒ Materials:
¾ Hard, durable, strong variety of crushed stone or gravel of specified gradation is
used.
¾ Rounded gravel and pit run gravel (obtained from the river beds) are not
preferred because of their poor interlocking.
¾ Proper gradation should be chosen to have a maximum density
¾ Equipment
¾ Manually with hand tools or excavations, hauling, compacting equipments can be
used.
⇒ Construction Procedure:
® Gravel to be used for construction is stacked along the sides of the proposed road
® Location and preparation of subgrade: - compacted subgrade is prepared as in
the case of earth roads.
® Usually trench type construction technology is followed. Trench is formed to the
desired depth of construction; the width of the trench is made equal to that of the
carriageway. Compaction of trench base is done to obtain hard-consolidated base
for the gravel layer.
® Crushed gravel aggregates are placed carefully in the trench so as to avoid
segregation. Aggregates are spread with greater thickness at the centre and less
towards the edges and obtained the desired camber.
® The layer is rolled using smooth wheel rollers. Rolling is done from edges to the
centre with an overlap of at least half the width of the roller in the longitudinal
direction.
® Some quantity of water may be sprayed to get effective compaction.
® The camber is checked and corrected using a template or camber board.
® Opening to traffic: - Few days after the initial rolling and drying out the road is
opened to the traffic. Efficient drainage facilities should be provided.
Construction of Water Bound Macadam (WBM) Roads:
¾ Known after the name of John Macadam

The term macadam as applied to the road at the present time has come to mean the
road surface and bases which are constructed of crushed or broken stone fragments
cemented together by the action of rolling or traffic and water. Water bound macadam is
constructed in thickness ranging from 10 ~ 15 cm. The number of layers and total
thickness depends on the design details of the pavement. When used as surfacing
course, WBM gets deteriorated rapidly under adverse conditions of traffic and weather;
therefore it is desirable to provide a bituminous surfacing course over the WBM layer in
order to prolong its life, so their principal use is as bases for flexible pavements.
¾ Camber 1 in 36 to 1 in 48
⇒ Materials Required:
Coarse aggregates: crushed or broken stones should be hard, durable and of
acceptable shape, free from flaky and elongated particles.
The coarse aggregates for each layer of construction should as far as possible
confirm to any one of the three grading specified on the recommendation.
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Grading Size (mm)

Remarks
Suitable for base course---thickness of
1 90~40
compacted layer is 100 mm.
2 63~40
thickness of each layer is normally 75 mm
3 50~20
Screenings ( Filler materials ):

Screenings consists of aggregates of smaller size and are used to fill voids in
coarse aggregate, should generally consist of the same materials as the coarse
aggregate. From economic considerations, non-plastic materials such as kankar or
gravel (other than river rounded aggregate) and if used for this purpose should
have liquid limit and plasticity index below 20% and 6% respectively and fines
passing 0.075 mm sieve is less than 10%.
Grading classification Size of aggregate

A 12.5 mm
B 10 mm
As far as possible, the screenings should confirm to the grading. Screenings of

type A should be used with coarse aggregates of grading 1. With grading type 2,
type A and type B may be used but with coarse aggregate of grading 3, only type
B screening should be used.
Binding Material:-
® Fine grained material to prevent ravelling of stones; lime stone dust may be
utilised if locally available.
® Plasticity index 4~9 % ----surface course
< 6% ------base and sub base course
¾ Aggregate should meet the following requirements
LA abrasion value < 40%
Flakiness index < 15%
¾ Equipment—manually or water tanker, grader and compacting equipment
Construction procedure:
¾ Preparation of subgrade:
• Careful preparation of the subgrade is necessary.
• Macadam roads are flexible in nature.
• Weak spots in the subgrade must be corrected before the base or surface is
placed and the subgrade soil brought to a high degree of uniformity, density
and stability. The subgrade is brought to the desired elevation and cross
section before any stone is laid. It is also important that this underlying layer
should be well drained.
¾ Provision of lateral confinement:
Lateral confinement is to be provided before starting WBM construction. If trench
is not made, this is done by constructing the shoulders to advance to a thickness
equal to that of the compacted WBM layer and by trimming the inner sides
vertically.
¾ Spreading the coarse aggregates:
Coarse aggregate is stacked along the length of the road at suitable intervals. On
the prepared subgrade, coarse aggregates are spread uniformly to proper profile
to even thickness. Before rolling, all the surface irregularities are eliminated and
liberal use of templates and long straight edges is made in checking the
uniformity of the spread material (thickness, camber etc.). Compacted thickness
< 7.5 cm
¾ Rolling:
After spreading the coarse aggregates properly, rolling is done with 6 to 10 tones
three wheeled power rollers or vibratory rollers. Rolling is usually started from the
edges and progresses towards the centre except on super-elevated curves where
165
the rolling begins on the low side and progresses towards the high sides. Passes
of roller are made parallel to the centreline and are overlapped each preceding
rear wheel track by one half width. Slight sprinkling of water may be done during
rolling if necessary. The process is repeated by rolling from the edges towards the
centreline until adequate compaction is achieved.
¾ Application of Screenings:
After rolling the coarse aggregate layer, screening consisting of stone grit is
spread uniformly over it. Spreading, brooming and rolling operations are carried
out at the same time and in conjunction with one another. Enough screenings are
applied to fill the surface voids of the coarse layer and the rolling is conducted
until the surface is firm and thoroughly compacted.
¾ Sprinkling and Wet Rolling: (to fill about 50% of total voids)
After light dry rolling, the surface of the layer is sprinkled with water and rolled
again. Sweeping is also done which helps screening to enter into the voids. The
sprinkling and rolling are continued until all the voids are filled. The amount of
water and screening applied is dependent upon a number of factors including the
size and nature of coarse stone, the properties of screening and the type of
surface desired of the completed base course.
¾ Application of Binding Materials ( Filler )
A suitable filler material is then applied at uniform and slow rate in two or more
successive layers. After each application of filler materials, the surface is
copiously sprinkled with water, the resulting slurry swept into the voids properly
and surface rolled by a roller.
¾ Setting and Drying:
In case this completed layer is to be the bottom or intermediate course of a
multiple course WBM; it is allowed to dry thoroughly before the next course is
placed. After this course is cured satisfactory, the second course is placed and
handled in the same manner as the first course.
The road surface thus prepared is allowed to set overnight. The road may be
opened to the traffic after about a day or two of the construction so that road
may properly settle and dry.
Soil Stabilized Roads

¾ Soil Stabilisation:
Apart from affecting economy in the initial construction cost of lower layers of the
pavement such as sub-base course, it should be possible to upgrade the low cost
roads to higher specification at a later date without involving appreciable wastage,
utilising the principle of pavement construction in stages.
Soil stabilisation is the process of improving the bearing capacity of the soil by
proportioning and controlled compaction with suitable admixtures or binders. In
short, it can be said as a method of processing available materials for the
development of stable strips of low cost roads. In the process of soil stabilisation,
emphasis is given for maximum utilisation of local materials so that cost of
construction may be minimised to the maximum extent. The type and degree of
stabilisation required in any given case is largely a function of the availability and
cost of required materials as well as the use, which is to be made of the stabilised
soil mixture.
Various field and laboratory investigation needed for soil stabilized road
¾ Investigation of route and alignment
¾ Soil survey and field identification of soils
¾ Survey for availability of materials and transportation
¾ Laboratory tests on soils
¾ Soil classification
¾ Mechanics of Stabilisation
The basic principal in soil stabilisation is as follows:
166
a) Evaluating the properties of soil

b) Deciding the admixtures, which will make or provide the lacking requirements
to the original soils.
c) Evaluating the properties of soil admixture mix with respect to the design
criteria.
Soil stabilisation may result in any one or more of the following changes.
a) Change in physical properties like –density, stability, shrinkage, expansion
etc.
b) Change in chemical properties.
c) Retention of some minimum strength properties by waters proofing.
Techniques of Soil Stabilisation

1. Proper Proportioning: Locally available soils and aggregates are mixed in suitable
proportion and compacted to get the desired objective.
2. Cementing agent: strength can be increased using cementing agents like Portland
cement, lime or lime fly ash. Bituminous material imparts binding property to
non-cohesive soils like pure sand.
3. Modifying agents: When small amount of modifier is added to the soil to be
stabilised, it brings a lot of improvement in the performance of the soil ( like
cement)
4. Water proofing and repelling agent: to prevent loss of strength properties of soil
while it comes in contact with water. Bituminous material—water proofing, Vinyl
resin—water repelling.
5. Water retaining agents: Some non-cohesive soils maintain sufficient stability and
strength when their layers posses certain minimum amount of moisture. Calcium
chloride if added to the stabilised soil will continue to absorb moisture from
atmosphere and thus retain its stability.
6. Heat treatment: Thermal stabilisation is useful for clayey soils.
7. Chemical stabilisation: There are several chemicals which when added single or in
combination even in trace quantities (less than 0.5% by weight of soil) may
impart useful changes in certain types of soils.
Before any soil stabilisation, methods are adopted, soil survey along the route is
carried out. Soil samples are collected and field identification tests carried out to
establish the general quality of the soil along the road alignment. Laboratory tests
(liquid limit, plastic limit and sieve analysis etc.) may be carried out to assess
their strength characteristics.
Method of Soil Stabilisation:
Following are the various types of soil stabilisation used in highway construction:
1. Mechanical stabilisation
2. Soil-cement stabilisation
3. soil lime stabilisation
4. soil bitumen stabilisation
Except mechanical stabilisation, other three methods are generally used for high cost
roads. However, mechanical stabilisation is used for low cost roads and generally used
for village roads and may also serve as pavement surface on such roads. Other methods
are used for base or sub-base source in high quality pavement surface.
Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanical stabilization is also referred as granular stabilisation or as soil aggregate
roads. It is a process in which gradation is so chosen that the resulting construction
depend upon the soil aggregate mixture alone for its stability.
The two basic principles involved in mechanical stabilisation are proportioning and
compaction. If a granular soil containing negligible fines is mixed with a certain portion
of binder soil like clay, its stability of fine-graded soils (clayey soils) can be improved by
mixing a suitable proportion of granular materials to get a suitable gradation.
167
What constitutes the best mixture of soils to form a stabilised material obviously
depends on what soil property is considered to be the most important. For subgrade
strength if the most important property with incompressibility a close second. For large
fills, incompressibility is the most important with the strength a close second. Both of
these vital properties are influenced by soil density. Field experience and laboratory tests
show that the strength of a soil is increased (up to a point) and the compressibility is
decreased by an increase in density. It is often argued that when two different soils are
compacted by the same method, the denser will be the stronger and less compressible.
On this basis, the determination of the best soil mix for mechanical stabilisation resolves
itself into the determination of the mix, which yields the greatest compacted density. At
first glance, this appears to be logical but a careful consideration shows that the two
conditions are not quite comparable. In spite of this inconsistency, most research on
mechanical stabilisation has been directed towards obtaining the densest possible
mixture.
Two different approaches have to be followed in obtaining the maximum density:

1. Ideal gradation concept
2. Aggregate binder concept
Properties of Soil Aggregate Mix:

The desirable properties of soil aggregate mixture are as follows:
(a) It should be hard, durable and can bear wheel loads.
(b) incompressible
(c) less change in volume and stability with variation in moisture content
(d) good drainage, less frost action
(e) Ease in compaction.
Three typical states in which compacted soil aggregate mixes can be formed are as
follows.
(a) When the aggregate is without fines ( or very little fines )
- Stable only under confined conditions (no cohesion). Highly permeable, no
frost action and practically no variation in volume and stability with
moisture variations, difficult to compact.
(b) Voids in the compacted aggregate are just filled with compacted binder
- The compacted mass such as a mixture will exhibit good stability even
when unconfined due to reason that full fractional resistance is available
due to grain to grain contact of the aggregate.
- Less permeable and will be affected by the frost action.
- Is likely to undergo change in volume and stability due to change in
moisture content.
(c) When the aggregate is mixed with excess fines and compacted.
- Aggregate grains float in the binder soils, the angle of friction and stability
are decreased.
- Less desirable because poor drainage, more variation in stability and
volume with moisture variation and high frost susceptibility.
- Ease in compaction.
Design of mix
Factors to be considered
¾ Gradation, density, index properties and stability
¾ Particle size distribution that gives maximum density is aimed
¾ Fuller’s formula may be used to obtain the theoretical gradation for maximum
density
P = 100(d D ) 2
1
Where P—percentage finer than dia d (mm) in the material

D—diameter of largest particle
168
Proportioning
¾ Triangular chart method
¾ Routhfutch’s method
Required parameters for mechanical stabilization

Density 95%
PI 6% maximum for base course
Index properties LL 25% maximum
PI 5~10% for surface course
Stability –soaked CBR test
Factors affecting Mechanical Stability:

The following are the factors which affect stability
- mechanical strength of aggregate
- proportioning of the mix i.e. gradation
- properties of soil
- Presence of harmful ingredients like salt, mica etc. in the soils.
- Amount of compaction.
When the soil is used in small proportion just to fill up the voids in the aggregates, the
strength of the mix is controlled by the crushing strength of the aggregate. Properties of
soil such as plasticity characteristics would affect the performance of the mix. Presence
of salts like sulphates and presence of mica is harmful but presence of salts like calcium
chlorides are beneficial.
Construction Procedure:
Materials:
The required construction materials are collected from the selected borrow-pits and are
stacked along the sides of the roads.
Equipment:
Equipment needed is for excavation, haulage for short distance and for compaction.
Construction Steps:
- preparation of subgrade
- the materials are mixed to the desired proportions as per design ( in volume basis
)
- Moisture content of the mix is checked and if required additional water is spread
and the material is remixed.
- The prepared mix spreaded along and across the road to the suitable grade and
compacted by rollers.
- Rolling is started from the edges and with adequate longitudinal overlap, it is
continued up to the centre. Rolling is continued till adequate compaction is
achieved.
- two field control tests are necessary
i. determination of moisture content of the mix before compaction
ii. Determination of density during and just after compaction.
Based on these two tests, modification if needed in moisture content or
compaction may be decided.
- The stabilized road is opened to the traffic after the compacted layers harden by
drying.
Soil lime stabilization

¾ When clay is treated with lime, it reduces the thickness of water film around clay
particles, with this stabilization cementing action occurs and reduces the
plasticity of soil.
¾ Base Exchange (ion exchange), formation of cementitious gels (increases the
strength and durability of the mixture), formation of calcium carbonate.
169
¾ Maximum dry density reduced by 2~3% compared to the untreated however does
not reduce in strength.
¾ Used as sub base or base course but not suitable for surface course because it
has very poor resistance to abrasion and impact.
¾ Comparatively suitable in warm regions than in under freezing temperatures.
Factors affecting properties of soil-lime

Soil type, lime content, types of lime (purity, fineness), compaction, curing, additives
Design
¾ No standard method of mix design
¾ If lime is used mainly as a modifier for highly plastic clay, then the lime content
may be decided based on lime fixation limit or at a higher value to reduce
plasticity index and swelling values up to the desired limits.
Construction
Materials: scarified soil, lime of fine powder
Plants and equipments: equipment for scarifying, pulverising, mixing and compaction.
Construction steps:
¾ Preparation of subgrade
¾ Pulverization of soil to be stabilized
¾ Addition of part of lime as dry powder or as slurry with water and mixing
¾ Allowing mixture to age for about a day and remixing when pulverization
becomes easy
¾ Adding rest of the lime and water if necessary and remixing
¾ Spreading to desired grade, shape and compaction
¾ Curing of soil—lime is protected from drying out and allowed moist curing
¾ Field control tests—checking moisture content at the time of compaction and
checking of dry density soon after compaction.
Soil Cement Stabilization

Principle and application
¾ Mix of soil, cement and water
¾ In granular soil—stabilization is due to the development of bond between the
cement and the compacted soil particles
In fine grained soils—stabilization is due to reduction of plasticity
Degree of stabilization depends on

¾ Nature of soil
¾ Proportion of cement
¾ Compacting moisture content
¾ Dry density of compacted mix
Increase in percentage of cement added will increase in the strengths and durability of
toil cement and decrease in volume change, moisture movement and plasticity
Used as sub base course, can not be used as surface course as the material has poor
resistance to abrasion and impact
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Design of soil cement mix
Usual range of cement requirement

AASHTO soil group
% by volume % by mass
A-1-a 5-7 3-5
A-1-b 7-9 5-8
A-2 7-10 5-9
A-3 8-12 7-11
A-4 8-12 7-12
A-5 8-12 8-13
A-6 10-14 9-15
A-7 10-14 10-16
British method
Soil cement mix is based on compressive strength of specimen cured for 7 days.
Specimens are prepared with different cement content in moulds of size 5 cm dia. And
10 cm height by compacting at OMC and proctor density
Compressive Strength Kg/cm2 at 7 days curing
17.5 Kg/cm2
Cement Content (%)
The cement content corresponding to 17.5 Kg/m2 strength is taken as design cement
content and is adequate for base course with light and medium traffic. But for heavy
traffic 28~35 Kg/cm2 strength may be adopted for mix design.
Construction of soil cement base course

Material collection of borrow pit materials
Passing 4.75 mm > 50%
Passing 75 µ < 50%
LL < 40%
PI < 18%
Equipment
Mix in place---could be done manually
Plant mix method---plant mixing
Compacting equipment
Construction procedure
¾ Preparation of sub grade or sub base
¾ Pulverization of soil
171
¾ Application of cement and dry mixing

¾ Addition or spraying water and remixing
¾ Spreading and grading
¾ Compaction by—smooth wheel roller
¾ Curing—the soil cement layer is allowed moist curing either by preventing the
moisture to escape or by covering with moist or may also cover with bituminous
spreading
¾ Joint with old work
¾ Field control tests
o Checking of moisture content in soil and mix
o Degree of pulverization (sieve through 4.75 mm)
o Cement concrete
o Testing of mixing efficient by compressive strength
o Determination of dry density
o Surface regularity
Soil bitumen stabilization

¾ Basic principle—water proofing and binding
o For cohesion less soil—binding is important
o For clayey soils—water proofing is important
¾ Mostly used materials—cutback and emulsion
¾ May be used as sub base or base course of ordinary roads and even as surface
course for roads with low traffic in low rainfall regions
¾ Properties of stabilized mix depend upon
o Soil—particle size, shape and gradation of the soil
o Types of bituminous materials—highest grade that can be mixed with the
soil at the time of construction should be preferred. Emulsion gives slightly
inferior results than cutback.
o Amount of bitumen—OBC for maximum stability 4~6%
Water Absorption in 28 days

St
ab
ili
Stability Value
W
ty
at
er
Ab
so
Maxim rp
um D tio
ry De
nsity n
Bitumen Content (%)
o Mixing—first mix with water before adding the cutback—low mixing period
o Compaction—depends on the compaction moisture content, temperature,
amount and type of compaction.
o Curing—the water and the volatiles are allowed to evaporate allowing the
bitumen to impart the binding and water proofing actions.
o Additives—anti stripping and reactive additives, Portland Cement is also
used to increase the stability of the mix
172
Design:
¾ No standard mix design
¾ Soil water bitumen mix is generally compacted at OMC corresponding to
maximum dry density.
¾ Specimens are prepared with various bitumen contents and are tested for
stability and water absorption (CBR test)
Material: stacking of pulverised soil
Soil passing 4.75 mm sieve < 50%
Passing 425 µ sieve 35~100%
Passing 75 µ sieve 10~50%
LL < 40%
PI < 18%
Plants and equipment: for scarifying, pulverizing, mixing and compaction.
Construction steps:
¾ Pulverization of soil
¾ Addition of water to soil and mixing
¾ Addition of cutback or emulsion and remixing of moist soil for proper distribution
of bitumen
¾ Spreading of the mix to the desired grade and compaction
¾ Curing of compacted layer—for evaporation of moisture and volatile elements
¾ Field control tests
o Checking of pulverization of wet mixed soil
o Checking of moisture content and bitumen content
o Checking of dry density after compaction
Problems in stabilization
¾ Choice of stabilization technique: type of soil, availability of other construction
materials and admixtures, volume, type and distribution of traffic, climate,
drainage and environmental conditions, requirements of pavement layer (sub
base, base, surface layer), construction equipments available, urgency of the
project, working conditions and other limitations, overall funds available
¾ Design of stabilized mix: stability and durability requirements of the pavement
layer, stabilizers, overall economy
¾ Thickness design of stabilized layers: thickness requirement is generally adopted
either as equal to the granular base course thickness or by using some
modification factor for gravel equivalency. The stabilized mixes which are
equivalent to conventional granular base course materials from structural stability
and performance criteria do not pose a problem for designing the thickness
requirement of the pavement layer.
3.5 Construction of Bituminous Pavements

Roads in which bitumen is used as binder are termed as bituminous roads. There are a
wide range of construction materials (type, size and grading of aggregates and type and
grade of bituminous binder) and bituminous pavement construction techniques in use.
Bitumen content over an optimum value is actually harmful and reduces strength and
stability values of the designed mix. Therefore, based on the surface area of the
aggregates and the technique of the construction, the optimum binder content may be
determined. Another problem associated with the construction of bituminous pavements
is the control of the proper viscosity of the bituminous aggregate mixtures during mixing
and compaction operations.
- Stage development of the roads can be adopted but not in the cement
concrete road.
173
Construction of Bituminous Roads:

Bituminous roads can be classified in the following ways:
i. classification based on construction technique
- interface treatments like prime coat and tack coat
- surface dressing and seal coat
- grouted or penetration macadam
- premix construction
Bituminous bound macadam, bituminous carpet, bituminous concrete, rolled or
sheet asphalt, and mastic asphalt.
ii. classification based on temperature of the binder
- hot mix
- cold mix
iii. classification based on method of mixing
- road mix method
- control plant mix method
iv. classification based on texture exhibited by compacted layers
- open graded
- dense graded
Bituminous binders may be road tars, cutback, emulsions etc. The choice of
particular depends upon the type of construction, availability of materials and
equipment, climatic conditions etc.
Bituminous concrete: - mixture of controlled graded coarse aggregate and
Bitumen
Mastic asphalt: - mixture of bitumen fine aggregate and fillers
Rolled or sheet asphalt: - mixture of sand and bitumen without any coarse
Aggregate.
Hot mix: - binder and aggregate both are heated before use (bitumen and Tar)
Cold mix: - binder and aggregates are not heated, cutbacks and emulsions are
used
Road mix: - materials are mixed at the roadside
Central plant mix: - hot mix plant is situated centrally to the length of the road
Open graded: - premix carpet--rough surface
Dense graded: - bituminous concrete
Interface Treatment
The surface of the existing pavement layer is to be cleaned to remove dust and dirt and
a thin layer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed before the construction of any type of
bituminous layer over this surface.
When a bituminous wearing surface is to be placed upon a previously untreated

compacted foundation layer such as earth, gravel, stabilised soil, kanker or water bound
macadam, it is necessary that the newly laid bituminous surfacing posses a bond with
the existing base at the interface, which can be developed with the help of bituminous
material and this treatment is known as interface treatment. There are two types of
interface treatments depending upon the condition of the existing base.
Prime coat:
It is the first application of low viscosity (RC-0, MC-1, SC-1) liquid bituminous material
and is applied to the existing bases of the pervious surface like WBM road before the
application of any bituminous treatment to the surface of the road. The functions of
prime coat are:
- develops adhesion or bond between the base and the wearing surface
- Seals the pores and capillary voids thus making it water proofing.
- Binds together any loose aggregates on the existing surface.
174
Tack Coat:
It is a single initial application of bituminous material on surfaces which have previously
been treated or prepared such as existing bituminous, cement concrete or a pervious
surface like WBM which has already been treated by a prime coat. Tack coat is usually
applied by spraying bituminous material of higher viscosity like the hot bitumen at the
rate of 4.9~9.8 Kg/m2 depending upon the type of the surface.
- Ensures adhesion between the existing surface and the new bituminous surface.
Bituminous Surface Dressing

The term surface dressing refers to thin surface coverings of bituminous layer and
mineral aggregate. The stability of WBM road depends upon the gradation, shape of the
aggregate and binders, which keeps the stone pieces together. Since the binder in WBM
is the soil slurry, it is easily removed by the fast moving vehicles and causes the failure
of WBM road. Bituminous surface dressing prevents the removal of binding materials
from WBM road surface. Surface dressing may be (1) single coat surface dressing (2)
double coat surface dressing
Single coat surface dressing:

It includes the application of thin layer of bitumen followed by the cover material of
specified size stone aggregate, which is then compacted by rollers.
Double coat surface dressing:

In this type of surface treatment, immediately after laying the first coat, second
application of binder is applied and followed by uniform spreading of the cover materials
of smaller size aggregate and then rolled.
The main functions of surface dressing are:
- To provide a dust free pavement surface over a base course.
- To provide a waterproof layer to prevent infiltration of surface water.
- To prevent the base course (from ravelling and abrasive action of traffic.)
Seal Coat:
Seal coat may be defined as a very thin surface treatment, which is either applied as a
final step in the construction of certain bituminous surfaces or to existing surfaces, which
have cracked or worn out.
The main purpose of providing seal coats are:
- To seal the surfacing against the ingress of water.
- To increase the resistance to skidding.
- To increase the strength and bearing capacity of the existing surfaces.
Materials required for bituminous surface dressing:

- Depends on whether the surface dressing is done in a single coat or two
coats, on black top pavement or on a WBM pavement.
- The chipping should exhibit
Los Angeles Abrasion value maximum 35%
Aggregate impact value 30%
Flakiness index of the chipping ≤25%
Water absorption of the chipping ≤12%
Percentage loss with Na2SO4 for 5 cycles ≤12%
Stripping at 40°C test ≤ 25%
- Selection of different grade of binder to be used in surface dressing depends
upon the climatic conditions. Mostly between 80/100 and 180/200 penetration
grades are used.
Plants and equipment for the surface dressing

Equipment for heating of bitumen, mechanical sprayer, mechanical blower or hand
brushes and roller are required.
Construction steps:
- preparation of existing surface
175
- application of binder
- application of stone chipping
- rolling of first or final coat
- application of binder and stone chipping for second coat
- rolling of second coat
- finishing and opening to traffic
Grouted or penetration macadam
Stability of WBM is due to the physical interlocking of stones. This is done by selecting
proper gradation where the interstices are filled with fine aggregates. If the aggregates
are left without any binder, the stresses induced in such pavement layers are sufficient
to cause excessive displacements. In penetration macadam construction, the bitumen is
sprayed after the aggregates are spread and compacted. The bitumen penetrates into
the voids from the surface of the compacted aggregates thus filling up a part of the voids
and binding the stone aggregates together.
Depending upon the quality of bitumen sprayed and the extent of penetration i.e. when
bitumen penetrates to the full depth of compacted aggregate, it is called full grout and
when it penetrates up to about half the depth, it is called semi grout. Full grout is
adopted in regions of heavy rainfall and semi grout is adopted in regions of moderate
rainfall and traffic.
Materials:
® Bitumen of grade 80/100, 60/70, 30/40 or tar RT-4 and RT-5 may be used.
® The quantity of bitumen required depends upon the depth of penetration.
® The physical properties of stone aggregates should be as follows. Should be hard,
strong, durable, clean etc.
Los Angeles Abrasion value ≤40%
Aggregate impact value ≤ 30%
Flakiness index ≤25%
Stripping at 40° c (24 hrs. immersion) ≤25%
Loss with Na2SO4 for 5 cycles ≤12%
Two types of aggregates—coarse aggregate and key aggregate

The compacted macadam layer over which the binder is sprayed is made from coarse
aggregate. After this, comparatively small sized aggregate is again sprayed on the
sprayed surface before rolling is done. The aggregate, which is applied after spraying
process, is known as key aggregate.
Gradation of aggregate is chosen depending upon the thickness of layer
Coarse key
7.5 cm thick 63 mm down 25 mm down
Maximum size of aggregate for
5 cm thick 50 mm down 19 mm down
5 cm thick 0.6 m3/10m2 0.15 m3/10m2
Quantity for
7.5 cm thick 0.9 m3/10m2 0.18 m3/10m2
Plants and equipment:

¾ Bitumen heating device
¾ Bitumen distributor
¾ Aggregate spreader
¾ Rollers
® Preparation of existing surface
® spreading the coarse aggregate ( edge protection)
® rolling ( dry rolled with 10t rollers)
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® bitumen application ( with pressure distributor or mechanical sprayer) (50 and

67 kg for 5 and 7.5 cm thick for 10 m2)
® spreading of key aggregates
® seal coat
® finishing
® Opening to traffic (after minimum period of 24 hrs.)
Bitumen Bound Macadam
It consists of one or more course of compacted crushed aggregate premixed with a

bituminous binder and laid immediately after mixing and then compacted. This is used
primarily for use as a base course because the load transmitted by it to the subgrade
and the surface deflections of the pavements are substantially lower than WBM or gravel
types. When this layer is exposed as a surface course, at least a seal coat is necessary.
Usual thickness 5~7.5 cm, aggregate size used are 37 mm down—open graded
Materials:
Bitumen of grade,30/40,60/70,80/100 penetration and tar RT-4, cutbacks and emulsions
may be used in cold mix construction technique. The coarse aggregate should fulfil the
following requirements:
Binder content—3~4.5% by weight
Properties Base course Binder course

Los Angeles Abrasion value ≤50% ≤40%
Aggregate impact value ≤35% ≤30%
Flakiness index ≤15% ≤15%
Stripping at 40° c (24 hrs. immersion) ≤25% ≤25%
Loss with Na2SO4 for 5 cycles ≤12% ≤12%
Plants and Equipment:

® bitumen heating device, hot mix plant
® sprayer
® mechanical mixer or improvised hand mixer
® spreader—mechanical paver or finisher grader or manual method
® roller
- Preparation of underlying layer
- Application of tack coat or prime coat ( 4~7.5 Kg/10 m2 for back top layer and
7.5~10 Kg/10m2 for untreated WBM layer )
- Premix preparation ( separately heated and then mixed )
- Placement ( Minimum time should be spent between the placement of the mix
and the rolling because compacting temperature also influences the strength
characteristics of the resulting pavement structure.
- Rolling and finishing ( 8~10 t tandem roller )
- Application of seal coat
- Opening to traffic
Bituminous concrete
¾ Premixed prepared from stone chippings 10mm~12mm size, coarse sand above 6
mm and bitumen
¾ Usually 2~2.5 cm thick layer is used as a surface course
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Material
Bitumen 80/100 7.32~9.76 KG/10m2 for prime coat
4.9~7.3 Kg/10m2 for tack coat
14.92 Kg/10m2 for premix
Aggregate passing 20 mm and retained on 10 mm (12 mm size)--0.18 m3/10m2
Passing 12 mm and retained on 6 mm (10 mm size) –0.091 m3/10m2
Aggregate should be angular, clean, hard, tough and durable
Sand—clean, hard and durable
LAA ≤ 35%
Aggregate impact value ≤ 30%
Flakiness index ≤ 30%
Stripping value ≤ 25%
Water absorption ≤ 25%
Plants and equipments

¾ Bitumen heating device, bitumen distributor, pneumatic roller, grader or paver
Procedure
¾ Preparation of existing surface
¾ Application of prime coat or tack coat
¾ Preparation and placing of premix
¾ Rolling and finishing
¾ Application of seal coat
o For low rainfall—premixed sand-seal coat—medium coarse sand passing
1.7 mm sieve and retained on 1.18 mm sieve
o High rainfall area (125 mm/year)—a liquid seal is sprayed—covered with a
layer of chippings applied over the carpet. Stone chipping 6 mm size
(passing 10 mm sieve, retained on 2.5 mm sieve)
¾ Opening to traffic – after 24 hrs.
Bituminous concrete
¾ Highest quality of construction in the group of black top surfaces

¾ Dense grading of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and mineral filler coated with
bitumen binder
¾ Thickness depends up on the traffic intensity and quality of base course
¾ Bituminous mixes should be properly designed to satisfy the requirements of
stability and durability
Traffic Total thickness (cm)

Light 5
Medium 8
Heavy 8
Very heavy 10
¾ More durable, have better riding quality, more load carrying capacity
Mix should have following properties
Heavy Medium Light

Stability 340 227 227
Flow value 2~4 mm 2~4.5 mm 2~5 mm
Voids in mix % 3~5 3~5 3~5
Materials:
Bitumen—30/40, 6 0/70, 80/100
Aggregate—specified gradation
LAA ≤40%
Impact ≤30%
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Flakiness index ≤25%

Stripping ≤25%

¾ Hot mix plant
¾ Mechanical finisher
¾ Rollers
Construction steps
¾ Preparation of existing base layer
o Removal of pot holes or ruts if any
o Irregularities are filled in with premix chippings at least a week before
o If existing surface is extremely wavy, a bituminous levelling coarse of
adequate thickness
¾ Application of tack coat
¾ Production of mix from hot mix plant
¾ Placing of premix
o Control the temperatures during the mixing (150~177°C bitumen, not
greater than 14°C from binder for aggregate, and compacting
121~163°C) ---significance in strength
¾ Rolling
o Initial rolling—8~10 T
o Intermediate rolling—15~30 T pneumatic roller tire pressure 7 Kg/m2
o Final rolling—8~12 T roller
¾ Quality control of bituminous concrete construction
o Periodic checks of
Aggregate grading
Grade of bitumen
Temperature of aggregate
Temperature of paving mix during mixing and compaction
o At least one sample for every 100 t of the mix discharged
o Marshall test
o One field density test for every 100 m2 of compacted surface
¾ Finished surface
Construction of cement concrete pavement
¾ Construction of pavement slab

¾ Design and placement of joints
Cement grouted concrete—open graded aggregate mix with aggregate of sizes 18~25
mm is laid on the prepared sub grade and the aggregates are dry rolled.
Grout—coarse sand, cement and water—cement sand proportion (1:1.5 ~2.5)
Rolled concrete layer—lean mix concrete—lean mix of aggregate, sand, cement and
water
Cement grouted and rolled concrete—suitable for base course only
Cement concrete slab—two methods of construction
¾ Alternate bay method
¾ Continuous bay method
Materials:
Cement ordinary Portland cement/rapid hardening—to reduce curing time
Coarse aggregate crushing value ≤30%
Impact value ≤30%
LAA ≤30%
Soundness ≤12% Na2SO4
≤18% MgSO4
Fine aggregate natural sands
179
Concrete compressive strength 280 Kg/cm2—28 days

¾ Mixer, batching equipment, wheel barrows, internal vibrators, float, straight edge,
belt, brush, edging tool
Construction steps
¾ Preparation of subgrade and sub base—keep moist
¾ Placing of forms
¾ Batching of material and mixing
¾ Transporting and placing of concrete
¾ Compacting and finishing
¾ Curing of cement concrete
Sheet asphalt
¾ Carpet of sand-bitumen mix without coarse aggregate
¾ Material used are sand, filler and bitumen
¾ Mix is durable, stable, dense and impervious
¾ Called rolled asphalt in Britain
Mastic asphalt
¾ Mixture of bitumen, fine aggregate and filler in suitable proportion—void less and
impermeable mass
¾ Ingredients similar to bituminous concrete but different properties
¾ Mastic asphalt when cooled results in hard, durable, stable layer which is suitable
to withstand heavy traffic.
¾ Mostly used on the surfaces on bridge, deck slah etc.
¾ Prepared by heating aggregate, filler and bitumen to 200C~223C for 5 hrs.
¾ At 200C mastic asphalt has a consistency of flow. But on cooling to atmospheric
temperature it hardens to semi solid and solid state.
¾ Can be laid and spread without compaction 2.5~5 cm thick.
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Chapter Four: Highway Maintenance, Repair and

Rehabilitation
Highway Maintenance and Repair

Highway maintenance is concerned with the task of preserving, repairing and restoring a
system of roadways with its elements to keep the serviceable conditions of highway as
normal as possible and as best as practicable. Maintenance of good network involves a
variety of operations from planning, programming and scheduling to actual
implementation in the field and monitoring. The maintenance activities include
identifications of defects and the possible causes thereof, determination of appropriate
remedial measures, implementation of these in the field and monitoring of the results.
Highway maintenance programmes are developed to carry out the above task and to
contain the detrimental effects of weather, organic growth, deterioration, traffic wear,
damage etc.
¾ If maintenance works are not done at all or done faulty, the pavement structure
is inadequate for present day traffic and loading—the useful life may be
drastically reduced—causes waste of huge investment of funds and sincere efforts
of engineers.
¾ Maintenance is an important activity which helps in providing better service
facilities longer life and better appearance.
¾ For poorly designed roads, the maintenance cost may be higher than the initial
cost
¾ So at the time of alignment studies, proper consideration should be given to the
on coming maintenance problems such as
o Drainage problem
o Soil conditions (geological)
o Directness of route
o Landslides problems etc.
So that the cost of maintenance and maintenance problems can be reduced.
¾ Road maintenance
¾ Roadside maintenance
Road maintenance concerns with all the maintenance works on the roadway
(carriageway and shoulder) and on all structures within and immediately adjacent to the
roadway such as side ditches, culverts, causeways, bridges etc.
General Causes of Pavement failure:

¾ Defects in the quality of the materials
¾ Defects in the construction method and improper quality control during
construction
¾ Inadequate surface or subsurface drainage of the road
¾ Increase in the magnitude of wheel load, increase in traffic volume
¾ Settlement of foundation of embankment of fill materials
¾ Environmental factors like heavy rainfall, soil erosion, high water table,
snowfall, frost action etc.
4.1 Classification of Maintenance Activities:

Highway maintenance works can be classified as;
1. Routine maintenance and repairs
2. Periodic maintenance and repairs
3. Special repairs
Routine maintenance
A routine maintenance programme groups those activities that are carried out as
frequently as required during each year on all elements of the highway in order to
ensure serviceability at all times and in all weathers.
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¾ Maintenance of localized nature required continually on any road whatever its

engineering characteristics or traffic volume may be.
¾ Generally done by labour and can be contracted out (petty contractors)
¾ Covers activities like grass and bush cutting, grading and reshaping of unpaved
surfaces
¾ Cleansing of carriageways, ditches, drains, signs and signals, safety barriers etc.
as well as grass cutting and tree purning.
¾ The repair of minor damage to carriageways, slopes, culverts, signals and sign
posts barriers, lighting facilities and buildings as well as any urgent interventions
required to restore disrupted traffic movement e.g. removal of debris from the
carriageway.
¾ The replacement of ancillary furniture and equipment that has been damaged e.g.
signing, barriers, road markings, drainage tubes, planted areas, lighting facilities
¾ Winter maintenance operations intended to retain serviceability in poor weather
conditions e.g. clearance of snow and ice
Routine maintenance is required for all types of roads. Since the highways are exposed
to the moving traffic and adverse climatic conditions, they would wear out. These include
filling potholes, patch repair works, maintenance of cross slope and shoulders, up-keep
of drainage facilities (side drains, culverts etc.), clearing and cleaning of ditches and
culverts , maintenance of road signs, arboriculture etc.
Recurrent
¾ Maintenance of localized nature and of limited extent carried out at more or less
regular intervals of six months to 2 years with a frequency that depends on the
traffic volume.
¾ Works need to be done by the use of minor equipment
¾ For paved roads—sealing cracks, local surface treatment, repair of depressions,
holes and ruts—pothole patching, edge repair, local construction etc.
Periodic Maintenance
A periodic maintenance programme covers all longer term programmable operations
required within the service life of the road—required only at interval of several years. It
includes renewal of wearing course of pavement surface and preventive maintenance of
various items. Frequency and type of renewal depend on the type of original surfacing,
traffic, rainfall and other climatic conditions etc.
¾ Maintenance of large extent required only at intervals of several years
¾ Resealing (surface treatment, slurry sealing), resurfacing (thin overlay)—the
renewal and renovation of wearing surfaces of carriageways that bedome worn
out deformed by use—re-gravelling of unpaved roads and resealing/ surface
dressing of the paved roads
¾ Restoration of road markings, culverts and ancillary items, repainting of metal
bridge etc.
Special repair works may be needed for special problems, which if not identified in
time, may cause pavement failure. These repairs include strengthening of pavement
structure by overlay or reconstruction of pavement, widening of roads. Repair of
damages caused by floods, providing additional safety measures like traffic signs, traffic
islands, rotaries and parking spaces etc. extra ordinary maintenance activities aim at
refurbish roads to thin original condition when they have severely deteriorated.
¾ Urgent emergency works—needed for reopening the road or construction of
temporary diversion to allow the traffic to pass around the obstruction such as
slides road washouts etc.
¾ Removal of debris and other obstacles, placement of warning signs and diversion
works etc.
¾ Reinstatement of the road after the critical period is over by the reconstruction or
repair of the pavement, the structure and the drainage as the case may be
¾ Strengthening and/or reconstruction of a pavement structure
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¾ Major action to protect roads against external agents eg actions involving slope
stabilization and falls of rocks, retaining walls, protection against flooding etc.
Road side maintenance

¾ All maintenance works on structures and surfaces above and below the road
having direct active and/or passive influence on the road.
¾ Culvert protection works, retaining walls, area drain, cut slopes, fill slopes,
unstable natural slopes, river protection works and vegetation structure
Difference between maintenance and rehabilitation

¾ Not easy to define
¾ The works performed to upkeep a pavement in its as constructed conditions—
maintenance
¾ Measures improving the structural strength of the pavement—rehabilitation—
overlay of greater thickness, replacement of surfacing and base course (partial
reconstruction), full reconstruction etc.
Road maintenance can also be grouped as

Preventive maintenance—describes actions taken to prevent premature deterioration
and/or to retard the progression of deficiencies so as to reduce the rate of deterioration
and effectively increase the useful life of the pavement.
Corrective maintenance—remedial/curative maintenance—maintenance actions taken

to correct deficiencies which are potentially hazardous e.g. to repair defects which
seriously affect a pavement’s operation so as to keep the highway within a tolerable level
of serviceability.
4.2 Inspection, Prioritization and Planning of maintenance Operations

Assessment of maintenance needs
¾ A road inventory including information regarding the soils, terrain and climate of
the district serviced
¾ Knowledge of the nature and amount of the traffic using the road
¾ Regular inspection of each road
Determine priorities and draw up purposeful programmes which enable the required
work to be carried out in a systematic and cost effective way.
Determining properties
Not enough to know where maintenance is required on highway—must be able to
allocate the limited resources available to the maintenance organization in the way that
most nearly satisfies the objectives and policies in relation to the maintenance of
highway system.
¾ Urgent work—emergency repairs to roads that are cut, removal of debris,
informing police of broken down vehicles
¾ Routine drainage works—clean out and deepen ditches, clean out bridges and
culverts, filling scoured areas, repair of structures
¾ Routine works on pavements—dragging, brushing or grading of unpaved roads,
patching, scaling and local sealing of paved roads
¾ Other routine works—filing on unpaved roads, shoulders and slopes, grass
cutting, cleaning, repainting, repairing and replacing road furniture
¾ Periodic work—heavy grading, regraveling of unpaved roads, surface dressing of
paved roads
¾ Special works—overlaying, reconstruction
Absolute priority to urgent work with safety overtunes

Routine drainage work—priority over recurrent works—repairing surface defects which
result from faulty drainage is a waste of effort unless the drainage is also corrected.
183
Types of failures and causes

Flexible pavement—fails due to localised depression or settlements—normally followed
with heaving in its vicinity.
¾ The failures of any one or more components of the pavement structure develop
the waves and corrugations on the pavement surfaces as longitudinal ruts and
shoving.
¾ Pavement unevenness may itself be considered as a failure when there are
excessive undulations, aging and oxidation and fatigue effects (i.e. exposed to
atmosphere), deteriorate the pavement component (bituminous and cement
concrete pavements)
¾ Surface deformations appears when failure takes place in sub grade, base or on
surface
Subgrade failure
¾ Prime cause of flexible pavement failure is excessive deformation in subgrade
soil.
¾ Noticed in the form of excessive undulations or waves and corrugations in the
pavement surface
¾ The lateral shoving of pavement near the edge along the wheel path of vehicles is
due to insufficient bearing capacity or a shear failure in the subgrade soil
¾ Following causes
o Inadequate stability—due to inherent weakness of the soil itself or
excessive moisture or improper compaction.
o Excessive stress application—due to inadequate pavement thickness or
loads in excess of design value
Sub base or base failure

Causes of failure
¾ Inadequate stability or strength—due to poor mix proportioning, inadequate
thickness, soft varieties of stone aggregates, improper quality control during
construction.
¾ Loss of binding action—due to internal movements of aggregates under repeated
stress applications, loosening of materials and formation of alligator cracks on the
bituminous surfacing.
¾ Loss of base course materials—due to base course not provided or covered with
surface course or wear out of surface course, pot hole development
¾ Inadequate wearing course—absence of wearing course, inadequate thickness or
stability, damage by climatic variations like rains, frost action and heavier traffic.
¾ Use of inferior materials—structural failures—due to expose to the atmosphere
and weather cycle.
¾ Lack of lateral confinement for the granular base course
Wearing course failure

¾ Lack of proper mix design—improper gradation of aggregates, inadequate binder
content, inferior type of binder
¾ Quality control during construction
¾ Volatilization and oxidation—make the bituminous surfacing brittle and cause
cracking of the pavement surface—allows seepage of rain water to harm the
underlying layers
Typical flexible pavement failures

¾ Alligator (map) cracking
o Due to relative movement of pavement layer materials
o Repeated application of heavy wheel loads resulting in fatigue failure or
moisture variation resulting in swelling and shrinkage of subgrade and
other pavement materials.
o Localized weakness in the underlying base course
¾ Consolidation of pavement layers
o Formation of ruts due to consolidation of one or more layers
184
o Repeated application of loads along the same wheel path cause cumulative
deformation resulting in consolidation deformation or longitudinal ruts.
o Shallow ruts on the surface course—due to wearing along the wheel path
o Due to subgrade or other layer failure—can be estimated by the depth
and width of ruts.
¾ Shear failure and cracking
o Due to inherent weakness of pavement mix
o Low shearing resistance due to inadequate stability or excessively heavy
loading.
o Causes upheaval of pavement materials by forming a fracture or cracking
¾ Longitudinal cracking
o Due to frost action and differential volume changes in subgrade
o Settlement of fill and sliding of side slopes
¾ Frost heaving
o Localized heaving up pavement portion depending upon the ground water
and climatic conditions
¾ Lack of binding with lower layers
o Slipping occurs when the surface course is not keyed (bound with the
underlying base—results opening up and loss of pavement materials
forming patches and pot holes)
o More frequent when bituminous surfacing is provided over the existing
cement concrete or soil cement base course.
o Lack of prime/tack coat between the layers
¾ Reflection cracking
o Observed in bituminous overlays provided over existing cement concrete
pavements
o Crack pattern in existing cement concrete pavements are reflected on
bituminous surfacing in the same pattern
o No much influence on structural action of total pavement section but
seepage of water through the cracks causing damage to the subgrade soil
and mud pumping.
¾ Formation of waves and corrugations
o Defective rolling
o Poor subgrade condition
o Poor soil or inadequate stability
o Poor gradation of mix
o Compaction temperatures
o Unstable underlying layers
Failures in cement concrete pavements

¾ Few maintenance works are required on well designed concrete roads
¾ Formation of structural cracks
¾ Two main factors
o Deficiency of pavement materials
Soft aggregate—disintegration of cement concrete
Poor workmanship—formation of cracks
Poor joint filler and sealer material—spalling of joints, poor riding
surface
Poor surface finish—slippery surface
Improper and insufficient curing—formation of shrinkage cracks
Ingress of surface water through cracks makes further progressive
failures
o Structural inadequacy of pavement system
Inadequate subgrade support or pavement thickness could be a
major cause of developing major cracking in pavements
Inadequate pavement thickness
Inadequate subgrade support and poor subgrade soil
Incorrect spacing of joints
Above could give rise to the failures of the following types
185
¾ Cracking of slab corners

¾ Cracking of pavements longitudinally
¾ Settlement of slabs
¾ Widening of joints
¾ Mud pumping
Waves and Corrugations

¾ Defective rolling
¾ Poor subgrade condition (highly plastic or organic soils), high water table—non
uniform and inadequate subgrade stability, differential settlement—corrugations
¾ Poor gradation or mix—wave formation, due to vehicular movement
¾ Compaction temperature—very high temperature during mixing and compaction
of bituminous mix—low stability of surface layers—wavy surface during rolling.
¾ Unstable underlying layers—formation of waves due to repeated plying of vehicles
on such roads
Measures
¾ No way to improve the road surface
¾ Another layer of surface course but waves and corrugation develop again unless
the proper measure is taken to correct the basic reason
¾ If this is due to excessive moisture conditions in instability of underlying layer—
suitable sub surface drainage system
¾ If failure is due to improper compaction of lower layers—need complete
reconstruction
¾ Highly plastic expansive subgrade soil—subgrade treatment using modifying
agent
Typical Rigid Pavement Failures

Following are some typical and basic types of failures in rigid pavements
¾ Scaling of cement concrete—deficiency in the mix or presence of chemical
impurities, excessive vibration given to mix, the cement mortar comes to the top
during construction and this get abraded exposing aggregates of the mix which
makes surface rough and shabby in appearances.
¾ Shrinkage cracks—during the curing operation of cement concrete pavements
immediately after the construction both in longitudinal and lateral directions.
¾ Spalling of joints—due to placing of filler materials at an angle during casting of
pavement slabs. This forms an overhang of a concrete layer on the top and the
joint later shows excessive cracking and subsidence.
¾ Warping cracks—due to improper design of joints, no structural defect due to the
warping cracks if proper reinforcement is provided at the longitudinal and
transverse joints.
¾ Mud pumping—soil slurry ejects out through the joints and cracks during the
downward movement of slab under the heavy wheel loads.
Maintenance of Cement Concrete Roads

Treatment of Cracks
¾ Temperature cracks (hair cracks) formed across the slab between a pair of
transverse or longitudinal joints
¾ Structural cracks—near the edge and corner regions—due to combined wheel load
and warping stresses
Measures
¾ To seal the pavement from ingress of water
o Dust, sand and other loose particles at the cracks are thoroughly cleaned
using a shape tool, stiff brush and a pressure blower
o Kerosene oil is applied on the cleaned cracks to facilitate proper bonding
o Cracks are filled by suitable grade bituminous sealing compound heated to
liquid consistency
186
o The sealer is placed up to about 3 mm above the slab level along the crack
o A sand layer is spread over it to protect the sealer temporarily.
¾ Structural cracks need immediate attention
o Cause of failure should be investigated
If the failure is confined to few slab only at a particular location—localized
embankment or underground drainage problem—remedy of basic cause of
failures and recasting of slabs
For general pavement distress—flexible or rigid overlay
For badly cracked or failed cement concrete pavement—reconstruction of
new flexible or rigid pavement
Maintenance of joints
¾ Joints are weakest part in cement concrete pavements
¾ During summer joint filler material is squeezed out of the expansion joints due to
the expansion of the slabs, during winter slabs contract and the joints gap opens
out and cracks are formed in the old sealer material
¾ Periodic maintenance of joint sealer as a part of routine maintenance
The opened up joints are cleared with brush and refilled with suitable joint sealer
material before the start of the rains.
¾ Joint filler material may get damaged or deteriorated after several years of
pavement life
o Removal of the sealer and deteriorated filler
o Cleaning up
o Replacement of filler and sealer material
Special Repairs
¾ Remedial measures of waves and corrugations
¾ Remedial measures for skidding of pavement surfaces—renewal of surface
course, spreading of stone ships when bitumen bleeding happens
¾ Special repairs of sub surface drainage system.
¾ For cement concrete slabs mud jacking or lifting of slabs
o Drilling no. of holes 4~5 cm dia and 1.5~3 m apart in the cement concrete
slab
1
o Grouting is done under pressure through holes 1: 3 cement sand mix or
2
bitumen
o The slabs are thus raised from below by the pressure group up to the
desired level.
4.3 Evaluation of Pavement Distress and Pavement Condition

Pavement Evaluation
¾ To assess the existing conditions and make decisions to what extent the
pavement fulfils the intended requirements so that the maintenance and
strengthening job can be planned in appropriate time.
¾ Involves thorough study of various factors such as
o Subgrade support
o Pavement composition and its thickness
o Traffic loading
o Environmental conditions
Two methods of pavement evaluation

¾ Structural evaluation—plate bearing test—load carried out at a specified
deflection or by the amount of deflection at a specified load. For flexible
pavement—performance is closely related to elastic deflection—Benkelman
beam—assessment of flexible pavement overlay thickness requirement
¾ Evaluation of pavement surface condition—flexible pavement—surface
unevenness, ruts, patches and cracks
187
Rigid pavements—cracks, faulty joints

Unevenness—unevenness index cm\km
Pavement serviceability—AASHO road test PSI—separate equations for
flexible and rigid pavements
4.4 Types and Methods of Pavement Repair

Whatever may be the road type, defects should be corrected before they become
serious, keeping the surface in good repair rather than allowing it to fall into disrepair
and then correcting it. About 50% of the maintenance budget is used for maintenance of
road surfaces. Maintenance operations relating to various surfaces are as follows.
Maintenance of Earth Roads

The usual damages caused in earth roads needing frequent maintenance are
¾ formation of dust in dry weather
¾ Formation of longitudinal ruts along wheel paths of vehicles
¾ formation of cross ruts along the surface due to surface water
Dust nuisance can be reduced by following methods

¾ Sprinkling of water
¾ treatment with calcium chloride and other palliatives
¾ application of oiled earth
Periodic maintenance by spreading moist soil along ruts and reshaping of the camber is
necessary.
Ruts should be repaired from time to time during and after the monsoon or a suitable
treatment or stabilised layer treatment is provided on the top.
Maintenance of Gravel Roads

Maintenance of gravel roads should be done on the same ways as that of earth roads but
in no case soil should be spread over the gravel surface. Only gravel should be used. For
this reason additional material should be staked along the road on the berms before the
on set of monsoon. The volume of gravel staked should be sufficient to be spread over
the full width of the road in a thickness of 50 cm.
Maintenance of WBM Roads

WBM roads are damaged rapidly due to heavy mixed traffic and fast moving vehicles and
adverse climatic conditions. In dry weather dust is formed and during rains mud is
formed. Due to combined effects of traffic and the rainwater washing away the soil
binder from the surface, the stone aggregates get loose on the surface layer. Potholes
and ruts are also formed.
Remedial measures:
¾ Spreading a thin layer of moist soil binder on the surface as a part of periodic
maintenance particularly after the monsoons can prevent the aggregate from getting
loosened from the surface course.
¾ Potholes and ruts are remedied by patch repair works. It is done by cutting out a
rectangular shape of the defective area to remove the stone up to the defective
depth. Then the coarse aggregate of the same size ( using part of the old and
remaining fresh aggregate ), the patch is filled up and compacted well by ramming
such that it is about 1 cm above the general pavement surface to allow the further
compaction under traffic. Wet soil binder is applied on the surface of the patched
area and the surface is rammed again.
¾ Dust nuisance can be prevented by providing a) dust palliatives b) moist soil c)
bituminous surface dressing course over WBM.
¾ After useful life of WBM road or when it fails extensively, resurfacing is carried out.
Maintenance of Bituminous Surfaces

Regular and frequent inspections are essential for repairing failures in early stages.
Rainy weather inspections are very helpful, in that surface defects can be detected
188
readily and marked for future correction. The maintenance works of bituminous surfaces
mainly consists of 1) Patch repairs 2) Pot holes repairs 3) Surface treatments 4) repair of
depression and settlement of pavement and shoulder 5) repair of pavement edge and
shoulder distress 6) resurfacing
Patch Repairs
Patch repairs may be needed for the damaged portion of the road and pot holes formed
in the surface layers due to defects in materials and construction or for removing of
inequalities in shape and surface and removing waviness in order to smooth a rough or
uneven riding surface. Corrugations on the road surface are often created by incorrect
gradation of aggregates, excessive bitumen in the mix, traffic overloads or excessive
moisture in bituminous mix.
Patch repairs are done on affected localised areas, potholes using a cold mix. Potholes in
the road surface should be cut to rectangular shape and should be excavated and
extended until sound materials are encountered. Holes should be cleaned of all loose
aggregate dust and water before the patch is applied. The sides and the bottom of the
cut portion, after cleaning is lightly primed and patching mixture should be placed as
soon as possible after application of prime coat. Patching mixture usually consists of
premixed materials made by proper mixing of graded aggregate and suitable bituminous
materials such as cutback, emulsified asphalt or paving asphalt etc. The materials in
potholes are placed in layers of thickness 6 cm or so. The surface of the finished patch
should be slightly higher than the normal surface of the road for further compaction by
traffic but care must be taken not to cause a bump.
Base Repair
Structural failures of base in flexible pavements may result from inadequate thickness of
base, inadequate subgrade support, excess moisture in the base or subgrade or
combination of these causes. The failures may be due to consolidation or shear
developing in the subgrade, sub base, base course or surface. It is necessary to replace
the base course material with similar new materials if failure has been detected in the
base course layer.
Surface Treatment
If bituminous surface contains too much bitumen, it will bleed and become slippery and
corrugations and rutting or shoving may develop. Bleeding usually occurs soon after
construction. It should be corrected by the application of blotting materials such as
aggregate chips (max. size 12 or 15mm) or coarse sand free from dust. Necessary
rolling is done to development permanent bond between the existing surface and the
new materials.
The binders in bituminous surfaces oxidise due to ageing and this may result crack and
permit water infiltration thus causing further deterioration. Such pavement surface is
treated with a bituminous surface treatment renewal coat or seal coat.
Resurfacing
In the event when paving surface is totally worn out and develops a poor riding surface,
it may be more economical to provide an additional surface course on the existing
surface. If the pavement is of inadequate thickness due to increase in traffic loads and
strengthening is necessary, then an overlay of adequate thickness should be designed
and constructed.
Maintenance of Drainage Structures

Proper drainage maintenance requires all structures pertaining to removal of water from
the highway have to be kept in good working condition so as to provide free and
unobstructed flow. Generally, it consists of
i) Surface drainage ii) ditches and iii) subsurface drainage, storm sewers,
culverts etc.
189
Good surface drainage is maintained by having the pavement surface as water proof as
possible and by having such crown and surface smoothness that the water will flow
freely to the road edge and on to the shoulder.
Shoulders are maintained flush with the pavement and smooth enough to provide for
free flow of water away from the edge of the road and across the shoulder to the side
ditch in cut sections and down slope of the fill sections.
The side ditch, which runs longitudinally and outside the shoulder, should be maintained
below the grade of subgrade in order that water from the subgrade can be drained to the
side ditch. The ditch should be kept about 30-45 cm (Minimum) below the top of the
subgrade and should be kept sufficiently large to carry the runoff of the area draining
into it. The side ditch should be kept clean and free from water pockets at all times.
Water standing inside ditches will tend to seep to the subgrade resulting in loss in
supporting value. Too small side ditch or steep gradient will cause erosion.
All other elements of a drainage system such as catch basins, manholes, culverts, storm
sewers, sub-surface drains should be inspected frequently enough to assure their proper
functioning.
Maintenance of Shoulders
Maintenance of shoulders should preserve its functions regardless of its types. The most
common defect is depression in the shoulders along the edge of the pavement, which
defeats the most important function of the shoulders. Other defects such as deep ruts,
holes or slippery surface on the shoulders present a traffic hazards to fast moving
vehicles.
It is essential that the shoulder is maintained to remain in full contact with the pavement
edge at all times. Other maintenance operations consist of balding and dragging at
frequent intervals to eliminate ruts and to maintain proper shape.
Possibly the first step in shoulder improvement is the development of turf. Increased
stability offered by grass during the rainy season is an important consideration. A growth
of turf will also cut down on the erosion of side slopes. Turf shoulder requires that the
grass be moved often enough to keep it at attractive height and also to make the solid
character of the shoulder evident to the driver. Holes and ruts in the turned shoulder due
to traffic should be immediately repaired by filling and grass re-establishment as early as
possible in the growing season.
Proper maintenance of soil stabilised shoulder may be done by periodic re-shaping and
re-tamping.
Maintenance of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are of various types such as cement concrete ( plain or reinforced ), dry
or grouted stone, brick masonry, untreated or treated timber etc. Maintenance requires
regular inspections to detect defects. Drain holes placed in walls must be kept open
otherwise the wall can collapse due to water pressure behind the wall. Erosion at base of
the wall should be prevented.
Maintenance of Miscellaneous Items

Maintenance of cut and fill slopes is best done by stabilising with vegetable growth where
this is feasible. Seeding may be done on relatively flat areas while sodding is necessary
on steeper slopes. Erosion should be closely watched on both cut and fill slopes and
checked if possible before it causes serious damage. This may require the construction of
the intercepting ditches on top of the slopes and down sides on fills. Rock slopes should
be watched for loose rocks and scaled if necessary.
190
4.5 Types of Overlays and Strengthening of Existing Pavements

¾ For the successful maintenance of pavements it is essential that they have
adequate stability to withstand the design traffic prevailing climatic and sub grade
conditions. If the pavements have to support increased wheel loads and more
load repetitions, the pavements rapidly undergo the distress and no amount of
routine and periodic maintenance can help and the alternative would be wither
directing the traffic to other routes or to strengthen the existing pavements.
¾ Strengthening by providing additional thickness of the pavement of adequate
thickness is one or more layers over existing pavement—overlay
Types of Overlay
Existing pavement Overlay

Flexible Flexible
Flexible Cement concrete
Rigid Flexible
Rigid rigid
Choice of overlay type depends up on the no. of factors—total thickness of overlay

required, local materials, wheel load, costs etc.
Design of Overlay
¾ First evaluation of overlay thickness is done
¾ Overlay thickness required over a flexible pavement may be determined either by
one of the conventional pavement design methods or by a non destructive testing
method like Benkelman Beam deflection method
Flexible Overlay over Flexible Pavement

¾ Total pavement thickness requirement is designed for the design traffic and the
existing conditions of subgrade.
¾ CBR value of subgrade soil is determined at the field density and CBR method of
pavement design is adopted for finding the total design thickness of the flexible
pavement for the design traffic volume.
¾ The existing thickness of the pavement is found from test pits dug along the
wheel path on the pavement.
¾ The overlay thickness required is given by
h0 = hd − he
Where
h0 -- overlay thickness required, cm
hd -- total design thickness required, presently determined, cm
he -- total thickness of the existing pavement, cm
Overlay h0
Total hd
Existing he
Benkelman Beam
• A.C. Benkelman 1953—deflection measurement test of bituminous pavement
• Popular test for estimating the required overlay thickness
191
• The permissible maximum Benkelman beam deflection for satisfactory

performance of a road stretch depends upon the traffic, material of construction
and the environmental factors.
• Benkelman deflection more than the allowable deflection suggests that the
pavement may require an overlay.
Conceptual Principle
A’B’—represents the position of a Benkelman beam when the probe A’ is placed between
the dual wheel of a loaded truck.
• When the truck moves forward by a given distance, the probe point A’ comes
back to a point position A.
• This deflection is called the rebound deflection—used for the estimation of overlay
thickness.
• In deflection beam length AO is double that of OB, the dial gauge being placed at
B and the rebound deflection of the pavement is twice the reading obtained by
the dial gauge 2.44m~1.22m 2:1 ratio
• Two kinds of deflection measurement
o Rebound deflection
o Residual deflection
Deflection Measurement
Indian guidelines ---Canadian Good Road Association (CGRA)
o A standard loaded truck with rear axle weighing 8100 Kg and fitted with dual tire
each having a tire pressure of 5.6 kg/cm2 is used in the study.
o The dual wheel of the truck is centred above the selected point.
o The probe of the Benkelman beam is placed between the two wheels.
o The lock of Benkelman beam is removed and the beam is checked for its free
movement.
o The truck driver is asked to slowly move 2.7m from the selected point and stop.
o The dial gauge reading for the corresponding deflection is noted when the
recovery of the pavement is less than or equal to 0.025mm/minute, this reading
is called the intermediate reading.
o The truck is moved forward by another 9m. and the final reading is taken
o The difference between the final and the initial dial readings and also the
difference between the intermediate and initial readings are both calculated.
o If the difference of values lies within 0.025 mm then the actual pavement
deflection is twice the final differential reading.
o If not, apparent pavement deflection is defined as twice the final differential
reading.
o True pavement deflection = apparent pavement deflection + 2.91* twice the
difference between the final and intermediate dial readings.
Example:
Dial Gauge Reading

S.No. Actual deflection
Initial Intermediate Final
1 0.00 0.54 0.56 0.56*2 = 1.12
2 0.00 0.54 0.54 0.54*2 = 1.08
3 0.00 0.53 0.53 0.53*2 = 1.06
4 0.00 0.50 0.51 0.51*2 = 1.02
5 0.00 0.48 0.49 0.49*2 = 0.98
6 0.00 0.46 0.49 2*0.49+2*(0.49-0.46) = 1.15
7 0.00 0.50 0.51 0.51*2 = 1.02
8 0.00 0.57 0.57 0.57*2 = 1.14
9 0.00 0.54 0.56 0.56*2 = 1.12
10 0.00 0.53 0.54 0.54*2 = 1.08
Mean deflection = 1.302 mm

Standard deviation = 0.0839 mm
192
Characteristic deflection = 1.302 + 2*(0.0839) = 1.469 mm
WASHO Method—creep load method—similar to above except

o The truck rear is initially 1.2 m behind the selected point
o The probe arm is located in front of the wheel—initial reading is noted and the
truck is moved forward at a creeping speed of 2km/h to at least 3 m past the tip
of the beam.
o The maximum dial reading will occur when the wheels are in the line with the
probe arm. This value is noted.
o After reasonable length of time or when the dial needle has come to rest, the final
reading is recorded.
o Maximum deflection is twice the difference between the initial reading and
maximum reading.
o Rebound deflection = 2 * difference between the maximum reading and the final
reading
o Residual deflection = 2 * difference between the final reading and the initial
reading
Example
Wheel position dial reading (mm)
1.2 m behind the selected point 0.06
At selected point 0.46
3m in front of selected point 0.08
Maximum deflection = 2*(0.46-0.06) = 0.8 mm

Rebound deflection = 2 * (0.46-0.08) = 0.76 mm
Residual deflection = 2 * (0.08-0.06) = 0.04 mm
Deflection Value D with leg correction
D = 0.02( D0 − D f ) + 0.0582( Di − D f )mm = 2( D0 − D f ) + 2 K ( Di − D f )divisions

Where
D0—initial dial gauge reading
Di—intermediate dial gauge reading
Df—final dial gauge reading
3d − 2e
K=
f
Where d—distance between the bearing of the beam and the rear adjusting leg
e—distance between the dial gauge and rear adjusting leg
f—distance between the front and rear legs
K = 2.91 generally.
Correction for Pavement Temperature and Subgrade Moisture Variations

¾ Temperature variations causes variation in pavement deflection
¾ Standard pavement temperature 35°C
Correction factor 0.0065 mm per ° C
Correction will be negative when the pavement temperature is above 35°C
¾ Deflection studies should be carried out when the pavement temperature is above
30°C if this correction factor is to be applied
¾ Not always possible to conduct deflection studies during monsoon season
(subgrade moisture content is the highest)
¾ Tentative correction factors of 2.0 for clayey soils and 1.2~1.3 for sandy
subgrade soils—if the deflection observations are made during dry seasons.
Data Analysis
193
Mean deflection D=
∑ D mm
n
∑ (D − D )
2
Standard deviation σ =
n −1
Characteristics deflection Dc = D + tσ t=1 84% of cases
T = 2 97.7% of cases
Necessary corrections for pavement temperature and subgrade moisture may be applied
to the characteristics deflection value Dc before designing the overlay thickness.
Overlay Thickness Design

¾ After deciding the allowable deflection Da in the pavement under the design load
R D
h0 = log 10 c
0.434 Da
h0—thickness of bituminous overlay in cm
R—deflection reduction factor depending upon the overlay material (usual values
10~15, average value 12)
Da—allowable deflection which depends upon the pavement type and the desired
design life, values ranging from 0.75~1.25 mm.
IRC formula—design of overlay thickness equivalent to granular material of WBM layer

Dc
h0 = 550 log10 mm
Da
h0—thickness of granular or WBM overlay in mm
( )
Dc = D + σ --after applying the corrections for pavement temperatures and subgrade
moisture
Da—1.0, 1.25 and 1.5 mm if the projected traffic is 1500~4500, 450~1500 and
150~450 respectively
A = P[1 + r ]
n +10
Design traffic
When superior materials are used in the overlay layer, the thickness value has to be
suitably decreased taking equivalency factor of the material.
When bituminous concrete or bituminous macadam with bituminous surface course is

provided as the overlay, an equivalency factor of 2.0—suggested by IRC
Example:
Benkelman beam deflection studies were carried out on 15 selected points on a stretch
of flexible pavement during summer season using a dual wheel load of 4085 Kg, 5.6
Kg/cm2 pressure. The deflection values obtained in mm after making the necessary lag
corrections are given below. If the present traffic consists of 750 commercial vehicles per
day, determine the thickness of bituminous overlay required, if the pavement
temperature during the test was 30°C and the correction factor for subsequent increase
in subgrade moisture content is 1.3. Assume annual rate of growth of traffic as 7.5%.
adopt IRC guidelines.
1.40, 1.32, 1.25, 1.35, 1.48, 1.60, 1.65, 1.55, 1.45, 1.40, 1.36, 1.46, 1.50, 1.52, 1.45
mm
Solution:
Mean deflection
194
D=
∑ D = 1.40 + 1.32 + 1.25 + 1.35 + 1.48 + 1.60 + 1.65 + 1.55 + 1.45 + 1.40 + 1.36 + 1.46 + 1.50 + 1.52 + 1.45
n n
21.74
= = 1.45 mm
15
∑ (D − D )
2
Standard deflection = = 0.107 mm

n −1
Characteristics deflection Dc = D + σ = 1.557 mm
Deflection after temperature correction = 1.557 – (39-35)*0.0065 = 1.531 mm
Assuming the number of years after the last traffic count before the construction of
overlay as n = 2, design traffic A is given by:
A = P[1 + r ]
( n +10 )
750[1 + 0.075]12 = 1768 commercial vehicles/day

Therefore as per IRC recommendations adopt allowable deflection Da = 1.0 mm
Overlay thickness of granular material
Dc
h0 = 550 log10 mm
Da
1.990
= 550 log = 164.4 mm = 16.5 cm
1.00
Assuming an equivalency factor of 2.0 for bituminous concrete overlay, the design
thickness of bituminous concrete overlay
1
= 16.5 × = 8.25 cm
2
Rigid overlay over rigid pavement

When a rigid or CC overlay is constructed over an existing rigid or CC pavement, the
interface between the old and new concrete can not have perfect bond such that the two
slabs could act as monolithic one. Two typical types of interface are possible: (a)
providing maximum possible interface bond by making the old surface rough (b)
separating the two slabs at the interface by thin layer of bituminous material or without
interface bond.
For calculating the rigid overlay thickness, the existing rigid pavement is evaluated and
the thickness for the design wheel load is calculated as defined. To obtain the overlay
thickness, the following relationship may be used:
(
h0 = hda − Xheb ) n
Here h0 --rigid overlay thickness

hd -- design thickness
he -- existing pavement thickness
Values of a, b, X and n depend upon the pavement and the method of overlay
construction. Table below shows the recommended values for these factors.
195
Rigid overlay design factors

Agency Existing pavement condition X
Crops of Engineers and PCA (i) Good condition 1.00
(ii) Initial cracking 0.75
(iii) Badly cracked 0.35
Agency Construction method a b N
Crops of engineers (i) Poured directly on old pavement 1.40 1.40 1/1.4
(ii) Levelling course 2.20 2.00 1/3
PCA (i) as (i) above 1.87 2.00 ½
(ii) as (ii) above 2.00 2.00 1/2
Flexible overlay over rigid pavement

A flexible or bituminous overlay when provided over a rigid pavement, the wheel load is
distributed through a larger area by the overlay, thus slightly reducing the wheel load
stress on the old rigid pavement. Further the maximum temperature differential in the
rigid pavement is also decreased due to the bituminous overlay, thus causing a
substantial reduction in the warping stress and also in the maximum combined stress.
Thus a rigid or CC pavement may be strengthened by a bituminous overlay before the
pavement develops structural crack and starts failing. The useful life of the rigid
pavement may be increased considerably by a suitably designed and constructed
bituminous overlay placed at the right time.
For calculating the thickness of flexible overlay over rigid pavements the following
relationship is employed.
h f = 2.5( Fhd − he )
Here
h f -- flexible overlay thickness
he -- existing rigid pavement thickness
hd -- design thickness of rigid pavement
F—factor which depends upon modulus of existing pavement
For calculating the thickness of bituminous overlay, the following relationship is used
hi
hb =
1 .5
i.e. hb = 1.66( Fhd − he )
Rigid overlay over flexible pavement

The thickness of rigid overlay is calculated by using the design criteria for rigid
pavements. The plate bearing test is conducted on the existing flexible pavement and K
value is thus obtained. The design is made for this K value and the design wheel load.
196
Chapter Five: Introduction to Bridge and Tunnel

Engineering
5.1 Choice of Location for Bridge
When the water way is more than 6m the cross drainage structure provided to cross
streams and other bodies of water is called a bridge. In another word a structure
constructed over an obstacle to provide the passage is known as bridge. If the passage
is for the movement of traffic is known as Road Bridge.
According to NRS, the cross drainage structure whose span length is more than 6 m is
termed as Bridge where as the span length is less than 6 m is known as Culvert
Ideal bridge
The characteristics of an ideal bridge are:
1. the line of ideal bridge should not present any serious deviation from the line of
the approach roads at either end
2. The bridge should be absolutely in level. If it has to be in gradient, it should
conform to that of the roadway on both sides of the bridge. If the length of bridge
is large, camber may be provided throughout the length.
3. The width of the bridge should be adequate not only to cater for the present day
traffic but also for the future anticipated traffic.
4. The bridge should be designed to carry IRC standard loading or any other
equivalent loading with a reasonable factor of safety.
5. The bridge crossing a stream should not produce undue obstruction. Thus it
should provide adequate waterway width i.e. at least equal to the width of the
stream above the bridge.
6. The foundation should be of rock, if possible and should be capable of carrying
the loads imposed on them. Foundations should be taken to a sufficient depth to
avoid damage by floods.
7. For an un-navigable stream, head-room provided should allow a little clearance
above the highest flood level recorded. In the case of a navigable stream, the
head-room should be fixed on the basis of height of the vessel or ship likely to
use the stream.
8. The bridge as whole should fit into the surrounding landscape.
9. Straight crossing of river—as far as possible, the center line of the site should be
at right angles to the flow of water at bridge site.
10. The ideal bridge should also provide for services to sewerage, water, telephones
etc.
11. The road surface over the bridge should be similar to that of the roadway
approaching the bridge at both ends.
12. Adequate provision should be made for the drainage of the road surface.
13. The bridge should be economical in cost and also in maintenance.
Ideal location of a bridge site:

The characteristics of an ideal site for a bridge are:
1. A straight reach of the river. This is essential for locating piers parallel to the
direction of flow and also for uniform depth of foundation.
2. Steady regime of the river and absence of serious whirls or crosscurrents.
3. A narrow and well defined channel.
4. Rocky or other compact and non-erodable foundation close to the bed level.
5. secure economical approaches which should not be very high, long or liable to
flank attacks of the river and its spills during floods, not should the approaches
involve obstacles such as hills, frequent drainage crossings, sacred places,
congested or built up area requiring troublesome or huge investment in land
acquisition.
6. Reasonable proximity to a direct alignment of the road to be served i.e.
avoidance of long detours.
197
7. Absence of sharp curves in the approaches.

8. If it is unavoidably necessary for the approaches of a bridge to cross the spill
zone towards the river, face down stream and non up stream. Facing up stream
will cause heading up, pocket formation and danger to the approaches.
9. Absence of excessive construction work under water.
10. Absence of costly drainage works and where such works are unavoidable, the
possibility of executing them while the river is dry.
It is needless to say that an ideal site never exists in reality. At each site only a few
favorable characteristics of ideal location are available and the site lacks in one or more
of the ideal conditions. The main aim is to select a least objectionable site.
X
L = Length of Bridge
Bearing
HFL Pier Cap HFL
X
Span of a bridge
Pier
Railing Pipe
Railing
Kerb Stone
Cross Girder Beam Deck Slab
Footpath
Main Girder
Beam Bearing
Pier Cap
Pier
SECTION X-X
198
Filament of Water
l1 l2 l3
S2 S3
t1 t2
B = Length of Bridge
W = Width of Stream
Choice of bridge type:
The choice of a particular type of bridge should be made so that it is most suitable to
carry the desired traffic, adequately strong to support the design loads, economical an
aesthetically pleasing. Some of the factors influencing the choice of the bridge type are:
1. Economy in overall construction cost.
2. large navigational clearances may dictate the use of particular type of bridge
3. In order to reduce the number of piers especially in a high level structure bridge
may compel to select for special type of bridge either cantilever bridge or a cable
stayed bridge.
4. The climatic and environmental conditions unsuitable for certain types of bridges,
e.g. corrosion of steel members in case of steel truss bridge etc.
5. The topographic and soil conditions may limit the choice of bridge type e.g. rocky
banks is ideal for an arch bridge.
6. availability of funds
7. the type of traffic may restrict the choice of bridge type
8. Personal preferences of the designer or specialization of the construction agency
may influence the type of bridge adopted.
5.2 Classification of Bridges and Component parts of Bridge

1. classification based on loading characteristics
a. beam or slab bridge
b. arch bridge—filled spandrel, open spandrel
c. portal frame bridge
d. suspension bridge (for road traffic) or suspended bridge (for pedestrian
crossing)
e. cable stayed bridge
f. cantilever bridge
g. double cantilever bridge
2. classification based on utility
a. highway bridge
b. railway bridge
c. compound bridge (dual purpose)
199
d. pedestrian bridge
3. classification based on span (NRS)
a. Minor bridges—more than 6 m span length and up to 20 m in total length.
b. Medium bridges—above 20 m total length, span length less than 20 m.
c. Major bridges—bridges with span lengths greater than 20m.
4. classification based on construction materials used
a. Masonry Bridge (bricks, stone, concrete etc.)
b. RCC bridge
c. PCC bridge
d. Steel bridge
e. Timber bridge
f. Floating bridge—pontoon bridge, raft bridge, boat bridge etc.
5. classification based on loading
a. major bridge—HS 20-44 or IRC class AA or any other equivalent loading or
class 70R (additional loading)
b. medium or minor bridges—HS 15-44 or IRC class A or any other
equivalent loading
c. temporary bridges- HS 15-44 or IRC class B or any other equivalent
loading or Class 70 R (additional loading)—timber bridges in a specified
area
6. classification based on obstacle to be crossed
a. river bridge
b. Fly over—to cross roadway, railway etc.
7. based on position of pavement on the carriageway
a. carriageway at the bottom (through)
b. carriageway at the top (deck)
c. carriageway at the middle (semi through)
The structure of a bridge above the bearing is known as super structure and the
structure of a bridge below the bearing is known as sub structure.
Super structure is that part of bridge over which the traffic moves safely. It mainly
includes main girders, cross girders, deck slab, parapet, roadway, footpath, kerb stones
etc.
The function of sub structure is similar to that of foundations, columns and walls etc of a
building. It supports the super structure and distributes the loads to the soil below
through foundation. It mainly includes abutment and its cap, pier and its cap,
foundations for abutments and piers etc.
The foundation of the bridge may be open foundation, well foundation and pile
foundation etc.
5.3 Hydraulic analysis of bridge

Length of clear span and number of spans
Length of clear span
Most economical clear span is one that satisfies the relation
Cost of super structure = cost of sub structure
In case of small structures, where abutments and piers can be constructed on open
foundations, the following practices may be adopted. (for small road bridges and
culverts, IRC recommendation)
1. for masonry arch bridge
S = 2H
Where S—clear length of the span in meter
H—total height of pier or abutment including the foundation. For
arch bridges this is measured up to the intrados of the key stone. This
equals the depth of foundation (Df) plus the vertical clearances to be
B B
provided as per table
200
Discharge in cumecs Vertical clearance in meter

Below 0.3 0.15
0.3~3 0.45
3~30 0.60
30~300 0.90
300~3000 1.20
Above 3000 1.50
The vertical clearances are not usually provided in the case of culvers
2, for RCC slab bridges
S = 1.5 H
Number of spans
Efforts should be made to provide as minimum number of spans as possible since
greater the number of spans, greater the number of piers and hence more the
obstruction to the flow under the structure. Especially in hilly terrain, where torrential
velocities exist, it is desirable not to provide any pier and span from bank to bank. Large
span reduces the number of piers but RCC slab thickness or size of plate girder
increases. Piers should be located in such a way that the required linear water way is
obtained with minimum obstruction and required clearance is obtained if needed for
navigational purposes. As far as possible, piers should be founded on stable unyielding
foundations. The number of spans is found out from the following rules
a. when the required linear water way L is less than the economical span
length S, it has to be provided as it is in one single span
b. when L is greater than S, the number of spans are roughly found from the
relation
L = NS
Where N is the number of spans. Since N must be a whole number
and preferably odd, S is adjusted accordingly. There is no objection
to providing varying span length in structure.
Usually each pier causes contraction in the filaments of water amounting to its thickness
equally divided on both sides. Therefore length of clear spans should be such that their
sum should be equal to linear water way plus the sum of thickness of all piers
∑ S = ∑ l + 2∑ t
B = ∑ l + 2∑ t
Where ∑ l -- effective linear waterway required
S—sum of all clear spans
t—sum of all pier thicknesses
B—length of the bridge from face to face of abutments
Linear waterway
Linear waterway can be found on the following basis:
a. if the banks of the stream are rigid, well defined and high (rock or hard
soil) but the bed is alluvial, linear water way equal to the surface width of
the stream, from one edge to the other of water along HFL should be
provided.
b. In wholly rigid streams, the above rule holds good. In case it is possible to
effect some reduction in the linear waterway, it should be done provided
the velocity is not high.
c. For large alluvial stream with undefined banks, the required linear water
way is determined using Lacey’s formula
W =C Q
Where W—the linear waterway in m
201
Q—designed maximum discharge in m3/s and

C—a constant usually taken as 4.75 for regime channels but
varies from 4.5 to 6.3 depending on local conditions
Design discharge
The highest discharge obtained from the above methods should normally be taken as the
design discharge (Q). In case it does not exceed the next highest discharge by more
than 50%. If it exceeds this limit, it should be restricted to 1.5 times the lower estimate.
It should not be the aim of the designer to provide a structure which could pass a flood
of any magnitude during its life time. The structure should be capable of passing a flood
of a specified frequency which is usually 20 years for culverts and small bridges and 100
years for big bridges. In case of an unusual flood, excessive damage should not be
caused to the structure or to the bed.
It is not desirable to reduce the mean waterway for regime conditions. If a reduction is
unavoidable, due attention should be given to afflux and velocity of water under the
structure. With reduced waterway, velocity increases and greater scour depth would be
involved requiring deeper foundations. Thus any attempt for possible saving from a
reduced linear water way would be offset by the extra expenditure on deeper
foundations and protective works.
Afflux
It is the heading up of water over the flood level caused by constriction of waterway at
the bridge site which can be computed from the relation
V2 ⎧ L2 ⎫
X = ⎨ 2 2 − 1⎬
2g ⎩C W ⎭
Where X—afflux in m
V—velocity of normal flow in the river m/s
L—width of stream at HFL
C—coefficient of discharge through the structure, 0.7 for sharp entry, 0.9 for bell
mouth entry
The afflux should be kept minimum and limited to 30 cm. afflux causes increase in
velocity on the downstream side, leading to greater scour and requiring deeper
foundations. The road formation level and the top level of bridge bunds are dependent
on the maximum water level on the upstream side including afflux.
From unit hydrograph

• Use of hydrograph for estimating flood discharge
• A hydrograph is a graphical representation of discharge versus time
• A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph representing one cm of run off from a rainfall
excess of some unit duration and specific area distribution.
• The rainfall excess (rainfall losses) is determined and the ordinates of the unit
hydrograph multiplied with this value to determine the value of discharge
From utility curves

• A very logical method to determine the flood discharge expected to occur it to
base the prediction upon the records of the past
• A graph is plotted showing the discharge as ordinate and percent occurrence as
abscissa on a logarithmic scale knowing the frequency of occurrence the
discharge can be read from the graphs
• Yield good result provided sufficient records are available upon which to base the
determination.
5.4 River Bank and Protection Structures

Protection works include abutment protection work, pier protection work, bank
protection work etc.
202
When the banks of river are abut to erode or fail, it is necessary to take immediate
measures to protect the banks. The river bank may fail due to any one of the following
reasons.
• Erosion of soil by river currents or waves
• Excessive hydrostatic pressure in the materials in the bank
• Slip circle failure
• Liquefication and subsequent movement of soil mass.
Bank protection measures may be found necessary to deflect the course of rivers
• Slope pitching along with adequate apron
• Lining with cement concrete blocks
• Construction of spurs of timber or wire sausages or boulders
Revetment Wall
(gabion matters)
for guide bund or
bank protection
work
Guide bunds
Guide bunds are generally provided to guide and confine the flow of large meandering
rivers when the flow has to be contracted through the openings in the bridges. The
length, geometry, top width sloes, rip rap pitching and boulder apron thickness should
be selected after careful considerations. Hydraulic model studies also facilitate in the
determination of these design elements.
Guided Bund
1.5*L
Up Stream (U/S)
Flow of River
Embankment
Abutment
Filling
Protection Work
Pier Protection
Work
Road
Abutment
Approach Slab
0.25*L Down Stream (D/S)
L = Length of Bridge
Plan of a Bridge
River training
• The main objective is to stabilize the river channel along a well defined alignment
with a certain cross section.
• The protection works are appurtenances provided to protect the bridge from
damage during high floods.
203
Objectives of river training works

• To provide a safe and expeditious passage to flood flow without overflowing of the
banks to protect the inhabited areas, standing crops, highways and other
important properties of the area.
• To prevent the outflanking of hydraulic structures such as bridges, weirs or
barrages etc. constructed across the river by directing the flow in a well defined
and restricted channel—achieved by constructing guide banks.
• To ensure minimum depth of flow of water to ensure good course for navigational
purposes.
• To deflect the river away from the bank which is damaged by the river—achieved
by constructing spurs
• To fix the direction of flow through certain well defined alignment.
Protection works
• Flooring
• Curtain and drop walls
• Pitching
• Toe walls
• Guide bunds
• Marginal bunds
• Spurs
• Aprons
• Rectangular crates
Spurs
• Structures constructed transverse to the flow and extended from bank to the
river channel
• Objectives are
o To protect the river bank by deflecting, repelling or attracting the flow of
the river
o To create a spill pond or slack flow along a particular bank to silt up the
neighborhood
o To train the river to flow along a specified course by attracting, deflecting
or repelling the flow of the river
o To contract the wide shallow river channel to improve navigation
Gravity Spurs
Cross Section of Masonry and Gabion

Spurs
204
Scour
Deflecting Spurs
Scour
65°~80°
Still Pocket
Repelling Spurs
Most Effective
Scour
45°~60°
Attracting Spurs
205
Spurs
Meandering
Section
Flow
Plan of a River
5.5 Types of Roads and Railway Tunnels

Introduction
• Tunnels are artificial underground passages constructed for transportation
purposes
• Required for highways, railways, sewerage, water supply, public utility and
canals.
• First tunnel—built in Babylon about 4000 years ago—900 m long 3.6*4.5 m
• First highway tunnel---Hungary 1853--- about 350 m long
Advantages
The situation which calls for construction of tunnels may be divided into two
categories namely when other methods of construction are available and secondly when
tunneling is an essential element of the project.
Types of railway and roadway tunnel

• As compared to surface excavation or embankment, the tunnel construction
required higher degree of specialization and very high construction cost.
• So that the required cross section of tunnel should be as small as possible as per
the requirements.
The design of the tunnel governed by the following factors:

1. purpose of tunnel: railway, highway, rapid-transit
2. Water channel etc.
3. clearance prescribed
4. method of tunneling
5. soil characteristics
6. methods of lighting and ventilation
There are three important types of tunnel for transportation

1. rail road tunnel
2. highway tunnel
3. rapid transit tunnels or subways
206
For railroad tunnel the American railway engineering association (AREA) has prescribed
the standard dimension.
a. clearance at tangent track shall not be less than those shown in figure
b. on curved track the clearance shall be increased to allow for overhang and tilting
of a car
c. super elevation of the outer rail shall be sufficient for comfort driving
d. the distance from top of rail to top of ties shall be taken 20 cm
Alignment and gradient: the more economical and advantageous tunnel should be
provided. The gradient to be provided would be governed by the following factors. 1.
Terrain condition 2. Ventilation 3. Drainage
highway tunnel: from economic and safety point of view, it is better to have a pair of
tunnels each with a roadway of two lane on one direction than to have a large tunnel
containing more than two lanes. The provision of a pair of tunnels has the following
advantages
1. Cost of constructions economized.

2. it provides safer road and avoid head on collision
3. it facilitates ventilation
4. the exit and entrance of two streams can be separated
5. easy repair and maintenance
Rapid rail tunnel: unless special provision is made for proper drainage the gradient
provided should no be less than 5%.
5.7 Survey of Tunnel Alignment

ISI has prescribed the following standards in respect of construction of tunnels
IS 5858 part I precision survey and setting out
Part II underground excavation in rocks
Part III underground excavation in soft strata
Part IV tunnel support
Part V concrete lining
Part VI steel lining
a. initial survey
• alignment of tunnel is based on the surface conditions
• detailed topographic map to be prepared for preliminary setting of tunnel
• A derailed tachometric reconnaissance survey of the area giving horizontal
and vertical controls should be conducted.
• Before deciding the run of the tunnel obligatory points such as portal
points are fixed on the topographical maps
b. Setting out of the tunnel center line on the surface—generally the surface control
points of the tunnels are not visible from each other by reciprocal ranging, a point
on the summit can be established that a straight line joining the two points and
the summit is set on the ground.
Triangulation: in the case of tunnels in hilly regions it is neither possible to align

the tunnel ends by direct ranging or reciprocal ranging. Precise triangulation has
to be restored in such cases.
Setting out inside tunnels: reference points are constructed every 300 m. they
are constructed on the roof of tunnels of slightly below the invert.
5.8 Drainage, Lighting and Ventilation Requirements of Tunnels
Drainage: most of the tunnels have drainage problems, both due to surface as well as
sub soil water. The drainage arrangements for keeping off and removing of water may
be classified into three systems.
207
Pre-drainage: before starting the construction work of the tunnel

a. diverting surface drainage from entering the tunnel
b. provision of counterweights against hydrostatic pressure
Dewatering:
a. effectively removed either by gravity flow or by pumping
b. If the tunnel is driven upgrade with sufficient slope, the water may be removed
form the tunnel through drains normally excavated on the sides of tunnel.
c. Extra quantity should not be excavated for forming drain. The drain should be
placed in the side only so that the roadway can have proper camber.
d. If the tunnel is being driven on flat or downward gradient, the accumulated water
should be pumped. The pumping equipment required for dewatering should be
non clogging type as the water pumped is heavily charged with dust particles.
Permanent drainage: while cut and cover tunnels can be water proofed, it is difficulty
to do so in the case of bored tunnels. The permanent drainage would depend on: nature
of tunnel, type of soil, quality of water involved in drainage, type of lining used.
Therefore it is not possible to generalize the measures to be taken. However the

commonly used methods are given below:
a. provision of longitudinal drains
b. continuous open gutter
c. concrete lining
d. grouting with cement or chemicals
Tunnel ventilation: object of ventilation is to make the working space safe for workers
by providing fresh air which is free from harmful gases and dust. Tunnel temperature
rise due to engines working inside, Ventilation helps to bring temperature down.
Natural ventilation: When a drift is driven from portal to portal, it provides fair natural
ventilation during enlarging operations, especially when the tunnel is a short one of
larger diameter. It will be effective when the orientation of tunnel is along the direction
of the wind. In the short stretch of tunnel, the provision of mechanical ventilation is not
necessary. But the provision of mechanical ventilation also depends on the alignment of
tunnel. If the tunnel alignment is straight and uniform gradient, the provision of
mechanical ventilation will be lesser in length in comparison to the grades are changing
and alignment containing curves. In straight reach, uniform grades up to 100 m tunnel
length would not need any mechanical ventilation.
Mechanical ventilation (based on IS code)

A. blowing of fresh air: supplying of fresh air by ducts to the working face
Disadvantages: foul air while being expelled through the tunnel, itself make the
approach to the working face from the portal rather unhealthy with poor visibility.
B. Exhausting foul air by ducts: the foul air and dust are drawn into an exhausting
duct near the working faces, creating a flow of fresh air into the tunnel from the
entrance or portal. This method is useful after blasting when it is desirous that
blasted fumes should be removed without being diffused along the whole length
of tunnel. But the fresh air has to travel a long distance before reaching the
working face and during the interval of traveling, it absorbs moisture, foul gases,
heat etc resulting in unpleasant working condition at the face.
C. Combination of blowing in and exhaust system: the exhausting system will have a
large capacity whereas the blowing system may have a smaller diameter duct
sufficient for providing enough fresh air to workmen on face of tunnel.
Immediately after the blasting operation, the exhausting system is operated for
15 to 30 minutes to remove the objectionable air, after which the blowing system
operates for the rest of the working period to supply the fresh air.
Requirements of good ventilation system

A good tunnel ventilating system should satisfy the following requirements:
208
1. The smoke and fumes of the tunnel must be cleared as early as possible from the
working face, so that work can be resumed without serious delay.
2. The amount of dust produced by the tunnel operations should be brought with in
permissible safe limits at the earliest.
3. The system should provide a working atmosphere at the face where workers can
carryout their job safely and comfortably.
4. The accumulation of dangerous fumes should be prevented at any point along the
length of the tunnel.
Lighting (IS code)

Various operations and activities of tunneling can not be effectively and satisfactorily
carried out if there is not proper light in the tunnel. Situations which demand adequate
light are as obstructions in tunnel, drilling and mucking zones, bottoms of shafts, storage
points, pumping stations, under ground repair shops etc.
1. Adequate lighting should be provided at the face and at any other point- where
work is progress. A minimum illumination of 100 lux should be provided at the
tunnel and shaft heading during drilling, mucking. A minimum of 50 lux should be
provided for efficient and safe working
2. any obstructions (formworks etc.) inside the tunnel should be well lighted to
avoid accidents when hauling units are moving
3. No single light should be so powerful as to cause temporary blinding effect.
4. Voltage of the supply line may be reduced in the tunnel from 230V -110V for
lighting purpose. For motor of 440 V waterproof cables should be laid in tunnel.
5. Lamps should be fixed in the center of the roof of tunnel.
6. The electric circuit of the lighting in tunnel should be divided into a number of
independent circuits with their isolators and fuse boxes separate.
7. in addition to the fixed lighting system, all hauling equipment should have own
lighting system
8. in addition to the normal lighting provision of floodlights should be made at
suitable intervals for derailed inspection for any particular length of spot.
Dust control:
• presence of dust may cause serious health hazards to the workers
• Dust in tunnel is formed due to various operations connected with tunneling
normally drilling, blasting, loading and hauling of muck.
• Steps to limit the amount of dust
¾ Wet drilling instead of dry drilling
¾ During mucking operations, muck piles should be sprinkled with water
to keep down the dust
¾ Adequate and efficient ventilation
¾ Use of vaccum hood
5.9 Methods of Tunneling in Firm Soil, Soft Soil and Rock

The choice of a particular method depends up on the nature of the strata, and the
geometry of the tunnel section.
a. firm ground: Tunneling in Firm Ground

Traditional methods: depending upon the type of strata, size of tunnel and method
adopted. Excavation is supported by temporary wooden supports or permanent steel
supports. The different methods under this category are
1. Full face method: suitable for comparatively firm soils where the excavated
portion can hold itself for sufficient time to permit mucking and supporting
operations to be completed.
2. Top heading and benching: where the excavated portion can not hold itself by the
time mucking and supporting operations are carried out the heading is excavated
and supported to the full length or part of the tunnel before benching is started.
3. Drift method: for large size tunnels a pilot tunnel or drift is made in the side or at
the drilling and blasting is not done. The boards are driven ahead to support the
ground ahead of the last rib are known as piles.
209
4. Tunneling in rock: tunnels are driven in rock by repeating in sequence the

operations of drilling holes in the rock face, loading the holes with explosive,
blasting, removing and disposing off the broken rock. The following are the
commonly adopted methods of tunneling.
a. full face method: suitable for tunneling work on good rock
b. top heading and benching: the tunnel section is very large and rock is not
structurally sounds, this method us useful.
c. Bottom heading and stopping: this method is suitable where the section of
the tunnel is very large and the rock is consistent and sound.
d. Drift method: prior to excavating the full bore it is sometimes more
economical to drive a small tunnel is known as drift of pilot. Depending
upon the location of the drift the method is known as central, bottom, top
or side drift.
Methods of tunneling
In soft strata:
• Require temporary support immediately or shortly after the construction.
• Ways to provide temporary support
o Suitably spaced bents of woods
o Suitably spaced bents of steel with lagging
o Liner plates
o Forepiling placed to retain the material between adjacent bents.
Tunneling in firm ground

• The method to be adopted depends upon the shape, size and available
equipment.
Traditional methods involving drilling and blasting

• Depending upon the type of strata, size of tunnel and the method adopted,
excavation is supported by temporary wooden supports or permanent steel
supports.
• Different methods of tunneling
(a) full face method
• Suitable for comparatively firm soils where excavated portion can hold
itself for sufficient time to permit mucking and supporting operations to be
completed.
• Excavation to be done is divided into 3 sections
• Excavation from top to bottom I-II-III
• Recommended method for tunnels of small size
•
II
III
210
(b) Top heading and benching

Drill Holes
Heading
Benching
Mucking
• excavated portion can not hold itself by the time mucking and
supporting operations are carried out.
• The heading is excavated and supported before benching is started.
• The heading is always ahead of the benching by a convenient length
and may be formed by excavating full width of the tunnel above the
springing line
•
(c) drift method
• in the case of large size tunnels, a pilot tunnel or drift is made in the
side or at the center of the tunnel.
• The drift is widened by drilling holes on its faces
• Depending upon the position of drift, the method of tunneling is further
classified as wall plate drift, side drift and multiple drift etc.
Tunneling in Soft Ground
Sand and Gravel
Breasting
Rib Spiles
Cut of
Point
• Requires instantaneous support—no drilling and blasting---soft soil

• Traditional method—fore-poling method
• The boards driven ahead to support the ground ahead of the last rib---spiles
211
• The fore-poles act as cantilever beyond breasting and carry the weight of the
ground till their forward ends are supported by steel rib.
• The spiles should be installed as for around the periphery as necessary
• The soil should be excavated out after removing the breast boards and the new
rib is erected in position.
• Afterwards breast boards are fixed and the operation is repeated.
Tunneling in Running Ground

(a) tunneling with liner plate
• Employed for driving steel lined small section drifts or heading on medium
soft ground.
• Can be adopted for small drifts for running ground in combination with
compressed air
• The first liner plate is placed at the crown segment in a pre-excavated
cavity the hole has been sufficiently widened.
• Plates are supported by trench jacks or by carefully tightened props.
• The arch section is then gradually widened down to the springing line.
(b) needle beam method
Jack
Needle
Beam
Plank
Post
• plates are set one by one

• plates are supported by radially set trench jack from a centrally placed
longitudinal girder called the needle beam
• the length of the needle beam should be such that it exceeds the length of
daily advance by 1.0~1.2 m
• the needle beam is placed at the bottom of the top heading
Shield method of tunneling

• in clay—tube railway tunnel
• machine consists of a circular shield of thick steel plates with adequate stiffness
• the excavation is carried out by hand or pneumatically operated clay spades
• the shield is pushed forward into the excavation by hydraulic jacks pressing
against previously erected linings
• not suitable for tunneling in full rock face
Methods of tunneling in rock

• Sequence of operations of drilling holes in the rock face, loading the holes with
explosives, removing and disposing off the broken rock.
Full face method: suitable for good rock

Top heading and benching: where the tunnel section is very large, rock is not
structurally sound.
Bottom heading and stopping: where the section of tunnel is very large, the rock is
consistent and sound.
Drift method: central drift, bottom drift, side drift, top drift.
212
5.10 Tunnel lining

Lining in tunnels is provided to give final shape to the tunnel cross section and to give
strength to the sides and roof to prevent them from collapsing.
Followings are the main objectives of tunnel lining
a. to provide the correct desired shape and cross section to the tunnel
b. to withstand the soil pressure and prevent the tunnel from collapse more
especially in soft grounds
c. to keep the tunnel in side portion free from water leakage
d. to bind the loose rock and provide stability to the tunnel.
e. To reduce the maintenance cost of the tunnel.
f. In case of sewer or water supply tunnels, lining is used to reduce the
coefficient of rugosity and prevent seepage of water and its contamination
etc.
g. To provide better appearance to the tunnel.
Tunnel lining is provided to take the following loadings:
1. weight of lining
2. weight of internal structure if any
3. weight and presence of surrounding ground along with water and superimposed
loading
4. loadings related to the user of tunnel such as weight and impact of traffic or
internal pressure
5. Loads due to temporary construction conditions such as compressed air pressure
and reaction of shield jacks
Materials for tunnel linings

The strength and durability are the basic considerations in respect of the type of material
to be used for lining of tunnel. If the strata of the tunnel are such that the excavated
portion is able to support itself, the lining would only serve as a veneer. In case lining is
to be provided in sub aqueous tunnels, it must be of impervious type and strong enough
to resist the pressures arising from behind the lining.
1. Brick lining: many old tunnels constructed when concrete technology have not
been evolved have used brick lining. In the modern tunnels however it is not
popular for the following reasons.
a. It requires a heavy and large centering
b. The ground has to stand for a comparatively long time without permanent
support
c. It is unsuitable to be used in shield (support before or during excavation)
method of tunneling
2. Stone masonry lining: early stage of construction of tunnel when the use of bricks
had not been introduced. Stone and timber were the only materials available. It
has more strength and durability than timber lining and its limitations are similar
to brick lining.
3. Timber lining: timber lining is very often used in the earlier stages of tunneling as
temporary lining or support in other types of lining. It has been used as semi
permanent lining replaced by concrete lining is due course. Timber lining consists
of a regular timber arch of intended curvature and straight segments jointed
together. It has the pros of cheapness and availability but unsuitable for use
when water proof lining is required.
4. Concrete lining: the use of reinforced concrete section in lining work has resulted
in the introduction of comparatively very thin linings. Cast in situ RCC lining is
extensively used particularly in tunnels for water supply, water power, sewerage,
railroad, rapid transit and highways.
5. Cast iron tunnel lining—useful for the lining of shield driven tunnels particularly in
sub aqueous regions.
6. Structural steel— in the form of steel ribs and liner plates. For the same strength
requirements, it is lighter than cast iron lining and hence the no. of segments can
be reduced.
213

Transportation Engineering II

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Transportation Engineering II

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Prepared by: Anil Marsani

ACEM, Civil Department

Chapter One: Traffic Engineering

Traffic engineering is that branch of engineering which deals with the

Traffic engineering is defined as the phase of transportation engineering that

Traffic engineering is often defined as the nation’s lifeblood circulation system

Traffic engineer is concerned to ….

Scope of Traffic Engineering

The system of facilities

Influencing the Demand

Transportation System Management

Highway safety factors

¾ Simplified framework of a model that provides an understanding of the human-

Human-Vehicle-Environment Operating System (FHWA, 1980)

Description of Human-Vehicle-Environment Framework

Laws and enforcement

Sensory field consists

Hearing and smelling—hearing is important to the driver and pedestrian.

Perception and Reaction

• Process of extracting necessary information from the environment is called

Perception—perception delay and apperception interval

Perception delay—time between visibility and point of perception

Reaction time—reaction and total reaction

P-R time –2.5 secs

Driving strategy—driving task—performance of driver depends on the decision regarding

Driver Strategy (Vanstrum and Caples, 1971)

Dist 1—perception time

M—mental last point at which action must be taken

Intellection—an interpretation/identification of the stimulus

Emotion—the determination of an appropriate response to the stimulus

Volition—the physical response resulting from the decision

1.3 Characteristics of Vehicles

Vehicle dimensions (max)

Weight of loaded vehicle

• Design vehicle—minimum turning radius is the most important geometric feature

Details of derivation see below

− {ln(α − βv ) − ln(α − βv0 )} = t

Equation for distance as a function of time

= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv 0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*2 = 1.686 ft/sec2

= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*3 = 1.618 ft/sec2

= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*10 = 1.223 ft/sec2

= 3 − 0.04v = (α − βv 0 )e − βt = [3 − 0.04 * 29.33]e −0.04*120 = 0.015 ft/sec2

Rolling resistance—represents combination of internal friction (at wheel, axle, drive

Rr = (C rs + 2.15C rvV 2 )W ---passenger cars (on smooth pavement surface)

Rr—rolling resistance (lb)

Power used by a motor vehicle for propulsion

When all brakes are locked, the braking distance is given by

1.4 Road User Characteristics

It is not possible to provide a system that exactly accommodates the individual

Road users—drivers, passengers, bicyclists, pedestrians who uses streets or highways

Critical Characteristics of Road Users

Glare recovery is the ability to quickly respond to changing lighting conditions

Color vision is the ability to discern colors.

Acute vision cone (3°~5°)

Fairly clear vision

Various factors that affect road user characteristics are

Physical—permanent and temporary

Visual acuity—clear vision, fairly clear vision, peripheral vision—horizontal plane

Hearing—more important for pedestrians and cyclists

Temporary physical characteristics—fatigue, alcohol or drugs and illness—reduces

Mental Characteristics- knowledge, skill, intelligence, experience and literacy can

Dangerous actions are likely due to impatience.

Minimum turning radius of design vehicles