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Chapter II Module
Chapter II Module
Chapter II Module
3. Explain the functions of the organs co posing the different body systems
A. Introduction
Anatomy is the study of the structure of a body and the relation of its
parts. On the other hand, physiology deals with the function of living matter and
includes a number of subsidiary disciplines such as behavior, biochemistry, and
biophysics.
On the production of animal products like meat, eggs and milk, some
basic principles of animal physiology must be to fully comprehend the intricacies or
complexities of the process. It is also inevitable that animal functions and processes
be learned in a holistic approach encompassing other disciplines in animal
reproduction, breeding, nutrition and disease control.
a. Beak – projecting mouth part of the chicken consisting of the upper and the lower
beak.
b. Bill – projecting mouth part of water fowl consisting of the upper and lower bill.
c. Hoof – the entire part of the foot of the animal covered by the horny covering.
d. Muzzle – projecting part of the animal head including the mouth, jaw, and nostril.
f. Wattle – fleshy lobe appendage hanging down from the throat or chin.
g. Hindquarter – back or posterior region of the animals including the part supported
by the hind legs.
h. Barrel – trunk or middle part of the animal body between the fore and hind legs.
l. Withers – area on the animal just behind the top of the shoulder.
The nervous system is composed of the Brain, the Spinal Cord and the
Nerves. Essentially all parts of the body are supplied with nerves. The nerve cells
or neurons specialize in impulse conduction or the relay of messages from effector
organs to the nervous system and vice versa. The human brain contains about 100
billion neurons or about the same number of stars in our galaxy. Neurons may be
classified according to the direction of impulse conduction as follows: (1) Afferent
(sensory) neurons – transmit nerve impulses from effector organ to the spinal cord
or brain; (2) Efferent (motor) neurons – transmit nerve impulses away from the brain
or spinal cord to or towards muscles or glands (effector organs); and (3)
Interneurons – conduct impulses from an afferent neuron within the central nervous
system (CNS) which is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The effector organ
could either be the skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle or some other
glands.
3. Structure of Neurons
All neurons consists of a cell body, one axon and one or more dendrites.
Axon and dendrites are threadlike extensions from the cell body and are often
called nerve fibers. The distal end of dendrites of sensory neurons are called
receptors because they receive the stimuli that initiate the conduction of impulses to
the cell body of the neuron. The axon is a single process that extends out from the
cell body, and may end up on a synapse or on any effector organ.
Neurons or nerve cells do not come in direct contact with one another;
instead, there is a small gap of about 200 A (Angstrom = 1/19 6 inch) between them.
This gap is called a synapse where nerve impulses are transmitted from one nerve
cell to another. Thus, synapses are located between the axon terminals of one
neuron (presynaptic or preganglionic cell) and the cell body or dendrites of another
neuron (postsynaptic or postganglionic cell). The transmission of nerve impulse
across the synapse involves the release from presynaptic neuron of a chemical
mediator or neurotransmitter (mostly acetylcholine) which crosses the synaptic cleft
and brings about a generation of signal or initiation of impulse in the postsynaptic
neuron.
The brain and the spinal column jointly control the activities of the skeletal
or involuntary smooth muscles of the body in response to stimuli in their
environment. Information about the internal and external environment reaches the
CNS via a variety of sensory receptors. These receptors are transducers that
convert various forms of energy in the environment into action potential or nerve
impulse in the neurons.
The sensory receptor could be a part of a neuron or a specialized cell that
generates action potential in neurons. The receptor is often associated with non-
neural cells that surround it, forming a sense organ. The forms of energy converted
by the receptors include, for example, mechanical (touch-pressure), thermal
(degrees of warmth), electromagnetic (light), and chemical energy (odor, taste and
02 content of blood). The receptors in each of the sense organs are adapted to
respond to one particular form of energy at a much lower threshold than other
receptors respond to this form of energy. The particular form of energy to which a
receptor is most sensitive or which is able to evoke an action potential is called
adequate stimulus.
C. The Endocrine System
This is located at the base of the brain in a concavity of the sphenoid bone
called Sella turcica, which protects it from outside pressure. It has three lobes or
portion:
(1) Growth hormone or Somatotropic hormone (STH) - promotes growth of the long
bones before the epiphyseal – diaphyseal plate is fused together in adulthood.
Over secretion of STH results in Gigantism when this happens before adulthood
and Acromegaly when this happens after adulthood in human. Dwafism occurs
when there is a deficiency of STH during growth development.
(2) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone or ACTH – stimulates the adrenal cortex to
produce glucocorticoids such as cortisol, cortisone and corticosterone.
(3) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone or TSH – stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroid hormones (T4 and T3).
(4) Prolactin or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH) – stimulates milk secretion in lactating
mammary gland.
(5) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – stimulates the ovary to produce graafian
follicle; in the male, it maintains the integrity of the seminiferous tubules of the
testis.
(6) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) – stimulates ovulation in maturing graafian follicle and
the formation of corpus luteum in ovulated follicle as well as the production of
progesterone by the corpus luteum. In the male, it stimulates the cells of Leydig
or instertitial cells to produce testosterone, a male sex hormone.
The neurohypophysis secretes two hormones:
This gland is located at the neck area just below the Larynx. There are two
lobes of thyroid connected to each other by a bridge of tissue called Isthmus.
The thyroid gland maintains the level of metabolism in the tissues that is
optimal for their normal function. It secretes the hormone, thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3) which stimulates the oxygen consumption of most of the cells in
the body, helps regulate lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, and is necessary for
normal growth and maturation. Thyroxine increases the basal metabolic rate (BMR)
of an individual.
The thyroid gland is made up of follicles which are filled with colloids. When
the gland is inactive, the colloid is abundant, the follicles are large, and the cells
lining them are flat. When the gland is active, the follicles are small, and the cells
are cuboid or columnar.
The thyroid gland is not essential for life, but in its absence, there is poor
resistance to cold, mental and physical slowing, and, in children, mental retardation
and dwarfism (cretinism). Conversely excess thyroid secretion leads to body
wasting, nervousness, tachycardia, tremor, and excess heat production. The
common disease associated with oer activity of the thyroid gland is thyrotoxicosis
such as Graves’ disease (exopthalmic goiter) caused by thyroid-stimualting
immunoglobulins (TSI). There is marked stimulation of the secretion of thyroid
hormones, and the high circulating T4 and T3 levels inhibit TSH secretion, so the
circulating TSH is depressed. The exophthalmos in Graves’ disease is due to the
swelling of the tissue, particularly the extraocular muscles, within the rigid bony
walls of the orbits. This pushes the eyeballs forward.
4. The Pancreas
This gland is located at the duodenal lope of the small intestine. It is both
an exocrine and an endocrine gland. It functions as exocrine gland when its acinar
cells secrete pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. The endocrine function
is limited to the cells of the islets of langerhans which are found throughout the
pancreas. The alpha cells of the islets of langerhans secrete glucagons which is
responsible for increasing blood sugar level; and the beta cells secrete insulin which
is responsible for lowering blood glucose level.
Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose from the blood into the cells of the
tissues, thus, increasing glucose utilization by the cells. It is anabolic, increasing the
storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. On the other hand, glucagons is
catabolic, mobilizing glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids from the stores into the
bloodstream. The two hormones are thus reciprocal in their overall action and are
reciprocally secreted in most circumstances. Insulin excess causes hypoglycemia,
which leads to convulsions and coma. Insulin deficiency, either absolute or relative,
causes diabetes mellitus, a complex and debilitating disease that if untreated is
eventually fatal. Glucagon deficiency can cause hypoglycemia, and glucagons
excess makes diabetes worse. A third hormone, somatostatin play a role in the
regulation of islet cell secretion. It produces hyperglycemia and other manifestations
of diabetes when there is hypersecretion or overproduction of somatostatin.
6. Parathyroid Gland
In humans there are usually four parathyroid glands which are embedded in
the thyroid gland. However, the location of the individual parathyroids and their
number vary considerably. Parathyroid tissue is sometimes found in the
mediastinum. There are two distinct types of cells making up the parathyroid: (1)
The chief cells which have clear cytoplasm secrete the parathyroid hormone or PTH,
and (2) the less abundant and larger oxyphil cells which have oxyphil granules in
their cytoplasm, contain large numbers of mitochondria. The function of oxyphil cell
is unknown.
There are three types of cells associated with bone formation and bone
resorption: (1) osteoblast stimulates bone formation; and (2) osteoclast and (3)
osteocyte are both associated with bone resorption. When there is hypersecretion
of PTH, osteoclast and osteocyte cells predominate to cause bone resorption; on the
other hand, when there is hyposecretion of PTH or hypersecretion of calcitonin,
osteoblast cells predominate to cause bone formation.
1. Importance
The CVS includes the heart, the blood and the blood vessels through
which the blood flows in circulation. The CVS has the following functions
(1) To convey the nutrients absorbed from the digestive tract to the tissues;
(2) To carry O2 from the lungs to the tissues and CO2 from the tissues to the lungs;
(3) To remove the waste products of metabolism and take them to the excretory
organs for disposal;
(4) To transport hormones from one part of the body to another;
(5) To help in maintaining the water equilibrium of the body;
(6) To assist in keeping the normal temperature of the body;
(7) To regulate the hydrogen ion concentration in the body; and
(8) To assist in overcoming diseases by the antibodies contained in the blood.
2. The Heart
The blood forced into the aorta during systole not only moves the blood in
the vessels forward but also sets up a pressure wave which travels down the
arteries. The pressure wave expands the arterial wall as it travels, and the
expansion is palpable as the pulse. Thus, the pulse is a wave of dilation of an artery
originating from the aorta as the blood flows into it from the heart. The rate of heart
beat is usually measured by determining the pulse rate. The average pulse rate per
minute in different classes of animals is as follows:
Pulse rate may be taken by feeling the artery on the following animals:
Horse – external maxillary artery or about the middle of the lower jaw
Cattle and Carabao – similar location as in the hose but slightly on the outer
surface; coccygeal artery at the base of the underneath of the tail
Pigs and others – auscultation method using stethoscope at the cardiac or chest
region
4. The Blood Vessels
In general, the blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart is called
artery; and that which carries blood back to the heart is called vein. Also, the blood
running through the artery is oxygenated blood; and that which runs through the vein
is unoxygenated blood. The only exceptions to the principle are the pulmonary
artery which carries unoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, and the
pulmonary veins which carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart. The aorta or aortic artery carries blood from the left ventricle to the
different systemic circulations, such as the head, neck, trunk, limbs, and the visceral
organs. The aorta gives off to smaller branches of arteries which in turn give rise to
several arterioles. An arterile gives rise to a bed of capillaries which eventually join
together to form a venule. A venule joins to a bigger vein which eventually end up
on the vena cava which returns unoxygenated blood from several systemic
circulations to the right atrium of the heart.
5. Blood Circulation
Venous blood coming from the different parts of the body is returned back to
the heart via the vena cava to the right atrium (Figure 7). From the right atrium it
goes to the right ventricule through the tricuspid valve. Then it passes through the
pulmonary valve and goes to the pulmonary artery which carries the blood to the
lungs (pulmonary circulation). In the lungs, exchange of gases takes place: carbon
dioxide is given off and oxygen is taken in by the circulating blood. The oxygenated
blood is returned back to the heart by the pulmonary veins which enter the heart at
the left atrium. From the left atrium, the blood goes to the left ventricles through the
mitral or biscuspid valve. Then it goes through he aortic valve to the aorta which
carries the blood to the different systemic circulations. In systemic circulation, the
oxygen is taken in by the tissues and carbon dioxide is given off by the tissues to
the circulating blood. These cellular exchange of gases take place at the different
capillary beds. Then all the venous blood from the systemic circulations are
returned back to the heart via the vena cava.
The systemic circulation includes the following special systems of blood
circulation:
(1) The coronary circulation – is a part of systemic circulation; it supplies blood to the
heart itself.
(2) Hepatic circulation – is a part of systemic circulation; it supplies arterial blood to
the liver.
(3) Cerebral circulation – supplies arterial blood to the brain.
(4) Renal circulation – supplies arterial blood to the kidney.
(5) Splanchnic circulation – supplies arterial blood to the digestive tract.
6. The Blood
Blood is a thick suspension of cellular elements in an aqueous solution of
electrolytes and some non-electrolytes. By centrifugation, the blood is separated
into the two categories of plasma and cells.
1). Plasma – the fluid portion of the blood containing a number of ions, inorganic
molecules, and organic molecules which are in transit to various parts of the
body
or which aid in the transport of other substances. Blood plasma is composed of
the following important constituents: water, gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen), proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen), glucose, lipids (fats, lecithin,
cholesterol), non-protein nitrogen substances (amino acids, urea, uric acid,
creatine, creatinine ammonia, salts, etc., inorganic salts and minerals (chlorides,
bicarbonates, sulfates, phosphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron, and traces of manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, etc.), enzymes, hormones,
vitamins, immune substances, etc. The normal plasma volume is about 3 to 5%
of the body weight.
2. Blood cells – made up the white blood cells or WBC (leukocytes), the red blood
cells or RBC (erythrocytes) and the platelets, which are all suspended in the
plasma. The number of each kind of cell present in the blood is determined by
means of a haemocytometer.
a) The white blood cells are of three types: Granulocytes, Lymphocytes and
Monocytes. Of these, the granulocytes or polymorphonuclear leukocytes
(PMN) are the most numerous. The granulocytes are subdivided into
neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils based on their affinity to either neutral,
acidic or basic dyes, respectively. They are formed from stem cells in the
bone marrow, mature rapidly and enter the circulation where they survive for
no more than 2 weeks. Their main function is phagocytic in nature. At least
in the neutrophils and eosinophils, the granules appear to be lysosomes and
function in the digestion of material (like bacterial) taken into the cells by
phagocytosis. Old granulocytes are normally destroyed in the spleen and
other portions of the reticulo-endothelial system.
Lymphocytes are mostly formed in the lymph nodes, spleen and
thymus and to some extent also in the bone marrow. They enter the blood
circulation for the most part via the lymphatics. They are believed to produce
antibodies and counteract toxins.
Monocytes are large none-nuclear leukocytes. They are also called
the transitional cells and have well developed motility. They are believed to
come from the reticulo-endothelial cells. Like neutrophilic leukocytes, they
are actively phagocytic and are capable of ingesting all sorts of foreign
matter.
b) The erythrocytes are biconcave disks manufactured in the bone marrow.
In mammals, they lose their nuclei before entering the circulation. These non-
nucleated cells are soft and contain hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is a complex
iron-containing conjugated protein with a molecular weight of about 68,000. It
is globular molecule made up of 4 subunits, and each unit contains a red
pigment, iron-containing derivative porphyrin called heme moiety conjugated
to a polypeptide, globin. The oxygen-carrying property of hemoglobin is due
to the iron content in the pigment.
Hemoglobin binds O 2 to form oxyhemoglobin, O2 attaching to the Fe++
in the heme. Since hemoglobin contains 4 Hb units, the hemoglobin molecule
actually reacts with 4 molecules of O2 to form Hb408.
7. Blood Coagulation
The essential process in coagulation is the conversion of the soluble plasma
protein, fibrinogen, into the insoluble protein, fibrin, a reaction that is catalyzed by
the enzyme thrombin. Thrombin is formed from its inactive circulating precursor,
prothrombin, in the presence of calcium ions by the action of activated
thromboplastin. Prothrombin is synthesized in the liver, and vitamin K is essential in
the hepatic synthesis of prothrombin. This is precisely why vitamin K is essential in
blood clotting mechanism.
Activated thromboplastin is made available at the site of the injury in the
presence of Ca++ by reaction involving platelets and some clotting factors. The
schematic mechanism in blood clotting is shown below:
Vitamin K
Liver Prothrombin
Factor VII and X
Ca++
Prothrombin Thrombin
Activated
thromboplastin
(Platelets)
Thrombin
8. Lymphatic System
The circulatory system and the lymphatic system are related to the body
fluid compartments. The animal body is made up of 60-70% water. This is
distributed as intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF). The ICF is about
40-50% of the body weight and the ECF is about 20% of the body weight.
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph node, lymph vessel and the
lymph.
The lymph nodes and its function. The lymph nodes are small bodies of
lymphoid tissues which are ovoid or bean shaped and located in strategic points of
the body through which the lymph passes on its way to the blood stream. It is
generally agreed that lymph nodes have at least 2 functions. One of these is the
production of lymphocytes of which the lymph nodes contain large numbers.
Another function is to stop foreign materials that come to them in the lymph. This
filtration is said to be accomplished mechanically and by the phagocytic activity of
the reticulo-endothelial cells. They become swollen or inflamed during severe
bacterial infections.
The lymph vessels. The lymphatic drain from the lungs and from the rest of
the body tissues via a system of vessels that end in the venous system. The lymph
vessels begin in the tissues as blind lymph capillaries, similar in structure to blood
capillaries. By the convergence of lymph capillaries, smaller lymph vessels are
formed, and these in turn unite to form larger lymph vessels. Like the veins, the
lymph vessels contain valves which prevent the back flow of its content, but
have thinner walls than the veins. Ultimately, all the lymph vessels drain into either
the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct, which empty into the venous system
anterior to the heart. Lymph from the right side of the head and neck, the right
forelegs and the right side of the thorax drain to the right lymphatic duct, which
empty into the venous system anterior to the heart. Lymph from the right side of the
head and neck, the right forelegs and the right side of the thorax drain to the right
lymphatic duct; that from the rest of the body, to the thoracic duct.
Flow of lymph. The tissue fluid is in communication with the blood in the
capillaries, the intracellular fluid, and the lymph capillaries. The latter remove from
the tissue spaces materials that do not or cannot enter the blood capillaries. Water
and crystalloids can move either way. Particulate matter and large molecules such
as proteins and lipids cannot enter the blood capillaries but can penetrate the much
more permeable wall of the lymph capillaries. The flow of lymph in the lymph
vessels is sluggish and in one direction only, from the tissues towards the heart.
The factors concerned in lymph flow are: (1) the difference in pressure at the two
ends of the lymph system; (2) the massaging effect of muscular movements; and (3)
the presence of the lymph vessels of valves, which permit flow in only one direction,
that is, towards the heart.
Composition of Lymph
Tissue fluid and lymph proper, that is, the fluid in the lymph vessels are
different. Lymph, derived largely from the blood, is similar in composition to blood
plasma. The plasma of the blood passes through the thin wall of the blood
capillaries, enters the tissue spaces, and becomes tissue fluid or lymph. The cells of
the tissues themselves also contribute somewhat to the composition of the lymph,
for there is free interchange between intracellular fluid and the tissue fluid. In this
way the cells rid themselves of the waste products of metabolism and absorb
foodstuffs.
The composition of lymph varies with the state of activity of the digestive
organs, lymph derives from the intestine during fat absorption has a milky
appearance because of the fat that it contains and is known as chyle.
1. Importance
The main function of respiration is to provide oxygen to the cells of the body
and to remove excess carbon dioxide from them. Different species achieve this in
different ways. Unicellular organisms get their O 2 by diffusion from the fluid
surrounding them and eliminate CO2 in the same way: larger organisms cannot.
Some larger organisms that live in air (certain insects) do get enough O 2 by diffusion
alone, but they have a special system of air tubes (trachea or spiracles) that pipe air
directly to many regions of the body, so that the distance O 2 must diffuse to reach
tissue cells are short. Large animals, including man, make use of two systems:
(1) A blood circulatory system to carry to and from the tissue cells large
quantities of O2 and CO2, with the help of hemoglobin; and
(2) A respiratory system, a gas exchanger, to load the blood with O 2 and
remove excess CO2. In fish, blood flows through gill vessels and extracts O 2 from
water flowing around them. In man and other farm animals, the respiratory surfaces
are folded within the body to prevent drying of the delicate membranes; air saturated
with water vapor is drawn into intimate contact with the blood flowing through the
pulmonary capillaries, and gases are exchanged.
These two systems cooperate to supply the needs of the tissues. One
system supplies air; the other supplies blood. The ultimate purpose is the transfer of
gases between air and cells. The respiratory system is an air pump which draws
fresh air through the air tubes to small air sacs(alveoli) that have vary thin
membranes. The circulatory system is a blood pump which drives the whole output
of the heart through fine thin-walled blood tubes (capillaries) surrounding the alveoli.
The nasal cavity has two nasal tubes (some a third tube, the mouth, is also
used), and then becomes one, the trachea. The trachea is always kept open by the
presence of rings of cartilage in its wall. It subdivides into two main branches, the
right and left bronchi, which are similar in structure and function as trachea. Each of
the two bronchi divides into two more, and each of these into two more, and so on
until there have been 20-23 subdivisions in all. A sim0ple calculation shows that 20
subdivisions of this type produce about a million terminal tubes. At the end of each
are numerous blind pouches, the alveoli or alveolar sacs; here gas exchange
occurs. There are about 300 million of these in the two lungs of man; their diameter
varies from 75 to 300 microns.
The lungs may be regarded as two elastic membranous sac those interior
(in free communication with the outside air through the respiratory passages) is
highly modified and enlarged by the presence of numerous alveoli. The wall of the
alveolus is composed of a single layer of respiratory epithelium. Across this layer of
cells and the endothelium of the blood capillaries, gaseous exchange between the
air in the alveoli and the blood in the numerous adjacent capillaries takes place. The
total area of the alveolar walls in contact with the capillaries in both lungs is
estimated to be 70 square meters in man, which is about 40 times the surface area
of the body.
The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the mediastinal organs. This
cavity is completely separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. The
pleura, a serous membrane, line the thoracic cavity, forming the lateral walls of
mediastinum and are reflected from there on the lungs, thus forming a pleural cavity.
The pleural cavity is merely a capillary space, occupied by a thin film of fluid, which
serves to moisten and lubricate the two pleural layers. The pressure in the pleural
cavity is negative. Therefore when the pleural cavity is opened, air rushes in and the
lungs will collapse.
The external intercostals muscles run obliquely downward and forward from
rib to rib. The ribs pivot as if hinged at the back, so that when the external
intercostals muscles contract, they elevate the lower ribs. This pushes the sternum
outward and increases the antero-posterior diameter of the chest.
The expiratory muscles consist of internal intercostals muscles and the muscles
of the anterior abdominal wall. The internal intercostals muscles pass obliquely
downward and posteriorly from rib to rib, and therefore, pull the rib cage downward
when they contract. The muscles of the anterior abdominal wall also aid expiration
by pulling the rib cage downward and inward; and by increasing the extra abdominal
pressure which pushes the diaphragm upward.
There are at least three major parts of the respiratory center. They are:
a. Medullary center – capable of initiating and maintaining sequences of the
respiratory cycle. This contains the minimal number of neurons necessary for
the basic coordinated sequence of inspiration, expiration inspiration. This
center is often divided into an Inspiratory Center and an Expiratory Center,
because maximal sustained inspiration follows electrical stimulation of some
region; and maximal expiration follows stimulation of adjacent regions. At the
lateral sides of this region, there are special receptors which are believed to
respond to H+ concentration. A rise in H+ results in hyperventilation.
b. Pneumotaxic center – located in the upper pons above the medullary center.
Stimulation of this center accelerate respiration, especially expiration. It is
postulated that inspiration sets up impulses that ascend from the medullary
inspiratory center to the pneumotaxic center, where they generate impulses
that descend to the expiratory center and inhibit inspiration, a negative
feedback mechanism.
c. Apneustic center – located in the lower pons, between the pneumotaxic center
and the medullary center. The role of this center is revealed when both the
pneumotaxic center and the vagi are inactivated; prolonged apneusis then
results. (Apneusis is the cessation of respiration in the inspiratory position).
2. Carotid bodies – are small, pinkish nodules located just beyond the bifurcation of
the common carotid artery into the external and internal carotids. The carotid
bodies are completely different from the carotid sinuses in structure and in
function. The carotid sinuses contain mechanoreceptors that respond to
changes in stretch or deformation of the carotid artery wall; the carotid bodies
contain chemoreceptors that respond to certain changes in their chemical
environment.
Mechanisms of Inspiration
Mechanism of Expiration
Lung Volume
The amount of air that moves into the lungs with each inspiration (or the
amount that moves out with each expiration) is called the tidal volume or TV. The air
inspired with a maximal inspiratory reserve volume (IRV). The volume expelled by
an active expiratory effort after passive expiration is the expiratory reserved volume
(ERB), and the air left in the lungs after a maximal expiratory effort is the residual
volume (RV). The space in the conducting zone of the airways occupied by gas that
does not exchange with blood in the pulmonary vessels is the respiratory dead
space. The vital capacity, the greatest amount of air that does not exchange with
blood in the pulmonary vessels is the respiratory dead space. The vital capacity, the
greatest amount of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiratory effort, is
frequently measured clinically as an index of pulmonary function. It gives useful
information about the strength of the respiratory muscles and other aspects of
pulmonary function. The fraction of the vital capacity expired in 1 second (timed vital
capacity; also called forced expired volume in 1 second, or FEV 1”) gives additional
information; the vital capacity may be normal but the timed vital capacity is greatly
reduced in diseases such as asthma, in which the resistance of the airways is
increased owing to bronchial constriction. The amount of air inspired per minute
(pulmonary ventilation, respiratory minute volume) is normally about 6 L (500
ml/breath x 12 breaths/min).
6. Gas Exchange
Oxygen continuously diffuses out of the gas in the alveoli (alveolar gas) into
the blood stream, and CO2 continuously diffuses into the alveoli from the blood. In
the steady state, inspired air mixes with the alveolar gas, replacing the O 2 that has
entered the blood and diluting the CO 2 that has entered the alveoli. Part of this
mixture is expired. The O2 content of the alveolar gas then falls and its CO 2 content
rises until the next inspiration. Since the volume of gas in the alveoli is about 1.8-2.0
L at the end of expiration (functional residual capacity), each 350-ml to 500 ml
increment of inspired and expired air changes the PO 2 and PCO2 very little. Indeed,
the composition of alveolar gas remains remarkably constant, not only at rest but in
a variety of condition as well.
Oxygen moves from the alveoli to the capillaries across the thin membrane
formed by the epithelial cells, the endothelial cells, and their fused basement
membrane. The PO2 of the alveolar air is 100 mmHg, whereas, that in the venous
blood in the pulmonary artery is 40 mmHg. There is no evidence that any process
other than passive diffusion is involved in the movement of O 2 into the blood along
this pressure gradient. Diffusion into the blood must be very rapid, since the time
each milliliter of blood is in the capillaries is short. Nevertheless, O 2 diffusion is
adequate in health to raise the PO 2 of the blood to 95 mmHg, a value just under
alveolar PO2. On the other hand, CO 2 diffuses from the capillaries to alveolar air,
thus, reducing the CO2 content of the blood which returned to the heart at 40
mmHg. In short, the arterial blood distributed to the different systemic circulation
has a PO2 of 95 mmHg and PCO2 of 40 mmHg. The tissues which would receive the
arterial blood has PO2 of 40 mmHg and PCO2 of 46 mmHg. Thus, at the tissue level
O2 diffuses out of the blood capillaries to the tissues, whereas, CO 2 diffuses from
the tissues to the blood capillaries. The resultant venous blood has PO 2 of 40
mmHg and PCO2 of 46 mmHg when returned back to the right atrium of the heart.
1. Importance
The kidney aids in keeping the composition of blood plasma constant by:
The kidneys are paired, somewhat flattened bean-shaped organs which lie
retroperitoneally on either side of the vertebral column against the posterior
abdominal wall. Each kidney is supplied with blood by a single renal artery which
arises from the abdominal aorta. Each renal artery divides the pelvis. These arterial
branches pass between the calyxes and penetrate the parenchyma. Within the
parenchyma, these arteries are designated as interlobar because they course
between the lobes or pyramids.
At the junction of cortex and medulla, the interlobar arteries bend over the
bases of the pyramids to form a series of incomplete arches, the acriform arteries.
Interlobar arteries arise at right angles from the acriform arteries and run radially
toward the periphery in the cortical medullary rays. In their course through the
cortex they give rise to short lateral branches, the afferent arterioles, each of which
supplies a glomerulus. The venous system which drains blood out of the kidney
runs parallel with the arterial system and comes out of the kidney as renal vein.
3. Urine Formation
In the kidneys, a fluid that resembles plasma is filtered through the
glomerular capillaries into the renal tubules (glomerular filtration). As this glomerular
filtrate passes down the tubules, its volume is reduced and its composition altered by
the processes of tubular reabsorption, active transport, diffusion and osmosis to form
urine.
Each day, about 160 to 180 liters of water are filtered through the glomeruli
of normal man. Each liter contains 300 mOsm/L of solute, consisting largely of
sodium, chloride and bicarbonate ions. As the filtrate flows along the proximal
convoluted tubules, sodium is actively extruded into the interstitium of the cortex.
Chloride follows sodium passively down an electrical gradient and water is
reabsorbed by osmosis. The ions and water deposited in the interstitium are rapidly
carried away by blood perfusing the cortical capillaries. Although the volume of the
tubular fluid is sharply reduced to perhaps 20% of that of the filtrate at the ends of
the thick descending limbs of Henle’s loops, the osmolar concentration remains
unchanged at 300 mOsm/L.
As the tubular fluid progresses down the thin descending limbs of Henle’s
loops, water diffuses out into the hypertonic interstitium of the medulla and papilla;
and sodium diffuses in. Volume decreases and osmotic pressure increases progressively to
the bends of the loops. In the ascending limbs of Henle’s loops, sodium is extruded
into the interstitium. Because the ascending limbs are impermeable to water, the
osmolar concentration of the tubular fluid is reduced. At each level, a gradient of
about 200 mOsm/L is established between tubular contents and hypertonic
interstitium. Indeed, it is this capacity of the tubular epithelium to establish a modest
osmolar gradient at each level which accounts for the much more significant gradient
of 300 to 1200 mOsm/L developed along the length of the loops. This process is
termed as countercurrent multiplication of concentration.
The fluid which enters the distal convoluted tubules is hypotonic to the
surrounding cortical interstitial fluids. Its volume is perhaps 15% of that of the
glomerular filtrate. The continued active extrusion of sodium and the passive
osmotic diffusion of water continue in the distal tubule, reducing volume to a few
percent of that of the filtrate as the fluid enters the collecting duct. This fluid
becomes progressively concentrated as it flows along the collecting duct and gives
up water to the hypertonic medullary and papillary interstitium. The final urine
entering the renal pelvis, is essentially as concentrated as the interstitial tissue of the
tips of the papillae.
The water which diffuses out of the descending limbs of Henle’s loops and
out of the collecting ducts, and the sodium, which is pumped out of the ascending
limbs of Henle’s loop, are removed by blood perfusing the vasa recta of the medulla
and papilla. These vessels serve as countercurrent exchangers to reduce excessive
loss of osmotically active solutes from the medulla and papilla.
In water diuresis, in which the titer of circulating ADH is low, the epithelium
of the distal tubules and collecting ducts is impermeable to water. The hypotonicity
of the tubular urine leaving the loops of Henle is maintained through out the
remainder of the nephron and is increased by the continued active extrusion of ions.
The final urine is dilute and its volume large.
(1) Since ADH is a vasoconstrictor, it reduces medullary and papillary blood flow in
the renal interstitium, thus increasing tissue hypertoni-city of the interstitium.
This would increase the concentration gradient of the solute between the
interstitium and the fluid in the lumen of the kidney tubules, thus, the reabsorption
of water by osmosis would increase.
(2) ADH may stimulate the “sodium pump” of the ascending loop of Henle, thus,
increasing both the rate of sodium transport from the tubule lumen to the
interstitium and the concentration gradient of sodium between the interstitium
and the fluid in the lumen of the tubules.
(3) ADH may dilate the “pres” of the collecting duct, thus, facilitates water
reabsorption.
G. The Reproductive System
1. Form of Reproduction
In the sexual reproduction, male and female sex organs are involved in the
process of propagation. The union of sex cells, ovum and sperm cell, are
involved to form a new individual. This is the usual form of reproduction in farm
animals, including man. Nature has made this form of reproduction very fulfilling
to both sexes such that the process of perpetuating the species becomes a very
pleasant experience.
The horn of the uterus is the organ which serves as the site of implantation
for the fertilized egg. This is where the fetus would develop during the stage of
pregnancy in gestating animals. The body of the uterus unites the two horns of
the uterus and connects them to the cervix.
The cervix is sometimes considered as the neck of the uterus. Its opening,
os uteri, closes when the animal gets pregnant to protect the uterine contents. It
serves as sperm receptacle in certain animals.
The vulva is a common passage way for the products of reproduction and
for urine. The vulva of mammals is comparable to the ventral portion of the
cloaca of birds. It is also homologous with the scrotum of the male, since both
are derived from the same embryological structure.
The broad ligament suspends the female genital system from the
dorsolateral wall of the pelvic canal. Three specialized regions of the broad
ligament are recognized: (1) mesometrium is that portion of the broad ligament
which suspends the anterior portion of the vagina, the cervix and the uterus and
comprises the major portion of the broad ligament; (2) mesosalpinx is a lateral
fold on the anterior portion of the broad ligament which suspends the oviduct
(Salpinx); and (3) mesovarium is a specialized portion of the anterior edge of the
broad ligament which suspend the ovary proper. In some species a pocket-like
structure called Bursa is formed by fusion of two or more of the mesovarium,
mesosalpinx and the infundibulum. It encloses, more or less completely the
ovary.
A blind pouch opening into the floor of the genital tract at the external
urethral opening of the junction between the vagina and the vulva is the sub-
urethral diverticulum. The neck of the bladder opens through the roof of the sub-
urethral diverticulum. This relationship of the neck of the bladder to the blind
pouch and hence to the external urethral opening would appear to be a safety
feature to prevent entrance of foreign objects into the urinary bladder proper.
The main sex organ of the male is the testis. In birds, the two testes are
located within the body cavity in the dorsolumbar region. In farm animals, the
testes are located outside the body cavity within the scrotum. The scrotum is the
cutaneous sac that serves as the external covering of the testes. It protects the
testes from direct mechanical injuries and provides an environment which is a
few degrees (6-9oF) cooler than the body temperature which is required for
normal spermatogenesis. The thermoregulatory muscles of the testes are the
cremaster muscle and the dartos muscle.
During fetal development, the initial development of the testes starts inside
the body cavity. As the fetus grows, the testes start to descent to the scrotum
through the inguinal canal. In certain instances, when both testes failed to
descent to the scrotal sacs, the individual is said to be a bilateral cryptorchid,
hence is sterile. If only one of the testes failed to descend to the scrotal sac, the
individual is said to be a unilateral cryptorchid, but capable of fertilization.
However, cryptorchid animals should be culled and not allowed to mate because
this condition is heritable.
The testes have two main functions: (1) production of sperm cells; and (2)
production of sex hormone – testosterone. Testosterone is the male sex
hormone responsible for the development of the secondary sex characters. Male
characteristics such as muscular development at the rear quarters and
shoulders, aggressiveness and libido when confronted with an in heat female
animal of the same species are governed or influenced by the hormone
testosterone.
There are three accessory glands which contribute to the bulk of the semen
ejaculate; these are the (1) seminal vesicles, (2) prostate gland, and (3)
Cowper’s glands or bulbo-urethral gland.
Semen consists of the sperm cells plus the secretions of the three accessory
glands. In vasectomized animals, the vas deferens are severed, thus, the
ejaculate consists only of the secretions of the accessory glands – making the
vasectomized male sterile but without losing libido. On the other hand, in
castrated animals both testes are removed, thus, rendering the male sterile with
loss of libido.
The secretions of the accessory glands serve as the vehicle for the
transport of the spermatozoa from the vagina to the oviduct. It stimulates also
spermatozoa activity and served as the lubricating substance during copulation
particularly the secretions of the bulbo-urethral gland. The seat of
spermatogenesis is the seminiferous tubules. FSH stimulates the germinal
epithelium lining the seminiferous tubules to initiate spermatogenesis up to the
secondary spermatocytes stage. On the other hand, LH stimulates the interstitial
cells or the cells of Leydig to secrete testosterone; and testosterone is required
for the final maturation of the spermatozoa. Therefore, both FSH and LH are
required for normal spermatogenesis. FSH has a direct influence on
spermatogenesis, whereas, the influence of LH on spermatozoa production is
through its stimulating effect on testosterone secretion, which is required for the
final stages of spermatogenesis. The level of testosterone in circulation also
serves as the negative feedback in controlling LH production by the sertoli cells
in the seminiferous inhibin, produced by the sertoli cells in the seminiferous
tubules, has a negative feedback effect on FSH secretion.
Testicular and epididymal sperm cells are non-motile. They become motile
only when they are suspended in a fluid and this occurs when they come in
contact with the secretion of the accessory glands.
When the animal reaches puberty, the anterior pituitary gland starts to
secrete gonadotrophic hormones which could affect the ovaries. The first
gonadotropin secreted in significant amount is follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
with little luteinizing hormone or LH. FSH causes the growth and development of
the Graafian follicle (GF) in the ovary. In turn, this developing follicle secretes a
hormone known as estrogen. This is the hormone which causes estrus in
female. The presence of estrogen stimulates the production of LH. At the peak
of estrogen production LH production increases which coincides with the
production if inhibin hormone from the ovary, which inhibits FSH production.
Usually, LH is also produced with little FSH because the cells in the anterior
pituitary which secrete the former are the same cells that secrete the former are
the same cells that secrete the latter. These cells are the basophils of the
anterior pituitary.
Animals may be classified based on the occurrence of their estrus cycle as:
(1) Monoestrus, if the animal comes in heat only once a year, such as dogs; (2)
Seasonally polyestrus, if it comes in heat at certain seasons only, such as sheep;
and (3) Polyestrus, if it comes in heat all throughout the year, like cattle, swine
and carabao.
The mucus discharge is watery at first and towards the end of estrus
becomes sticky. By taking a drop of the cervical mucus discharge and placing it
on a glass slide to dry, a ferning pattern will be observed under the microscope if
the animal is in heat. The vaginal lining of in heat animal is pinkish and it is pale
when not in heat. However, the best sign of heat is when the animal stands still
when mounted by a male animal of the same species.
In cattle and carabaos, ovulation takes place about 15-18 hours from the
end of estrus. The best time to inseminate a female animal is towards the end of
its estrus. But since duration of estrus is variable and no one can tell exactly
when the animal started its heat, it is then recommended that once the animal is
observed to be in heat, then inseminate it immediately. If the animal is observed
to be in heat in the morning, inseminate immediately and if it is still in heat in the
afternoon, inseminate again. Likewise, if it is observed to exhibit heat in the
afternoon, inseminate immediately and if it is still in heat the following morning,
give the second insemination. This is the thumb rule that should be followed.
The duration of estrus in carabao lasts from 5 to 36 hours or an average of 18
hours (less than a day).
In swine, the duration of estrus is about 2-3 days. The best time to breed
or inseminate a sow is on the second and third day of estrus.
In mares (female horse that has already given birth), estrus duration is
about 6-7 days. Mating or insemination is recommended on the fourth and fifth
day of estrus.
During mating, the sperm cells are deposited in the vagina in most farm
animals. The sperm cells must reside in the female reproductive tract before
becoming capable of attaching to and penetrating the ovum. This process is
known as sperm capacitation and is believed to start in the uterus. However, the
major site of capacitation appears to be in the oviduct. Capacitation leads to
acrosomal changes needed for sperm penetration of the ovum; therefore,
capacitation should function to prevent pre-mature acrosome activation until the
spermatozoa has reached the site of fertilization and can be in contact with the
ovum. Fusion and vesiculation of the acrosome release hydrolytic enzymes, e.
g., hyaluronidase and acrosin which are required in penetration of the ovum.
Thus, it is important that mating or insemination should be made at the time that
ovulation would likely take place, or as close as possible to expected ovulation
time. Regardless of the timing of ovulation, high conception rates result if
spermatozoa are present in the oviduct shortly before ovulation. Insemination
too early reduces conception rate due to the loss of sperm viability and the
number of sperm at the site of fertilization, while loss of ovum viability can result
from insemination after ovulation even though fertilization occurs.
In the mare, implantation or attachment does not occur until days 24-40.
Early attachment is through interdigestation between surface epithelium of the
embryonic vesicle and uterine lining. Specialized chorionic girdle cells form
around the spherical vesicle, detach around day 38 and invade the uterine
endometrium to form the endometrial cups that produce equine chorionic
gonadotrophin.
Species
________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2-cell 1 1 1 .6 - .8
===============================================================
7. Placental Development
From the side of the embryo a fold grows up and over it, fusing at the top and
ultimately enclosing the embryo in a double-layered sac which is known as the amnion
(water bag). This is filled with a clear watery fluid in which the embryo is suspended.
Its purpose is to form a protective cushion against external shocks and pressure of the
adjacent body organs and to prevent adhesions between the surface of the embryo and
the surrounding membrane. At parturition, the amnion acts as a wedge to dilate the
cervix.
The allantois is formed as an outpouching of the hind gut of the digestive tract
and functions as the urinary receptacle for the embryo, and also collects some solid
waste. The chorion, the outer membrane, completely surrounds the embryo, amnion
and allantoic cavity. It is rich in blood vessels and lies appositon to the uterine mucosa.
The allantois which fuses with the chorion becomes the fetal placenta - chorigallantois
placentation - characteristics of all farm animals. Nutrients from maternal circulation are
acquired by the fetus by simple transfusion. The concentration of nutrients is not
necessarily the same in both blood. Nutrients also pass from the dam to fetus in utero
by ingestion through mouth from the amniotic fluid, and by occasional passage of blood
cells from dam to fetus and vice versa.
There are two general types of placentation among farm animals. The sow and
mare have a diffuse placenta, which consists of a simple apposition of fetal and
maternal epithelia, although in the mare, the complex folding and branching of the two
surfaces give rise to the formation of microcotyledons between 75 and 110 days of
gestation.
The sheep, goat, cows and carabao have cotyledonary placenta. The cotyledons
from the fetal placenta are attached to the caruncles of the maternal placenta through
which uterine blood flows. A caruncle with the attached cotyledon is called placentome.
At parturition, the chorionic villi of both types of placentation are merely withdrawn and
there is no extensive destruction of the uterine tissue.
In summary, the fertilized egg reaches the uterus through the oviduct as
blastocyst and remain their for a while bathed in uterine secretion. At the same time,
changes occurs in the uterus itself. the process of implantation follows; trophoblastic
cells of the blastocyst attached themselves between the epithelial cell of the uterus.
Nutrition of the embryo with the uterine wall forming a sort of placenta. The second
stage in the development of the zygote is the embryonic period which extends from the
time of the attachment of the egg to the wall of the uterus until the form of new individual
is laid down. Early in this period, the extra embryonic membrane starts to developed
which are the allantois, amnion and the chorion. The embryo is enclosed in two fluid
filled sacs. The last stage of development is the fetal period which extends from the
end of embryonic period to the time of birth.
At the time of parturition, fetal cortisol production increases which stimulates the
placenta to convert progesterone to estrogen, thus, descreasing progesterone and
increasing estrogen levels both at the placenta and maternal circulation. Estrogen
stimulates prostaglandin synthesis from the placental membrane and myometrium.
Elevation of prostaglandin lowers the threshold to oxytocin, and oxytocin and/or
prostaglandin lead to myometrical contractility. Also, prostaglandin destroys the CL
thus, cutting off progesterone secretion from the CL. It also stimulates the ovary to
produce relaxin which softens the cervix and the pelvic bones (Figure 25).
Parturition may be divided into three stages: (1) the dilation of the cervix, (2)
expulsion of the fetus, and (3) expulsion of the placenta (Table 9). During the first
stage, uterine contractions are painful causing restlessness and signs of abdominal
discomfort. At the fetus progresses through the cervix, the allantochorion ruptures,
releasing the urine-like fluid that marks the end of the first stage of labor.
The distention of the cervix and vagina by the conceptus initiates the
neurohumoral reflex, which produces the expulsive force of abdominal muscular
contractions (straining) and the release of oxytocin, which in turn accentuates
myometrial contractions. The combined forces of intra-abdominal and intra-uterine
pressure mark the beginning of the second stage of labor. Straining consists of a few
contractions followed by a few minutes of rest. The fetus enclosed in the amnion is
propelled through the birth canal and appears at the vulva. As straining continues, the
amnion ruptures. The greatest effort is associated with the emergence of the head,
forelegs and chest. All farm species assume lateral recombency with limbs extended
during delivery. The umbilical cord breaks as the neonate or the dam moves.
Rhythmic uterine contractions originating at the apex of the uterine horn continue
after birth (third stage) and cause the inversion of the chorioallantois in ruminants. The
presence of the detached placenta within the birth canal then initiates further straining
and expulsion of the placenta. The expulsion of the placenta is rapid in the mare but is
slower is ruminants due to the cotyledonary type of placentation. The placentas of
adjacent piglets are usually fused and often expelled as one or more masses
interspersed with the birth of piglets. The largest mass of placenta, however, is usually
expelled 3 to 4 hours after the delivery of the last piglet.
The onset of milk secretion follows parturition. In preparing the mammary gland
for lactation, hormonal interactions were needed even long before fertilization. It starts
with the development of the duct and the lobulo alveolar systems of the mammary gland
when the animal reached the age of puberty. The cyclic production of estrogen and
progesterone during the estrous cycle promotes the development of the mammary
gland.
Table 9. Stage of labor and related events in farm animals
=====================================================================
Stage of Mechanical
___________________________________________________________________________
delivery of fetus.
fetal membranes.
===============================================================
*In polytocous species (sow) and twin-bearing species (sheep and goat), cannot be
separated from the third stage.
Estrogen stimulates the development of the duct system; and progesterone stimulates
the development of the lobulo-alveolar system. With the onset of pregnancy, the
sustained production of progesterone by the CL and the placenta to maintain pregnancy
until birth, also maximize the development of the secretory units (alveoli) of the
mammary gland. Towards the end of pregnancy, there is a major surge in secretion of
prolactin immediately before parturition. Prolactin initiates milk secretion in the
mammary gland. Thus, when the fetus is born, the mammary gland is also ready to
produce milk needed for the survival of the newborn animal.
Vertebrate animal may be classified into two groups based on their ability to
regulate their body temperature with respect to the environment:
1) Chemical regulation
1) Conduction – involves direct contact of the animal with a part of its environment.
Thermal energy is transferred from one molecule to a neighboring molecule. The
amount of heat transferred and its direction depends on the following
(b) affected by the velocity of the air moving along the animals surface; and
(c) affected by the temperature of the animal’s surface and of the ambient air.
Thus, posture of the animal and other conditions affecting surface area
affect the convection transfer of heat.
(b) The absolute temperature of the animal’s surface and of the surrounding
surfaces
(c) Surface quality known as “emissivity”. Example, color, texture and sheen of
the skin and hair coat. White surface may absorbed only 20% of the visible
solar radiation falling on it, whereas, a black surface may absorbed as much
as 95 to 100% of the same radiation.
Primates )
Asses )
Horses )
Mice )
Elephants )
Ruminants )
Dog )
Cats )
Rabbits )
Chicken )
Turkey )
Duck )
Quail )
Sparrow )
DEATH
DEATH
comfort zone
tissues)
Physical Body
Regulation temp.
increasi
ng
______________________________________________________________________________________________________
D B C C’
Environmental Temperature
6) The ambient temperature at which the various body temperature and heat-
production events occur vary with (1) species of animal, (2) age and size of animal,
(3) posture, (4) nature of body covering or other qualities affecting insulation, (5)
previous nutritional status, (6) wind movement and humidity, (7) degree of activity,
and (8) other experimental situations such as degree of acclimatization.