NtATU'RE

70 COMMUNICATION 100

72 REPRODUCTION 101

73 INVERTEBRATES 102

74 VERTEBRATES l 102
‘
~
FOSSILS :\., ~’ε>，껴ξ“s 76 CNIDARIANS
;TORIC Ll FE 했))X 77 ECHINODERMS
DINOSAURS -←」섭WF-'! 78 SPONGES
ECOLOGY 80 WORMS
HABITATS 82 MOLLUSCS 106
1I 1 r ì ，~
에

MICRO-ORGANISMS 85 ARTHROPODS
FUNGI {“ ’" ’ 1 86 ARACHNIDS
‘’
ALGAE 't\ ‘ , • 새 87 CRUSTACEANS
‘ . I ‘ 1 ’tl' ‘
Ll CHENS 'r ‘
87 INSECTS
PLANTS 88 FISH "
112

NON-FLOWERING PLANTS ‘ 90 AMPHIBIANS

FLOWERING PLANTS “
92 REPTILES
’‘,‘.
TREES 94 BIRDS
ANIMALS 、‘ 96 MAMMALS
‘ ‘
~-.......
FEEDING 98 ENDANGERED SPECIES 124

SENSES - .‘- ‘t 99 CONSERVATION 125

70 I Nature

LIFE ON EARTH
Planet Earth is home to trillions of
orga nisms (l iving things ), including
animals and plants. They are found
on land , in lakes , rivers , and oceans ,
as well as in the air. Scientists
use Im. r!."'''S.'1 I~ 【’'!.'I[.l~I to show
how different species , or types ,
of organisms are related.

WHAT DO ALL Ll VING THINGS HAVE IN COMMON?

AII orga nisms need foo d for the energy required
to live and grow. They al l excrete (get ri d o f) waste
produ cts, and cletect cha nges in their surrou ndings
anCI responcl to them. AII li vin g orga nisms fo ll ow
a llJ"I Ul.." •• S of gro wth and clevelopment,
reproduction, and death.

CAN Ll FE EXIST WITHOUT SUN Ll GHT?

Sun light is essential for most life forms on Earth to
exis t. Pl ants use energy fro m sunlight to convert
watcr ancl carbon dioxicle gas into food. Th is releases
essential , life-giving oxygen into the atmosphere.
Virtually all other organisms rely on plants for energy
to keep them alive. Even meat-eaters incli rectly absorb
vegetation fro m thei r plant-eating prey.

groups
on smaller fish áí해흥빠imps. Fish
are well adapted to life ih water.
They have gills for absorbi ng
oxygen from water, and their
streamlined bodies dart easily
through rivers‘ lakes, and oceans

HOW DOES THE MOVEMENT OF THE EARTH

AFFECT Ll FE ON OUR PLANET?
The Ea lth ’ 5 ro tation every 24 hours produces day ancl
night. Some ani mals are active in the dayti me, others
at nigh t. Without sunl ight, plants cease ma k.ing food
and releasing oxygen. The annual movement of the
Earth arouncl tlle Sun creates the seasons. Li ving
th ings are more acti ve in spring and summer.
AFRICAN ELEPHANTS ~
The la rgest of all land animals is
the African elephan t. Its massive
body is supported by four pillar-
like legs. Elepha nts have long,
bendy trunks that raise water and
food to the mouth and spray
water over their bodies. Long ,
curved tusks are used for defence

Ll FE CYCLES
Every livin g th in g goes through a sequ e n ce
of changes ca ll e d its life cycle. Ini tially it
grows a nd d evelops , grad u a lly changing
s h a p e and gettin g la rge r. Once it is fully
m ature , it re produces. Fina ll y , it di es , and
is replaced b y its offspri n g .
WHICH ORGANISMS Ll VE LONGEST?
Elephants can live to the age of 70 , and humans can
live for more than 100 years. Some giant tortoises live
for more than 150 years, but certain plants live for
much , much longer. The Californi an bristlecone pine
tree is thought to live to 4,900 years old, and the
Cali forn ian creosote bush may be 12,000 years old
Do ALL PLANTS HAVE A ONE-YEAR Ll FE CYCLE?
An nual plants, such as sun Aowers, live and die within
one year, but their seeds survive the winter. Biennial
plants , such as carrots , Aower and produce seeds in
their second year and then die. Perennial pla nts,
including oak trees, live for several years - some
Aower yea r1 y, some only once in their life cycle.
CLASSIFICATION
Scientists use c1 assification to n ame livin g
organisms. They sort them into groups by
Iooking for any sim il a riti es or differe nces
that indicate how c1 0sely related t hey a re.
HOW DOES CLASSIFICATION WORK?
Organisms are sorted into groups ordered by size‘ The
srnallest, the species, contains organisms that breed
together. Related species form a genus; several genera
make a family. Li nked families form an order; several
orders l11 ake a class. A phylum contains a few c1 asses.
Phyla make up the largest group , the kingdo l11
WHAT ARE THE FIVE KINGDOMS OF Ll VING THINGS?
Organisms are divided in to lìve kingdo l11 s. Monerans
include simple, single-celled organisms such as
bacteria. Protists are mostly single-celled and include
protozoa and algae. Fungi include l11 ushroo l11 s and
moulds. Plants include Aowers, σees， and fern s.
An imals include lions, lizards, and lice.
~ 를..-
톨
麻쩔1
AN IMAL (Ll ON) PLANT (RHODODENDRON) FU NG US (MUSHROOM)
FIND OUT MORE ~~ Algae 87 • Animals 96-97 • Planet Earth 36-37 • Fungi 86 • Microorganisms 85 • Plants 88-89
때
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N 7 4
I 4
5.Seeds
2. Leaves
3. Flower
begins to form and
lI pwardgrowth slows
..t. PLANT LI FE CYCLE
The life cycle of this sunflower is cOlllpleted in one
growing season. Each seed contains an embryo
plant and its food store. and gerlllinates (sprouts)
in the spring. The young plant grows rapidly,
developing first a stem and leaves and then
flowers. In summer, the flowers produce seeds‘
which fall to the ground ready to sprout next year ,
CLASSIFYINGATIGER
Anirnalia (animals) - organisllls rnade of
many cells that obtain energy from food
Chordata (chordales) - mostly vertebrates,
such as birds and mammals
Mammalia (mammals) - vertebrates that
have hair and feed their young with milk
Carnivora (carnivores) - hunting mammals
that have gripping , cutting teeth
Felidae (cats) - carn ivores with sharp claws
FAMILY that can be retracted (drawn in)
Panthera (big cats) - large cats that roa r,
GENUS including lions , leopards , and tigers
Panthera tigris (liger) - big cat with a
SPECIES striped coa t. found in Asia
PANTHERA TIGRIS
Aspecies name has two parts - generic
,
(Pa nthera) and specific (tigris)
, THE FIVE KINGDOMS
The photographs below illustrate
one species frolll each of the five kingdoms
PROTIST (PROTOZOA) MONERAN (BACTERIA)
 BIOLOGY
The study of life and living things is called biology. Scientists
who study biology are known as biologists. The main branches
of biology are zoology (the study of anim a1 s) , botany (the study of
plants ), and IDI~ljU.~{t】 :u.](tI~D (the study of tiny organisms).

WHAT EXACTLY DO BIOLOGISTS STUDY?

Biologists study even more specialized
branches with in zoology, botany, and
microbiology. Cell biology, for exa mpl e,
involves studyi ng one of the smallest units of
a living thing. Anato ll1 y, on the other hand , looks
at the complete structure of organis ll1 s , whereas
physiology is the study of how organ isms wo rk.

Do BIOLOGISTS ONLY STUDY STRUCTURE?

Tube-like stamen is 이
As well as learn ing about an orga nism ’ s structu re,
biolog i sts discover how an organ ism reproduces and
grows , how it behaves , where it lives , and how it
interacts with other organis ll1 s. In this way, today's
biologists bu ild up a complete picture of the biology
of an organis ll1. At one time scientists knew little
mo re about living things than what they looked like

‘ RED HI BISCUS
This tropical flowering plant l1 as a tru l1l pet-shaped flower and
yellow brus l1 -like anthers (male sex organs) that surround five red
plate-like stig l1l as (fel1l ale sex organs). Biologists have discovered
that as hU l1l mingbirds feed on hibiscus nectar (suga 이 liquid) , ... STUDYING ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
they transfer dusly pollen fro l1l the anthers to the s!igmas Zoologist Dr. Jane Goodall lakes noles as she watches one member of a
If fertilizalion occurs, lhe planl makes seeds and reproduces group of chimpanzees in Gombe Slream National Park , Tanzania , Africa
Goodall has spent many years sludying chimpanzee behaviour

• ELECTRON MICRDSCDPE MICROBIOLOGY

Ascientist looks inside a scanning
electron microscope screen that
displays a magnified image of a
specimen. He ca n see in detail
the specimen ’5 external features
Microorganisms a re li v in g t hings that a re
too small to b e seen w ith the naked eye
Mi c robiology is the study of these
microorganisms , w hi c h includ e bacteria ,
a nd so m e f ung i.

WHAT DO MICROBIOLOGISTS DO?

SO ll1 e microbiologists are interested in the ll1 icro
organisms that cause diseases in animals and plants.
SO ll1 e special ize in those ll1 icroorganisms that ll1 ay
be useful for the manufacture of drugs , or food , such
as bread. Others study ll1 icroorgan isll1 s that recycle
essential nutrients in the Earth and its atmosphere

HOW DO ELECTRON MICROSCOPES WORK?

... MICRDDRGANISM
This SEM shows a ribbon-like
trypanosome and a l1 uman blood
cell magnified 4,500 times. This
microorganism , found in African
tse!se fly saliva , infects human
Electro n microscopes work by passing a bealll of tiny
particles cal led electrons through , or across the surface
of, a speci ll1 en , and onto a screen. This produces a
greatly ll1 agnifìed illlage. Scann ing electron
ll1 icroscopes produce a three-di ll1 ensional illlage that

blood , causing sleeping sickness can be captured in a photograph called an SEM.

FIND OUT MORE ~ Animals 96-97 • Rowering Plants 92-93 • Microorganisms 85

CEllS \lac lI ole

The tiniest living uni t t h at exi sts is

a cel l. C e lls are t he building blocks
of all organisms. Most cells h ave a
nucleus containing a set of building
blocks called I:::IC1 ~N 헤 .

ARE THERE DIFFERENT TYPE5 Nuclcus ;5 thc cc /l's

OF CELL IN THE 5AME ORGANI5M? control centrc
Most organisms consist of many di fferent types
of cell , each with a specific role to play. Cells with
a simi lar task , sllch as mllscle cells in an animal ,
are orga nized into a grollp. This grollp , called
a tisslle , carries Ollt a palt iclllar function ,
sllch as bending a leg.
• PLANT CELL
This cross-section of a leaf cell
HOW DO PLANT shows how the vacuole (blue) sap
Nucleus ;5 surrounded
AND ANIMAL CELL5 DIFFER? by a double membrane
pushes cytoplasm (yellow-green)
Both plant and animal cells have against the cell wall (brown)
a nllclells and a plasma membrane This gives the cell its shape
Cyloplasm is the area
and contain cytoplasm. Pl ant cells, of a Jiving ceJ/. outside
the nucleus. enclosed
however, have a flllid-fil led vacllol e
by rhe cell membrane.
and green strllctures ca lled chloropl asts Il COnlains organcllcs
Chloroplasts make food lI sing sllnlight βpecialized Sfructures

energy in a process ca lled photosy nthesis wil l1 in a [ell) 111M l1 elp

Animal cells mllst absorb food to sllrvive the cell 10 runction

ANIMALCELL ~
Unlike plant cells, which have Plasm a membrane
a rigid outer wall , animal cells is the lhin barrier that
are ll1 0re fluid in shape surrounds a cell • ONION BULB CELLS
These magnified c히 Is from an
onion bulb have been stained red
Box-like cell walls have formed
around the mature cells
., GENES
The features of liv ing things a re controll ed by their genes . The
ge n es ins ide an organism ’ s cell s conta in t h e instructio n s to make
proteins , w hich bu il d that cell and con t ro l th e way it wo rks. G e n es
a re inh erited by offspring from t heir parents.

WHAT 15 DNA?
Genes are made of a chemical sllbstance called
deoxyribonucleic acid (D NA) . It is stored in the
nucleus of all cells. DNA holds instructions for
making the protei ns needed fo r the growth and
development of new orga nisms. It also passes
on genetic information to the next generation

WHAT 15 A CHROM050ME?
Inside a cell ’ s nllclells , DNA is packaged into long, • GENE DIFFERENCES
th read-like strllcrures ca ll ed chromosomes. They are These two hamsters differ
visible only und er a l11 icroscope when the cells divide. because each has different
• CELL DIVISION INAN ONION'S ROOT TIP versions of the genes that control
These onion cells (blue) are dividing in a process called mitosis. The cells’ DlI ring cell clivision , chromoso l11 es shorten and fur pattern and colour. Otherwise
16 chromosomes (black) also divide and separate , so that each new cell thicken , then split into identical hal ves , one for each they look ve이 si l1l ilar because
gains a complete se t. Mitosis allows an organism to grow or repair itself new cell. Chromosome nll l11 bers vary between species. most of their genes are identical

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Evolution 74-75 • Microorganisms 85

convinced him thal living
tllings evolved, even though
most scientists believed lhal
they remained the same. 111
1859, he published his theories
FIND OUT MORE 애 Fossils 76 • Prehistoric Li fe 77
 /

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FOSSILS
Fossi l s are the ancient remains of
living things preserved in rocks .
They are usually formed from hard
animal or plant paπs ， s uch as bone ,
shell , or wood . Studying fossils is
a part of l:m:l!'’~，~.】 ~U'l('I~’i

HOW ARE FOSSILS FORMED ?

When an animal dies it is rapidly covered by sedimen t,
such as mud or sand. Its soft p aπs decompose (rot),
but its hard parts are gradually replacecl by minerals ,
or fossilized. Rather than a buriecl bone or an insect
preservecl in amber, for example, a foss il can also
c1issolve ancl then appear as a moulcl on a rock
millions of years after the organ ism has c1 iecl

WHAT DO FOSSILS SHOW US?

Fossils prove that ancient li fe forms we re different
from those alive today. They are laicl c1 0wn in layers
of rocks, each layer olcler than the one above. Since
evolution is the gradual change in living things over
time, fossi l layers provicle an historica l recorcl of the
c1 ifferent stages in the evolution of life.

PALAEONTOLOGY
Th is science studies the evo lu tion , the way
of life , and the extinction of o rga nisms
that existed i n time p e ri ods before the
prese nt. Pa laeonto log ists a re scientists who
study th e foss il rema i n s of species that
li ved a long t im e ago.
F0551L AMMONITE5 ...
These are the fossilized shells of
ammonites (molluscs related to present-day
squidsl. Ammonites were marine predators Coiled shell is divided in to
that lived between 500 and 65 million years gas- filled chambers that keep
ago (myal. when they became extinct the animal buoyant (afloat)

FOSSIL RECORD
WHAT CAN PALAEONTOLOGISTS LEARN
4.5 BYA Earth forms
FROM FOSSILS?
;;: Fossil evidence shows how features of today ’ s 3.8 BYA First living things
organisms have evolved over time. Palaeo ntologists 500 MYA First vertebrates
can iclenti fY organisms that may be ancient relatives (fishl
of those living toclay. By looking at fossils from the 440 MYA First land plants
same layer of rocks , they can also suggest how these 360 MYA First land
organisms livecl together in their ancient habita t. vertebrates
(amphibiansl
WHAT ARE FOSSIL INTERMEDIATES? 248 MYA First mammals
Fossil intermediates are species that provicle a link appear
between a new group of organisms and an olcler '50 MYA Earliest birds
group. They aJ so indicate how one group evolved 65 MYA Dinosaurs extinct l
from the other. Archaeopteryx livecl 150 million years
‘ EARLY BIRD
This fossi l of Archaeopteryx
ago (mya). Tts fossils show how birds evolvecl from
60 MYA Mammals
become diverse
theropocl ("beast-footed") dinosaurs - which includes
shows feather im prin ts on 2 MYA Ice ages
Ty ra. nnosarus Rex - because its skeleton was like a
its body. 5cientists studied 160 ,000 Modern humans
the fossil and made a model dinosaur, but it hacl feathers similar to a bird
YA appear
of Archaeopteryx MODEl OF AN ARCHAEOPTER~χ

FIND OUT MORE >>! Dinosaurs 78-79 • Evo lution 74-75

PREHISTORIC llFE
The period between the appearance of the first organisms ,
3.8 billion years ago (bya ), a nd t he first written r ecord of
history, several thousand years ago , is called prehisto ric.
It included sudden increases in lifl'e, and mass extinctions ,
for example during an I】3[1 톨파야톨 .

WHAT WERE THE FIRST FORMS OF Ll FE? EARLY MA RI NE Ll FE ~

Bacteria and other single-cell ed organis l11 s lived in the Based on Canadian fossil findings
sea and re l11 ained the on ly life for l11 s for bi llions of frol1l Burgess Shale roc k. this
illustration shows what marine
yea rs. SO l11 e of these released oxygen in to Úle a i ι life may have looked like over
allowing the evolutio n of orga nisl11 s that could use 500 l1l ya. This period. known as
oxygen. The fi rst ani mals probably appea red 600 the Cambrian period, saw an
million yea rs ago (mya l. those with hard shells and explosion 1n ani mal species
and populations
body cases about 550 mya , and vertebrates (an ima ls
with backbones), such as fish, 500 mya
A nomalocaris was a preda tor
Ihal al 60 cm {2 ft) lo l1 g was
WHAT WERE THE FIRST Ll FE FORMS ON LAND? one of Ihe largest Burgess Sha/e
The first land pl ants evo lved from green algae fo und animals - il had a circ ul~1 r
at the edge of the sea and ri ve rs 440 mya . In ti l11 e mouth and gr~15ping appcndagcs
they gave rise to horseta ils and cI ubm osses. Fo rests
then evolved and we re the home to the fi rst land
animals. Scorpions and centipedes , as well as }셔 lI u cigenia
earthwo rms and leeches , fi rst appea red about moved Qn its sp씨lY legs across
400 mya. They were fo ll owecl by the first land l he ocean f7 00r
veπebrates . which evolvecl 듀o m fish and were
the four-Ieggecl an cestors of amph ibians.

ICE AGES
An ice age is a period in t h e Earth ’ s
history w h e n th e climate is far
co lder t han usua l , a nd la rge areas
of t h e Ea rth ’ s s urface a re covered
by ice sh eets. There have been 20
ice ages in t h e p ast two a nd a h a lf
million years , each lastin g about
100 ,000 yea rs.

HOW 010 ICE AGES OCCUR?

Changes in the Ea lih ’ s orbi t around the Sun produced
cooler SUl11l11 erS, so winter snows did no t melt. As ice
sheets fo nned, they reflected sunlight back inlo space
/.
so it di d not wa rm the Earth. These cha nges also
affected the ocea ns, increasing numbers of plant- like
plankton , which too k in ca rbon dioxide from the
atmosphere. Since this gas helps to retain heat arouncl
the Ea rth, a drop in its levels accelerated cooli ng.

.. WOOLLY MAMM OTH

With it5 thick , insulating coat ,
the huge woolly l1l am l1l oth was
well adapted to living in an ice
age. It lived between two million
and 10.000 years ago
“
./ -

FIND OUT MORE ~ Dinosaurs 78-79 • Evolution 74-75 • Li fe on Earth 70-71 • Vertebrates 102
 。。

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I N

DINOSAURS
This group of land- 1iving reptiles appeared around 230 million
ago. Like reptiles today, dinosaurs had a scaly, waterproof skin, ã효a
young that hatched from eggs. For ] 65 million years , in the
era, they dominated life
on Earth. Most dinosaurs
became extinct
65 million ye따S
ago (mya) , while
others have
evolved into what
are modem birds.
WHY WERE MANY
D\NOSAU RS SO B\ G?
The \arge size of many p\ant-eating
dinosaurs he\ ped protect them from
fearsome meat-eaters. This led to
the evo \uti on of larger predato rs,
big enough to tac kJ e th eir
prey, wh ich in tum resulted
in an increase in the size
of plant-eaters. Over millions
of years , both prey and predator
grew bigge r and bigge r.

HOW MANY D\FFERENT TYPES OF D\NOSAUR WERE THER E?

Dinosaurs fall into two groups. The omithischian dinosaurs
were all pl ant-eate rs, but the sau rischian dinosaurs included
plan t-eaters and meat-eaters. Other reptiles that lived at this
time, but we re not actually dinosaurs, included fl ying rept iJ es
ca lled m.:H를a.U:I:.J.ID염， and marin e reptiles
such as EJI[.:
an d plesiosaurs
U:‘’‘·‘ ‘”
mm

O rnithi5chi~1 1J S

had two pairs of

backward-pointing
hip bones, similar
10 a mode rT1 bird's

similar to a
rnodem lizard's

GALLl MIMUS
GIGAN OTOSAURUS.
Apair of Gigonotosourus dinosaurs charge through a South American
forest 95 Ill ya. Weighing as Ill uch as 125 people , or about 7 tonnes
(6.9 tons) , and bigger than Tyraflflosourus rex, Giganotosaurus was
probably the largest predator ever to walk the Earth
 ””

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Tail is sliffened wilh

from the ti p of its

tooth-lined beak to
thc cnd of its tail

PTEROSAURS
Pterosaurs b elong to t h e same g ro u p
of rept iles as dinosa u rs and are closely
related. Th e la r gest , Pteranodon , h ad
a w in gspa n of up to 9 m (30 ft)

WERE PTEROSAURS THE ANCESTORS OF BIRDS?

Birds and pterosa urs evo lvecl separately. Si mila 끼 ties
in skclcto ns sho w that bircls evolved frorn saurischian
dinosa urs. But birds and pterosaurs have si mil ar
fealures, including a strea mli ned shape , wings , holl ow
bones , and a lightweight beak. A furry body suggests
that, like birds, pterosaurs we re warm-bloocled.
Unrelated li ving things sometimes develop si milar
features to su it simil ar lifestyles

ICHTHYOSAURS
These re ptiles spe n t t heir lives in t h e sea ,
s urfac in g to breath e . lchthyosa urs , wh ich
m ea ns fis h liza rds , gave birth to li ve yo u ng
and Fed on fis h , squid , an d a mmon ites . Th e
la rgest was u p to 15 m (49 ft) long.

WAS OCEAN L1 FE VERY DIFFERENT

|N THE AGE OF THE DINOSAURS?
Li fe beneath the ocean looked much as it does today.
It teemed witl1 animals such as sharks , starfìsh, corals,
whelks, jellyfish, and lobsters. However, swimming
alo ngside them we re huge and now-extinct marine
DI NOSAUR STANCE repril es , such as plesiosaurs and ichthyosau rs
% ”“ m

lI ZARD STANCE

stood upright on straigh t legs. Their legs

direc tI y under them , so thei r bod ies were always
raised off the ground. This allowed them to grow
bigger and let them move faste r. Reptiles today have
À ICHTHYOSAU RUS
a sprawling sta nce, with legs held out to the sides The dolphin-like Ichthyosaurus had a streaml ined body, with flippers,
Their bod ies are c1 0se to 01' resting on 이l e grou ncl . fins, and a long , narrow jaw with spiky teeth. It swam by beating its tail
This li mits their size and their ab il ity to move. fromside to side , reaching speeds of up to 40 km/h (2 5 mphl

FIND OUT MORE ~ Birds 118-119 • Evolut ion 74-75 • Reptiles 116-117
。。

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ECOLOGY
Crevices pro끼de Fi5h of many
Al l living th ings have complex ,
sl eller fo r eel5, different 5pecie5
relationships with other species and crabs. and feed and breed on
,
tl e reef
OCIO pUS f S
with their environmen t. The study of
these interactions is called ecology.
Ecology looks at the I:m:r.TIJII믿J!ml
that links the eater to the eaten. It
also shows how vital chemicals are
recycled by l:m ~llll~U 괴 ~I ••'L•• 톨”

WHAT 15 AN EC05Y5TEM?
From a tiny puddl e to a vast forest , an ecosystem
co nsists of a li ving cO l1ll1l uni ty, its envi ronment,
’
and all thei interactions. A cO l1ll1l uni ty is a group
of anima ls, pl ants , and micro-o rga nisms that li ve
together in the sa l1l e area , or habita t. Its environment
incl udes su nlight, rai nfall , and shelte r.
Físh provides herol’
wilh lhe energy
105 Ufv'-ve

CORALREEF IN THE RED SEA, EGYPU

Fou nd in shallow tropical seas‘ coral reefs teem with
life. Corals are ti ny an imals whose chalky skeletons
fo rm the rocky reef. Th is ecosystem provides food
and shelter for fish and other species

Avolcanic eruption dramatically changed this

ecosystem in Hawaii. The cooled , hard lava
field is a hostile enviro nmen t for living th ings.
yet one pioneer pla nt has managed to grow
on a tiny patch of soil blown in by the wind
Lava f1 0w
from volcano
de5troyed the
old ecosystem

Pio lJ eer phm l pro bably

grew from a spore

‘ WETLAND ECOSYSTEM blown i l1 the wind

Agreat blue heron devours a fish , and the sunlight sti mu lates plant
growth. These are just two of the many com plex interactions that make
up this wetland ecosystern in Florida , USA
WHAT 15 BIODIVER5ITY?
Co ral reefs have high biodiversity because they
conta in large nu mbers of di ffe rent species. Deserts
have low biodi versity because they have far fewe r
species. Humans have redu ced biodi ve rs i 인 Lll many
ecosystems by hannful activities , such as overfishin g.
WHY DO ECOSYSTEMS CHANGE?
Ecosystems are continually changing, often
very slowly, sometimes very fas t. A fo rest fi re,
fo r exam ple, ca n wipe out an ecosystem without
warning. Eve n so , a new commu nity slowly begins to
form. First, short-lived pioneer plants arrive, along w i 미
the animals that eat them. These are gradually replaced by
larger plants , such as trees , and their associated animals.
Eventually, a stable mix of species is established
 。。
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·i

FOOD CHAIN
P/:mIS ~1rc (ood for
In any ecosystem , species eat and a re eaten
many animals‘ c1 nd
by other species. A food chain is a s impl e for dccomposcrs
pathway that connects up to six spec ies by such 8S fungÎ

what they ea t. It describes the route

followed by e n e rgy and nutrients as they
a re passed from organism to organ ism.

WHAT 15 A FOOD WEB? eal planlS alld

s111all animals.
The community wi thin an ecosystem can contain suc l1 as worms.
thousands of species. Each species may be part of two beetles. and
or 11l 0re food chains. The interconnected network of moles
food chains in an ecosystem is cal led a food web. It
includes producers that make their own food by
Garden sna ils feed
photosynthesis, consu l1l ers that eat planls or an ima ls, on planl5
and deco l1l posers that break do wn dead organ isms
beetles and
Wonns feed 011 other Însects
dead plant and .. FOOD WEB
This si ll1 plified woodland food
’
f op COI sumer is grey seal tllat ----~훌ν/、웠 dfllf/ldllfldllr: f ~ web includes producers (plants l.
eats herrings
Beet les eat conSU l11 ers (animals) , and
.. PYRAM IDOF EN ERGY decomposers (fungi)
Seco l1 daκyconsum ers are
톰톰톰톰 i솔칠l ‘*εl 톰빼뚫쩨옆엎톰릎톰폐 worms
herrings lhal eal copepods
.
훌훌 뇨쓸놀~훨맨렐뿔훨멸흩배
with four links. Each step WHY ARE THERE FEWER PREDATOR5 THAN PREY?
Primary conSllmers arc copepods

툴톰섯ι싫옳윷lll-­
that cal marinc phytoplankton up represents a decreasing Preda tors are fewe r in number than prey because they
amount of energy. At are higher up the food chain . In a food chain , an
each step i11 a food
organ ism passes on only part of the energy it recei ves
I 앓훨 혔첼‘뚫I앓 g 혔lll
Pmducers are marine chain. SO Il1 C energy is
phylopla l1 klo l1 Ihal are si l1 gle- lost and sorne energy fro l1l food With less energy, each level in a food
‘

celled al1 d pla l1 l -like is passed on chai n supports fewer individuals than the one below it

Plants extract carbon

Plants and an;l1wls
dioxide ηom a;r dllring
photosyn lhesis
give offcarboll dioxide
during r산piration
in almospf1ere
NUTRIENT CYCLES
Organisms take chemical nutrients , such
as carbon , nitrogen , a nd wate r, from their
surro undings. They then return or recycie
them when they respire (breathe) or die.

resplfa l1 0n
WHAT PART DO BACTERIA
ψ뼈 씨

m 3---
1
AND FUNGI PLAY IN THE CARBON CYCLE?
뼈

m 0 5 Celtain fungi and bacteria , call ed decomposers, pl ay a

”…
m p 5 key role. They break down , or deco ll1 pose, the remains
of dead organis ll1 s. This releases carbon dioxide back
into the aiι where it can be re-used by pl ants

WHAT 15 THE NITROGEN CYCLE?

Pl ants take up nitrogen-containing chemicals, called
nitra tes , from the soi l. Ani ll1 als obtain ni trogen by
Carbo l1
Plant and eating plants, or an imals that eat plants. Bacteria
release the nitrogen in dea cl plant 3nd animal ll1 atter,
planl ~1nd animal all owing it to be returned to the soil. Nitrogen is an
rcmmns ill1 pOlt ant pan of proteins that cells need to survi ve.

CARBON CYCLE .. HOW ARE PLANT5 INVOLVED IN THE WATER CYCLE?

All organisms, including these
African savanna specìes, need
carbon to build their bodies. The
carbon cyc!e ensures that carbon
Îs recycled and never runs Qut
DECOMPOSING PEACH .. Most rainwater flo ws to the sea along ri vers, but some
Apeach rots as it is broken down
by fungi and bacteria. Organisms is taken up by plant roots. Water evaporates fro l1l
like these that break down other plant leaves back into the air. Li ke wate r evapora ted
organisms are called decomposers fro l11 the sea, it rises into the air, and falls as rain

FIND OUT MOR E ~ Animals 96-97 • Feeding 98 • Fungi 86 • Human Impact 64-65 • Micro-o rganisms 85 • Plants 88-89
g, N
u ‘

따
u%

HABITATS OCEANS
Orga ni s m s a r e a d a p te d to live in p a rticular s u rro u n d i n gs with The oceans cover abo u t 70 per cent
of the Earth ’s surface and fo r m
distinctive conditions , such as r a in fa ll a nd temp erature . T his
t h e largest of t h e wo rl d ’ s h ab itats.
is t h e ir h a bita t. The l a r gest h a b itats include ”liTi페n:1 Life is found at a Jl depth s , fro m
l】:l'1" 톨l ’ '.!.UI ’1-., l))1 메m 헤‘3 UII야 :l~‘~，’'.!.'~I.1-.' l】】111 흩:!:l헤찌
s h a Jl ow s urface wate rs to t re n c h es
l】1메(11m. 페 1~ 5:’ , a nd l))1 딛.]r!， ~.:ι.1 :U 센|찌 over 11 km (7 m il es) d own.

WHAT 15 THE Dl FFERENCE WHY ARE PHYTOPLANKTON IMPORTANT?

BETWEEN A HOME AND A HABITAT? Al I ocean li fe depends on microscopic plant-
A hab itat is an area occupied by many like organisms called phytoplankton
species. A ho me is a place within a hab itat Floating near the ocean ’ s surface,
where a particul ar animal species ca n protect phyto plankto n σap sunli ght energy to make
itself and its yo ung from the weather an d food. Zoopla nkton (tiny an imals and protists)
pred a to π. Homes include nests built by birds feed on phyto pl ankto n. They in turn provide
and wasps , and burrows du g by moles. food for lìsh , crabs, sq uid , and other an ima ls.

WHAT IS A MICROHABITAT? IS THERE Ll GHT AT THE BonOM

A small part of a habitat that has its ow n OF THE OCEAN?
co nditio ns of, for example, temperature Li ght penetrates the ocean ’ s surface waters to
a nd light, and its ow n characteristic species , a depth of only about 200 m (656 ft) . Below
is ca Ll ed a microhabitat. Mi crohabitats this , in the twil ight zone, it is much dimmer.
include the shady area under a tree and tn the abyssal and hadal zone, it is pitch black ,
the underside of a rock in a sσeam . and very cold. Each zone, down to the seabecl ,
has its ow n comm uni ty of living things .

• CHEVRONEO BAR \lACUDA

of éhevroned 뻐rracuda swim in surface waters off
Malaysia. 까lese flc lU hunters round up other fish
them with a snapplng bite of th얻ir powmul jaws.

WETLANDS
Wh erever salt or fresh water cannot
easily drain , a wetland forms .
Wetlands cover over 6 per cent of
the Earth ’ s surface. They include
marshes , swamps , waterlogged
forests , peat bogs , and river deltas.
WHY ARE WETLAND5 IMPORTAN T?
Many weùands contain a large diversity of
species , including birds, mammals , reptiles ,
insects, amphibians, and plants. Weùands
also serve as nurseries where young fish and
other aquatic animals grow and develop
WHAT ARE MANGROVE 5WAMP5?
These are the salt -wa야 r wetlands, pop비 ated
by mangrove trees, found along tropical
coastlines. Mangrove swamps teem with life ,
and they also help to protect the coastline
from tropical storm damage.
HOW DOE5 A PEAT BOG
DIFFER FROM A SWAMP?
Peat bogs form in cool , wet places where a
lake fills with soil and ve맘때tion. Swamps
are found in p].ac(;'s, such as ri'(er de1tas,
watèr
FORESTS
Habitats dominated by trees and
shrubs are called forests. They
include tropical rainforests , cool-
climate coniferous forests , and
temperate broad-leaved forests.
These habitats all teem with life.
흉흉훌톨톨톨-찢..，훌를톨톨톨를
홉， 톨값웰’t훌훌름톰
This South American mammal s야nds most of its äays
hangiog upsi1e down from the branches Qf rajnfòre5t tree5.
FIND OUT MORE 뻐 Deserts 84 • Mountains 84 • Polar Habitats 84
Nature 183
GRASSLANDS
Wherever it is too dry for forests to
grow, or too wet for deserts to form ,
grass lands appea r. The two main
types are the tropica l African
savannah and temperate grass lands ,
such as the South Am erican pampas.
HOW DO GRA55E5 5URVIVE GRAZING?
Grasses can withstand constant grazing
because they sprout from the bottom , not
from the 디 ps. The more they are eaten , the
more they grow. Grasslands suppoπ a wide
variety of animals that eat grasses, as well
as those that prey on grass-eaters.
+!:!O W CAN 50 MANY PLANT-EATl NG
5PECIE5 lI VE IN THE 5AVANNAH?
84 1Nature

DESERTS MOUNTAINS POLAR HABITATS

This dry and hostile habitat often
receives less than 10 cm (4 in) of
rain each year. Deserts are yery hot
by day, but cooler at ni빼환 Few
animals and pl a nts have adap ted
to su rvive th ese d ifficult con d i디 o ns .
Land that is 600 m (1 ,970 ft) or
more above the sea is a mountain.
The higher you climb , the thinner
the air, the lower the temperature ,
and the faster the wind speed are.
Only the toughest species survive.
Cold , icy polar habitats ex ist at the
Earth ’ s North and South poles. Polar
regions have short summers , and
long , harsh winters. Only animals
that h ave adapted , with thick fur,
for example , survive there.

HOW 00 OESERT PLANTS SURVIVE? WHAT ARE MOUNTAIN ZONES?

Some plants, such as cacti , have deep , wide
spreading roots to reach available water, and
smal1 leaves and waterproof skins that limit
evaporation. Others spend most of their Ji fe
cycle as seeds. Wh en rare rains arrive, they
sprout, flower, and produce seeds within two
weeks. This event is called a desert bloom.
Mountains have various zones of vegetation.
Deciduous woodlands cover the foothills.
까lese rise up to coniferous forests , which can
survive the colder, windier conditions. Above
the σee line (where trees can no longer grow)
isan 떠pine meadow of ha띠.y plants. Next is
bare rock, capped by a snow field.

WHI던.. ANIMALS LIVE ON MOUNTAINS?

Each vegetation zone has its 민pi않1 species.
Woodlands and forests pro에de habitats for
grazers, such as deer and birds. Meadows are
home to rodents and rabbits and., in summ폐
insects and the birds that eat them. Goats
and sheep live on the rocky crags, and birds
of prey circle above, in seaπh offood.

Snow field at the top

of a mountain is too
cold and windy for
~t living things

a frozen continent,
Tbe ocean around it is
and supports fish , seabirds, seals,

Chinstrap penguins
gather On an iceberg
in Antarctica

.t. PENGUINS
Short, tough plant speci es, such as this Swiss edelweiss, can Several species of penguins live, feed , and breed in and
survive in the alpine meadow. Here above the tree line, around Antarctica. Their dense waterproof feathers
winds are fierce and biting, and soils are thin and rocky. and layers of fat help to keep them warm.

FIND OUT MORE ~ Coasts 59 • Ice 58 • Mountains 45

developed vaccines, and
discovered pasteurization (the
heat-killing of bacteria in food).

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Biology 72 • Cells 73 • Li fe on Earth 70-71

86 1Nature

Neither plants nor animals , the fungi kingdom in c1 udes

toadstools , puffballs , and some I)~.띠 [11111.때 . Fungi feed on
、

k
. ‘
living or dead organisms by making them
visible only when spore-bearing fruiting bodies form.
ro t. Fungi are

HOW DO FUNGI FEED?

Fungi absorb nutrients from plant or an il11 al mattel
aro und them , which l11 ay be living or dead. They
produce long, slender threads called hyphae that
spread through their food The hyp hae release
‘

enzymes that break dow n the food in to

substances that the fungi ca n easily absorb .

HOW DO FUNGI REPRODUCE?

Most fung i reproduce by releasing tiny
spores that then germinate (sprout) an d
grow into a new fungus. The spores are
DON ’T EAT! ~ produ ced by, an d released from , a frui ting
The bright red colour body that is visible above the ground.
• of these fly agaric
Some fllngi drop spores, which are blown
toadstool caps warns ‘ PUFFBALL
. animals tha t they are
poisonous. The caps , wh ich are
supported by stalks. produce
away by the wind. Others shoot them Ollt in
an expl osive bllrs t.
When the puffball is mature. a
hole forms in the top. The slightest
knock then ca uses the puffball to
spores. These spores are released ARE MUSHROOMS AND TOADSTOOLS THE SAME? shoot clouds of spores into the air
fro m downwa rd-hanging
plates. or gills Toadstools are brigh tJ y coloured and po isonolls to eat,
bllt mllshroo l11 s are uSllally edible and dllll in cololl f.
Both toadstools and mllshrooms are frlliting bodies
(spore-bea rin g structu res) prodllced by fll ngi. They
belong to the sa l11 e grollp , the Bas idiomycetes , so
scientists l11 ake no disti nction between the two.

FUNGI CLASSIFICATIO N

Scientists are continually • Yeasts , moulds , morels , and

revising the classification of the
fungi ki ngdom (with more than
100 ,000 speciesl. bu t currently
they divide it into three groups:
• Pin moulds (Zygomycotal;
truffles (Ascomycota , or spore
shootersl;
• Smuts , rusts, jellies. mushrooms.
and brackets (Basidiomycota. or
spore droppersl
‘YeastsBUDDING YEAST CELLS
reproduce by budding
New cells grow out like bubbles
from parent cells. then separate

MOULDS |5 MOULD USEFUL?

F ung i called moulds produce the wooll y o r Some moulds are usefu l. Penicillium , fo r exa mple, is a
common blue mou ld that gro ws on 티 ui t. It produces
furry growth s f ou nd on rottin g foods , such
an antibiotic called penicillin , whi ch is used to kill
as bread and frui t. The g ro wths a re formed
bacteria that cause hannful diseases. Penicillium
까 . 'by thread-like hyphae that grow upwards moulds are also used to fl avour some cheeses
and re lease spores from t h e ir tips. These
spores t h e n sprou t on oth er foods. PENICIL Ll NTABLETS ~
This dish shows bacteria growing
... BREAD MOU LD on agar jelly. The wh ite tablets
Pi n moulds grow on starchy foods, such as bread, in a rnass of contain penicillin. CJear areas
grey hyphae with black tips that release spores. The spores float arou nd the tablets show
to other pieces of bread. Unseen he re are hyphae growing into where penicillin has killed
the bread and absorbing its nutrients. some of the bacteria

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Microorganisms 85 • Reproduction 101

AlGAE
AJ gae are plant-like organisms that make food
by photosynthesis. Al l algae contain chJorophyll ,
which is green , but many are coloured brown or
red by other pigments. Most algae live in wate r.
AR E ALGAE ANO SEAWE ED THE SAME THIN G? DIATOMS ..
AI I seaweeds are algae , bllt not all algae a re seaweeds These single-celled
Seaweeds are easi ly visible, made of ma ny cells , a nd algae float in
the surface waters of
grow in the sea. There are red , brown , an d gree n oceans and lakes. Each
fo rms. Many algae, sllch as diatoms , are l11 icroscopic species has its own
a nd consist of a si ngle cell distinctively patterned.
glass-like outer casing
Air bladders keep rronds

Do ALGAE Ll VE
ONLY IN WATER ?
Most species of a lgae li ve in
the sea , in lakes , or in ponds. Some
single-cel led g reen algae live in 1110ist
co nditions on land , sllch as on tree trun ks,
the sllrface of lhe soi l, or on damp
brickwo rk Ot hers live inside li chens
‘

... BlA DDER WRACK

This seaweed , like many others , grows
close to the seashore. Its leaf-like fronds
are anchored to rocks by a root-like
structure. or holdfas t. Slimy
mucus stops the fro nds from
drying out when they are
exposed at low tide

40.000 species of plant-like Multicellular types .t. RED SEAWEED

orga nisms. Single-celled types: • Brown seaweeds • Red Smaller than other seaweeds. red
• Golden algae • Yellow-green seaweeds and green algae (both seaweeds contain a pigment that
BlA DDER WRACK algae • Diatoms • Dinoflagellates. seaweeds and single-celled forms) lets them photosynthesize in the
dim light of deeper waters

FIND OUT MORE ~ Li fe on Earth 70-71 • Microorganisms 85

LICHENS FO Ll OSE

A lichen is not a single organism , but a

.t.REINDEER EATI NG Ll CHEN
In the cold. harsh conditions of
the Arctic tundra , lichens are an
important source of food for
grazing reindeer. In winter. they
combination of a fungus and a green alga.
Lichens exist in extreme c1 imates , from dry
deserts to the icy Arctic. They grow on
surfaces such as rocks , bark, and soi l.
HOW 00 FUN GI ANO ALGAE Ll VE IN Ll CHENS?
The fu nglls fo rl11 s an oll ter layer that protects the alga
beneath from dty ing out a nd from harmfu l amollnts
of ligh t. The alga l11 akes its ow n food by
photosy nth esis , a nd shares it with the fungus. 1n
Two of the three main
rerurn , the fu ngus supp lies the alga with esse ntial types of lichen fru ticose (shrubby)
•

reach lichens by scraping away l11 inerals, sllch as nitrogen. This benefìcial rela tions hip and fol iose (Ieafy) - are seen here growing on
snow with their hooves between two different species is called sY l11 biosis. Ll CHEN tree barks. The thi rd 이pe is crustose (flat and crusty)

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Li fe on Earth 70-71

Plants are one of the five kingdoms
of living things. They are made up
of many cells and are usually rooted
in soil. Their green leaves capture
to make food by ."
CAN PLANTS MØ_l
Plants cannot ìnÒ\të 합Ð~뼈: like 빼im와， but they 빼U
show movements. Shoòts grow. leaves tum towards
theS‘뼈
m
디:Ji뼈
C mb피，ing plants have fine tendrils, or stems, Jhat reach
out .untJ1 야ley find something firm to grip on!o-
 。。
때
n?

따
N

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
A nim a ls h ave to fìnd and eat food , but
p la n ts a re ab le to make t h e ir own by u s in g
sunligh t e nerg y . Thi s process , ca ll ed
photosynthes is , prov ides pl ants w it h t h e
e n e rgy a nd raw m aterials for growth .

WHAT HAPPENS lN PHOTOSYNTHE51S?

The leaves of pl ants trap sunli ght energy, which
changes carbon dioxide gas ancl water into an
.t. CHLOROPLASTS
energy- ri ch foocl callecl glllcose. Glucose provides The green structu res seen in
이le plan t with energy, ancl is also usecl to make this microscopic view of leaf cells
sllbstances sllch as cellulose, which builds the are chloroplasts. They contain
.t. ROOT HAIRS chlorophyll. a green pigment
Magn ified 200 til1l es here , root hai rs are tiny p r이 ect i o ns from a pla nt’s pl ant ‘ 5 cell walls.
that traps sunl ig ht energy
roo t. They provide a massive su rface area through which the root can
quickly and efficiently absorb essential water and minerals
Lear absorbs
sunligh t
WHY 00 PLANTS HAVE ROOTS?
Pl ants have roots for two main reaso ns. Roots Glucose ;5
anchor the plant in the soil , and prevent it being carried
blown away by stron g winds. They also take Up water away

ancl minerals, such as nitrogen and sulphur, from Leaf cells absorb sunlight
the soil. Pl ants need water to repl ace that lost by energy duri ng photosynthesis
lD.I:l!'~ 찌히 l:l!U['I~1 , ancl minerals to make substa nces ‘
They use it to urn carbon dioxide Water enlers
from the air, and wate r, absorbed via the Slem
essential for life. by the roots, in to glucose from che
l1l olecules. Oxygen is released escapes roo ts
HOW 00 PLANTS OEFENO THEMSELVES? as a waste produc t. ;11(0 the air lhe air
Pl ants ca nnot escape from hungry pl ant-eate rs , bu t
PINEAPPLE SAGE
they have evolved a wide range of defences. Some
have thorns or spines that cut into an animal‘ s skin,
and will pierce its mouth if eaten. Others pro du ce
TRANSPIRATION
chemica ls that taste terribl e and may be very Leaves constantly lose wate r by eva p oration
po isonolls. 50me have tiny hairs on their leaves that
t h ro u gh t iny pores , o r stomata , that a lso let
stop leaf-eating insects reachin g the leafs surface.
ca rbon dioxide in to , a nd oxygen o u t of, t h e
Damselfly Jands 011 lea f. This water loss , ca ll ed trans piration ,
c reates a force that he lps draw up m ore
water fr o m t h e roots.

WHAT 15 THE VASCULAR 5YSTEM?

Water ancl nll tri ents are moved throllgh a plant by its
vascular system. This consists of two types of
microscopic rub es - xylem and phloem. Xy lem ca rries
Sti ff pro l1 gs SlO p water ancl Ill inerals from the roots to the rest of the
the dmllselfly pl an t. Phloem carries nll trients , such as glucose , from
where they are made to other paπ5 of the plant

has sensory hairs lhal

trigger Irap to c/ose
w/1 cn moved

.. VENUS FLYTRAP
The carnivorous Venus flytrap.
which grows in ve 이 poor soils. takes
essential minerals from insects. The
ends of the plan t' s leaves fo rm a trap
of two pads. If an insect lands on the
pads. the tra p snaps shu t. The plant digests
the insect and absorbs its minerals
Seen in microscopic view , this
stoma (pore) in the leaf’ s surface
is su rrounded by two gua rd cells
At night. these guard cells ciose
the stoma
.t. STOMA IN DAY Ll GHT
During the day. the guard cells
open the stoma. Th is lets carbon
dioxide enter the leaf and wa ter
vapour escape during
tranSplratlon
.t. TRANSPIRATl ON STREAM
Water lost fro m leaves by
transpi ration is re placed by water
from the roots. An unbroken
col umn of water flows fro m the
roots up to the leaves

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Fl owering Plants 92-93 • Non-Flowering Plants 90-91 • Trees 94-95
n7 o ””

때
따
NON FLOWERING PLANTS
TREE FERN ~
Mosses , ferns , and their relatives are plants that do not Dicksonio antarctica is a large
tree fern that grows on cool ,
produce f1 0wers but reproduce by means of l】)1허딛”헤흩:tI shady forest fioors in Australia
Tree ferns have a large, fibrous
Most live in shady or damp habitats. Ð:lí(.HII;~~~
~’~
"'J are trunk , topped with a crown of
fronds (l eaves). This species can
non- f1 owering plants that reproduce by making seeds . grow 1-3 m (3-10 ft) tall

HOW 00 FERNS GROW?

refeaSC5 spores
The stem, or rhizome , of a fern grows hori zo ntally
through the soi l. Tiny curled-up fronds (I eaves) grow
from small buds on the rhi zo me. The buds lI nroll and
th e frond expa nds. The fronds of some ferns grow
6 m (20 ft) long - others reach only 13 mm (ii2 in)

HOW OOES MOSS Ll VE WITHOUT ROOTS?

Most mosses gro w in short c1 u ll1 ps or cushions. They
do not have trlle roots , but short, slender growths,
called rhizoids. Root- li ke rhi zoids anchor moss to soil ,
rock, or bark , but do not draw up water
Instead , leaves absorb 1l1 0isture in the ail

‘TheMleafy
OSS REPRODUC ONTl
tips of mosses produce
male and female sex cells. Male
sex cells swim through water
on the surface of the plant to
reach and fertilize female cells.
Fertilization produces a stalked
sporophyte , or spore capsule‘ that
scatters spores into the air
CLASSIFICATION OF NON-FLOWERING PLANTS
1 There are 11 main divisions of • Ferns • Conifers • Cycads
I non-flowering plants • Ginkgo • Gnetophytes
1 Liverworts • Mosses
• The last fou r form a group
1 Hornworts • Whisk ferns
• called gymnosperms - they
1 . Clubmosses • Horsetails produce seeds instead of spores

SPORES
Non-flowering plants reproduce by Fern spores develop in protective caps called sori (singular
re leasing large numbers of t iny spores sorus). 50ri are attached to the underside of fronds. Large
ferns make and release millions of spores each year
These minute organisms consist of on e
Sorus
or a few ce ll s inside a tough coa t.
INSIDEASORU5 ~
WHY IS SPORE OISPERSAL 11\I1 PORTANT? Each sorus contains
Many non- f1 owering plants rely on wind to carry a cluster of spore
producing sporangia
their reproductive spores as fa r away as possible In dry conditions,
This reduces cO ll1 petition with the parent plant for sporangia open and
light, water, and important nu tri ents. [f a spore la nds scatter their spores
in a damp pl ace, it ge rll1 inates (sprollts) and grows
in to a new plant Sporallgium
 뼈
n

따
M
” y4
·i

CONIFERS
T rees a nd s hrubs w h ose seeds d e v elo p in woody
co n es a re ca ll e d co ni fe rs . T h e 550 s p ecies include
p in es , 쥐 rs ， a n d cedars . Co n ifers fo rm d ense
forests in co lde r , n orth e rn reg io n s . Most k eep
t h e ir leaves a ll yea r lo n g

.t. STONE PINE CONE

Seeds mature inside the female
cone , protected by its scales
ln warm ‘ dry conditions,
the cone opens to
release its seeds
.t. PINE FOREST
The branches of pines and many other conifers slope downwards PI NE SEEDS
This helps winter snows to slide off, preventi ng damage to the tree

HOW DO CONIFERS PRODUCE SEEDS?

Conifers have male and female cones. The male cones
release pollen grains (male sex cellsl. which are blown Male concs are
by the wind. If pollen lands on the femaJe cones, it 50ft. and drop off
aftcr shedding
야띠 l i zes the fe male egg cells. The felt ilized eggs develop
I'ollc l1
into seeds. After one or two years, when the seeds have
matu red , the female cone opens up. It drops winged
seeds, which germinate wherever they land if
cond itions are faVOLtrable.

WHY DO SOME CONIFERS

HAVE NEEDLE-SHAPED LEAVES?
Leaves shaped like needles help conifers survive in
cold , harsh climates. The leaves are tough and coated
with a waxy outer coat, 0 1' cutide. 까l e nalTOWshape,
toughness, and cutides all help the leaves withstand
high winds and exπem e temperatures. They also
reduce water loss.

Do OTHER PLANTS HAVE CONES?

A group of plants called cycads have large
seed-producing cones that can grow to more
than 55 cm (22 in) long. They have stout trunks
topped by long, di vided leaves, and look more like
palm trees than conife rs. Cycads grow in tropical
and subtropical regions. They are desce nded
from a group of plants that fl ourished 250
million years ago. Today, there are 140
species of cycads

Pine trees , lîke most conifers, are evergreen and keep

thei r leaves throughout the year. The long , spiky
needles stay on the trce for at least two years

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Climate 62-63 • Habitats 82-84 • Plants 88-89 • Trees 94- 95
FIND OUT MORE .에 Li fe on Earth 70-71 • Non Flowering Plants 90-91 • Plants 88-89 • Trees 94- 95
 TREES
These ta 1l, seed-producing plants have a single woody
stem , ca 1l ed a trunk , that supports their great weigh t.
They live for many years and do not die in winter.
The largest group of trees is broad-leaved trees.
WHY ARE TREES 50 IMPORTANT?
Trees release oxyge n in to th e atmosphe re fo r other
org a n is ms to breathe in . Th e roots of trees bincl so il
togeth er, preventi ng it from being wash ecl away. Trees
a lso pro v icle foocl a ncl habitats for ma ny a nim a ls , ancl
woocl for fu el, ti mbe r, a ncl m a ny oth er proclu cts.

HOW DO TREE5 GROW?

Trees g row in two ways. Specia l cells at th e tips of
tw igs c1 ivicle , ma k.i ng the tw igs g ro w. Al s o , a laye r
of cel ls u ncl er the ba rk. the cam b iu lll. d iv id es

‘ EVERGREEN RAINFOREST
The Amazon rainforest is the
largest in the world. It contains
about one-fifth of all flowering
plant species
Heartwood cOfltains
moslly dcad cells
widening dl e trunk a nd branches. The new cells th at
the ca mbium makes form a visibl e 끼 n g inside the tru
WHAT ARE BROAD-LEAVED TREES?
Unlike co nifers , w ith th eir n eedle-sha pecl
leaves, these trees have wi cl e , fl at leaves.
Ma ny a re ~)1'] :I'.l l1I rI1l‘:'1 헤:1:10~ that
lose their leaves in autumn , but the
broacl - Ieaved trees of a tropical ra in-
forest a re eve rg ree n. The Ill ass of leaves
of aclj acent trees forlll a m파따돼 .

.t. TYPES OF LEAF

Broad-Ieaved trees have one of
lwo types of leaves. A simple leaf
is undivided and has its own leaf
stalk. A compound leaf is divided
up into several smal ler lea flets
lhal are attached to the ma in
leaf stalk

... TREE TRUNK CROSS-SECTION

The inside of a tree trunk has rings of ou ter
sapwood and inner heartwood. Both consist of
strength-giving cells called xylem. Sapwood xylem
also carries water and minera ls up the tree
Outside the sapwood are phloem cells,
which car이 food , surrounded by ba rk

TREE CLASSIFICATION

Trees are divided into three
groups: broad-Ieaved trees.
palms, and çonifers
• Broad-Ieaved trees are the
largest group , with over 10,000
species. They are dicot fl owering
plants. and the veins in their
leaves branch out like a net
• Palm trees , with about 2,800
species , are monocot f1 0wering
plants. The veins in their leaves
are always parallel
• Conifers. with 550 species ,
have cones instead of fiowers
 n

「
N u% 73

IDUOUS TREES
that lose t h eir lea v es in t h e a u tumn a re
led d eciduo u s. They g row in t e m p e rate
that h ave wa rm s umm e rs a nd
or cold win te rs .

Do THE5E TREE5 5HED THEIR LEAVE5?

Wh en trees shed their leaves they stop
growing. This helps them conserve energy
during witlter, when there is not eno ugh

|5ll빼
to
rea ch the fo rest floor
sunlight to ma ke food . 5hedding leaves
also helps trees co nserve wate r as it
stops water evaporating from them

WHY DO DECIDUOU5
LEAVE5 CHANGE COLOUR?
In su mmer, these leaves are
packed with the green pigment
(colouring) chl orophyll , which
captures sunlight energy. In
autu mn, chl orophyll breaks
down and is reabsorbed by the
tree, revealing previously hidden
pigments , sllch as reds, yell o
and oranges

l EAF COl OUR •

‘ DECIDUOUS TREE IN SUMM ER DECIDUOUS TREE IN AUTU MN ...

This lime tree is bathed in
sum mer sun. The tree uses its
mass of green leaves to trap
sunlight energy to ll1 ake food.
PERSIAN IRONWOOD l EAVES
In autum n, temperatures are
lower and there is less daylig ht
The lime tree’ 5Jeaves turn orange
or brown and start to fa ll

LAYERS OF A RAINFO REST

The uppe r p a rt of t h e t rees in a ny fo r est o r
woodland is call ed t h e ca n o py. lt is m a d e
up of t h eir bra n c h es , tw igs , a nd leaves .
Tropical ra info rest t rees fo rm a d e n se
c a nopy t h at is home t o m a n y a nima ls .
Rainforests are ll1 ade II p of distinct layers. In the ell1 ergent layer. the
ve이 tallest trees stick out from the canopy. Beneath the canopy is
an llnderstorey of smaller trees and a shrub layer of big-Ieaved
plants that can live in low-light conditions. Below this is the dark
forest floor, where there are fewer, srnaller pla nts

‘WHY ARE RAINFORE5T TREE5 50 TALL?

In hot, steamy rainforests, the tightly packed trees 「
layer
grow rapidly and to great heights. Th is is becallse
theya re 따 1 competing for sllnl ight. The taller the
'tree , the mo re light its leaves will receive. Some trees
[
「
can reach heights of lI P to 60 m (1 97 떠
Ca l1 0py
WHAT 15 AN EPIPHYTE?
An epiphyte is a plant that grows on a larger one L
without harming it. Ma ny epiphytes live high up in
the rainforest canopy, firmly anchored by their roots 「
Understo rey

o tree trunks and branches. ln tl1e canopy, epiphytes

receive much mo re light than the plants on the fo rest
L 「
S iJ rub
" and mo re rain water lay er
L
view that 5omeone sta nding on the rai nforest floor would
looking upwards. A palll1 tree in the shrub layer uses its la rge
to trap sparse sunlight filtering down through the canopy above

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Flowering Plants 92-93 • Non-Fl owering Plants 90-91 • Plants 88-89
 /
n
””

따
y0 u mm

ANIMAlS
An imals are grouped into two main types - vertebrates CHEETAHS ~
The cheetah is the world's
with an inner skeleton, including a backbone, and fastest land animal ,
ca pable of speeds of
invertebrates , without a backbone. As many as ten up to 96 km/h
(60 mph) in short
million species (different kinds) of animals - all with bursts. It hunts by
their own modes of I1】1:넙:F!\'J('lm:1 - live on Earth. ambush, creeping as
close as it can to its
prey before rush ing
WHICH FEATURES 00 ALL ANIMALS HAVE IN COMMON? in for the kill
Al l animals have bodies made up of many different cells
Muscles
and eat other organisms to survive. Unlike plants or drive the
fun gi, which are rooted in one pl ace, animals animal forward
move about to fìnd food, escape from enemies, after prey
and find a mate. Al most 외 1 animaJ s
breathe oxygen, either fro m the air
or from water.
Long legs
WHAT IS THE WORLO ’S increaSf stride
FASTEST ANI MAL? and speed
The wo rld ’s fastest animal
is the peregrine falcon ,
ca n exceed 200 뼈/h
124 mph) when diving througb the
air after prey. The fastest-powered flight is that of
the spine-tailed swift. It σavels at up to 170 km /h
(106 mph). The quickest animal in water is the
sailfish, which can swim at up to 109 km/h (68 mph) .

WHAT ARE WARM-BLOOOEO ANIMALS?

.t. CHAMELEON Warm-blooded animals are those that generate their
A chameleon is own body heat from food. Birds and mammals are
camouflaged to blend warm-blooded. Al I other animals , including fìsh ,
in with its surroundings
and moves around slowly reptiles , amphibians, and insects , are cold-blooded.
to avoid detection by its Their body temperatures lise and faJl with the
predators and prey. To feed, temperature of their surroundings. These animals
the chameleon shoots out its are less active in cold weather but require less food
tongue at a lightni ng-fast
speed 10 hit insects before
they have ti me to react HOW BIG 00 ANIMALS GROW?
Some animals grow to enormous sizes. The world ’s
biggest animal, the blue whaJ e, may reach 28 m (92 ft)
long and weigh almost 150 tonnes (1 47 tons). On the
other hand , some animals are too small to be seen with
the naked eye. The wo rld ’s tiniest animals are creatures
called mesozoa ns. They consist of fewer than 50 cells
and measure just 0.5 mm ( ' 1잉 in) in length.
 Nature 197
IOUR
In order to survive , a11 animaIs must eat and
avoid being eaten. They are also driven to
rt'p roduce so their species does no t die ou t.
Most animal behaviour is geared to these
goals. Some behaviour is learn ed ,
the rest is controlled by instinc t.

HOW 00 ANIMAlS DEFEND THEMSElVES?

&뼈i삐S힘 eha앤 in many different ways to escape
danger. Some are camouflaged to blend in with their
횟qrroundings. Behaviour such as keeping still
:&.pmpletes their disguise. Some species defend
암lemse1ves with more complex behaviour, such as
pretënding to be injured or dead. Hedgehogs and
aniladillos roll into a ball to ward off predators

HOW IMPORTANT 15 IN5TINCT?

lnstinct plays a major paπ in the
behaviour of animals , especially animals
lhat‘양e not reared by their parents. For
exam,ple, when danger threatens, sna iJ s
~ PUFFERFISH
instinctively withd raw inside their shells. Animals also Pufferfish defend themselves by
leam by trial and error, repeating actions that are inflati ng their bodies with water
productive and abandoning ones that are not. Along with their spines, this
makes them ha rder for bigger
" IMPRINTI NG fish to swallow. Many other
Baby birds such as gosli l1 gs (young gees히 il1 stinctively follow the first species are also covered with
animal they see after hatching. This is usually their own mother, but spines to protect them from
goslings have also been known to waddle around after humans and dogs‘ even the largest of predators

WHY 00 ANIMALS FOl LOW REGULAR CYClE5?

Al I animals follow regular cycles to help them survive.
Many creatures are active by day, when their senses
work bes t. Others come out at night to avoid
or take advantage
feeding opportunities.
animals also follow

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Biology 72 • Li fe on Earth 70-71

 。。
n

따
N u mm
2
>

FEEDING
Al l animals must eat other organisms to survive.
Animals can be divided into two main groups ,
according to their feeding habits: U:3:".:.1헤~n'l'l~~~’
(meat-eaters) and I잉1:1 헤 :UTI.l 헤힘 (plant-eaters).

WHAT 15 AN OMNIVORE? GRIZZLY BEAR ~

Most an imals eat either meat or plants, but omnivores Bears eat many
eat both. The word omn ivo re means “ everything-eater". foods. including
fruit. nuts. roots,
Bears and pigs are omnivores - so are humans. ln oUJ honeι carrion (dead
diet we carry on the traditions of oUJ early ancestors , animalsl, small mammals,
who kiJ led game and also gathered belTies and nuts. and salrnon swimming
upriver, as shown here

WHAT 15 FllTER-FEEOING?
This feeding rnethod works by sifting large amounts
of small organisrns from wate r. Jt is a bit like using
a sieve to catch prey. Filter-feeders come in a variety
of shapes and sizes - barnacles, fl amingos , and baleen
whaJes (including the blue whale) all feed in this way .
... SCAVENGERS
Hyenas and vultures are scavengers - meat-eaters that get their
food from the abandoned kills of others. This zebra was killed by
lions, which have already eaten their fi ll and left

CARNIVORES
Most carnivores are predators - anima ls that hunt other animals
for food , Predators u sually have sharp teeth , claws , or beaks to
tear apaπ their prey, Animal flesh is nourishing , so predators
do n ot h ave to kill very often , lt is also easy to diges t.

HOW 00 PREDATOR5 KILl TH 티 R PREY?
Top predators such as Ii ons , sharks , and eagles rely on
strength and speed to overcome their victims. Smaller
or weaker hunters may rely on stealth or special
techniques to capture prey. Some predato rs, such as
wolves , hun l in packs. Spiders spÎn webs to tangle
up victims. Rattlesnakes k.i ll their prey with ve no m.
TOOTHY GRIN ~
Ashark's teeth are sharp and
pointed to rip prey to pieces. They
grow in rQW$ and are continually
shed and replaced. Some species
rnay get through as rnany as
30 ,000 teeth in a lifetime. Not all
sharks are predators - the largest ,
the whale shark , is a filter-feeder

HERBIVORES HOW 00 HERBIVORE5 OIGEST TH 티 R FOOO?

The jaws , teeth , and stomachs of herbivores are d es igned to
tackle tough plant food , Compared with meat , plants a re not
very nourishing , so many herbivores spend long hours feed in g .
... TOUCAN
Sorne birds, such as the toucan ,
specialize in eating frui t. Packed
with sugars, fruit is much more
nourishing than leaves and far
easier to diges t. However, it is
also more scattered and harder
to find. Many fruit-eating birds
sometimes have to eat insects. It
is only in tropical rainforests that
birds can find fruit all year round
Plants co ntain to ugh cellulose, wh ich is hard to diges t.
Many herbivo res ’ stomachs are fill ed with microbes,
which break down cellul ose. Some plant-eaters, such
as cattle, have stomachs with several chambers. Aftel
passing through some chambers, food is returned to
the mouth for more chewing to help break it down
HOW 00 HERBIVORE5 AVOID CARNIVORES?
Herbivo res do not need quick wits to capture their
food , but they must be swift or ha ve some means of
defence to avoid being eaten by predato rs. Many are
camouflaged to blend in with their surroundings, so
that hun ters do not notice them. Others have tough
sk.i n, spines , or even poison to put off enemies.

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Digestion 144-145 • Plants 8 8-89 • Teeth 143
FIND OUT MORE 써 Ear 141 • Eye 140 • Mouth 142 • Nose 143
100 I Nature

COMMUNICATION
An imals communicate with their own kind or other
species to coordinate the search for food , attract mates ,
bring up young , or escape from danger. Various species
send signals using sight, sounds , body language , touch ,
scent, complex chemicals , or a combination of all of these.
WHEN 00 ANIMALS USE VISUAL SIGNALS?
Close-range visual signals are used to send a va riety of
messages , such as “ Food is near" or “ Keep away!'’ Birds
from peacocks to robins attract mates using bright
coJours. Firefl ies do the same with Ji gh t. The white fl ash
of a fl eei ng rabbit’ s ta il wa rns others of danger.
, SNAKE MIMIC
Visual signals can be used for defence. This
WHY 00 ANIMALS COMMUNICATE WITH SOUNO?
Sound signals carry over considerable distances and hawkmoth caterpi l1 ar has evolved a tail that looks
like a snake ’s head. Predators are scared off by the
give in formation immediately. Songb irds and howler disguise. even thoug h the caterpi l1 ar is harmless
monkeys call to establish territories. Whales , frogs , and
/ . crickets si ng to attract a mate. Vervet monkeys warn
others of di fferent enemies by using different sounds. Do ANIMALS ALWAYS TELL THE TRUTH?
,Awolf
BODY LAN6UA6E
can give over different
When animals communicate with their enem ies , their
20 messages are not always truthfu l. Dogs, cats , and
raising or flattening other animals raise thei r hackles, arch their backs, or
tail. and neck hairs.
hiding its teeth puff themseJves up to Jook bigge r. Opossums pJay
dead to fool their enemies. Some an imals mimic
(copy) the appearance of dangerous creatures.

WHY 00 ANIMALS USE PHEROMONES?

Animals use scent signals called pheromones to affect
the behaviour of others. These complex chemicals,
which in cJ ude hormones, are most o ft:en σan s ferre d
by ai r. Female moths reJease pheromones to attract
males. In ant, bee, and termi te colon ies , the queen
releases pheromones to convey all sorts of messages
to the rest of the colony.

‘ COMPLEX COMMUNICATION
Intelligent mammals such as
chimpanzees communicate with
others using sounds. scent, touch‘
body language , and facial
expressions. Chimps can even be
taught to communicate with
humans using sign language
Pherornones released by a queen
bee prevent other fertile females
from developing. If the queen
goes rnissing and the pheromones
are no longer released, new
queens are reared. One of these
will eventually take over the hive

FIND OUT MORE ~ Senses 99 • Sound 176-177

 Nature 1101

REPRODUCTION Sn;, ke egg

has Icathery,
watcrproor shcll
Al l animals produce offspring so their species can continue.
Some animals reproduce sexually, by mating with a partner;
others reproduce asexually, without mating. An imals grow
up in different ways , including by UJlI'JI 톨 ι.1 1'J[m~ 잉 :(1찌”
Care of offspring varies - some young fend for themselves.

HOW DO ANIMAL5 ATIRACT MATE5?

PUMA FAMILY
Female mammal5 look after their young and feed
, like tiny version
of Ihe adu/l
BORN INDEPENDENT ...
Young snakes are on their Dwn
During the breeding seaso n, animals adveliise their them on a rich , nutri tious food - milk. Sorne from the moment they hatch
readi ness to mate by using special calls , scents , and mammal babies take only a few weeks 5nake5 lay large number5 of egg5
other signals. 50me an imals use elaborate displays or to grow up. Puma cub5 5tay with 50 that at lea51 50me of their
courtship rituals to woo a wary mate. A few creatures , their mother for two years , off5pring make it to adulthood
learning how to hunt
such as earulworms, are hermaphrodite (both male for them5elve5
and fema lel, which makes it easier to fìnd a mate.
... A5EXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asea anemone divides to
form tWQ individuaJs. Some
insects, such as aphids ,
can al50 reproduce
asexually, when
their unfertilized
egg5 develop
mto young

WHY DO 50ME ANIMAL5 GIVE

BIRTH RATHER THAN LAY EGG5?
Animals born live are more likely
to surv ive than those that hatch
out of eggs. While developing
inside their mother, bab ies are at
less risk of being eaten than eggs

WHY LOOK AFTER YOUNG?

An im als care for offspring
to im prove their chances of
surviva l. More of these babies
survi ve to ad ul rhoocl than those
whose parents leave them to fi깐l c1
for themselves.

‘ LADYBIRD Ll FE CYCLE
Like all beetle5, ladybird5
go through complete
metamorph05i5 , changing
directly from their larval
to their adult form
3. Dormant
(sleeping) p미'，a
{orrm:d by each larva
a l11 0nth after hatching
METAMORPHOSIS
Some b aby animals are miniature copies
of their adult relatives , bu t some look
nothing like their parents. They go through
an amazing transformation , known as a
metamorphosis , before they reach ad ulthood . Emply casc
Icfl behind
WHAT 15 COMPLETE METAMORPH0515? 011 planl slcm
Complete meta morphosis is the change in one step frol1l
larva to adu lt. Moths and butterfli es unclergo cO l1l plete EMER Gl NG DRAGONFLY þ-
metamorphosis. Thei r caterpillars feecl and grow, then Young dragonflie5 5hed their
ente r a resting stage as pupae. Inside the pupal case , skin several times as they grow,
emerging frorll their last Ill oult as
2. Larva hatches the caterpil lar transforms into a win gecl adu lt. The way adult5. Gradual change like thi5 i5
aηc:r a week taclpoles become fro gs is also co mplete metamo rphosis. called incomplete metamorphosis

FIND OUT MORE .~ Amphibians 114- 115 • Insects 110-111 • Mammals 120 - 123
102 I Natu re

INVERTE BRATES
About 95 per cent of all animals are
invertebrates - animals without
bones - and many are tiny
or even mlcroscoplC.
HOW 00 ANIMALS SURVIVE WITHOUT BONES?
Insects , crustacea ns, ancl l1l any other in vertebrates
ha ve a harcl outer case cal lecl an exoskeleto n. This
protects the l1l aga inst knocks a ncl preclato rs , ancl
preve nts the l1l c1 rying ou t. Slugs , leeches , ancl jel lyfìs h
have so Ft bocl ies ancl no exoskeleton. The pressure of
l /J e animal move
fluicls insicle their boclies l1l aintains lheir shape.

Do INVERTEBRATES ’ EXOSKELETONS GROW? IN51DEA 5EA URCHI N..

The harcl exoskeleto ns o f insects ancl crea tures such Like rl1 0st invertebrates. se3 Haemalsyslem ToolII
as crabs c1 0 not grow with the rest o f the bocly. As 대 e urchins have relatively cO ll1 plex Iransporls blood digests foo{/
internal organs. Food is broken around the body movement
a ni l1l al grows , its exoskeleton gets too tight - so it down uSÎng five teeth contained or IIIc ICCIII
shecls it fro l1l till1 e to til1l e. Unclerneath is a new,
slightly bigger, ancl looser case. The ani l1l al pU l1l pS
in a central structure known as
Aristotle’ s lantern. before passing ,Invertebrates
INVERTEBRATE GRO UP5
include more than
itse lf up with fluicl before the case has ti l1l e to harcl en into the intestine
30 different phyla (major groupsl
of ani01als. 50me of the O1 ost
important ones are shown here

ECH INODERM5 CN IDARIANS SPONGES INSECTS MOLLUSCS ANNE Ll DWORMS

6.000 species include starfish. 10,000 species include corals, 10 ,000 species include tube 800,000 species include 70 ,000 species include slugs , 9,000 species include
sea urchins , and sea cucumbers. sea anemanes‘ and jellyfish. sponges and glass sponges. beetles, flies , and ants snails, O1 ussels, and squid. earthwor01s and leeches

FINO OUT MORE ~~ Crustaceans 109 • Insects 110-111 • Molluscs 106

VERTEBRATES
Al l vertebrates have an inner skeleton, in c1 uding a skull ,
backbone , and ribs. These complex animals vary in size
from less than 1 cm (2 /5 in) to over 30 m (100 ft) long.

WHAT DOES THE SKELETON OO? HOW MANY Ll MBS 00 VERTEBRATES HAVE?
Å PYTHON SKELETON
The skeleto n is a strong fra l1l e that supports the bocly Most verteb rates a p aπ fro l1l nsh have four li l1l bs. In like all vertebrates , snakes have
a ncl anchors the l1l uscles. Bon es such as ribs protect birds and bats , the front lil1l bs evolvecl (developecl) a skull , backbone , and ribs. The
the heart ancl othe r del icate pa 다s ， ancl lhe sk ull into wings for fl y ing. A nsh ’s li l1l bs are its nns , whi ch backbone is O1 ade of many
shields the brain . Most ve rtebra tes have bony vary in nU l1l ber between species. Snakes evolvecl fro l1l individual bones called vertebrae
skeletons , but shark skeletons are rubbery cartilage. four-Ieggecl a ncesto rs l1l il lions of yea rs ago
’ VERTEBRATE GROUPS
Fish are the largest vertebrate
group , with O1 ore species than all

講활R
the other groups put together

」讓웰W
REPTlL ES BIRDS MAMMALS AMPHIBIANS FISH
8,000 species include crocodiles, 9 ,500 species include eagles, 9 미 Is， 5,000 species include tigers, rodents, 6,000 species include frogs , toads, 29 ,000 species include bony fish ,
lizards , snakes , and turtles. parrots, ducks , and perching birds. bats‘ whales‘ and primates. newts, and salamanders. sharks , rays, and lampreys

FI ND OUT MORE ~ An ima ls 96-97 • Ske leto n 130-131

FIND OUT MORE .~ Australasia and Oceania 272-273 • Islands 42
때
따
N u

ECHINODERMS 연
Tiny t ll be feet
CQver the arms
Starfish, brittle stars , sea urchins , and sea cucumbers up 10 2 ,000 In
50111(" SpCC/ C5
all belong to the family of echinoderms. These
slow-moving, headless invertebrates are the only
animals with bodies based on a five-fold
structure. Al l echinoderms live in salt water.
HOW 00 STARFISH FEEO?
Starfi sh feed by tu rnin g their stomachs inside out over
their victims , They then ooze di gestive j uices, which
di ssolve their prey Most sta rfi sh eat shell fi sh such as
, ... SPI NY STARFISH
mussels They move in sea rch of food usin g the tiny,
, Starfish have a eentral body
fl exi ble tube feet that protrude from their und erside , with li l1l bs that radiate
outwards like spokes on a
whe el. Most sta rfish have
WHAT HAPPENS WHEN A STARFISH LOSES A Ll MB? five lirnbs, althollgh some
Starfish that lose limbs can gro w new ones in their
place , lf a severed limb contains certain cells , it too
ca n survive a nd w ill eventually grow into a wh ole
new sta rfis h Losing a limb may help a starfish esca pe
,

from a predator’ s c1 utc hes , Bri ttle sta rs are so called

because thei r limbs break off easily ,

and animals Sea urchins live 011 the seabed or

10 mouth buried in sand , Like starfish , lhey
have rnany tiny tube feel , which lhey
Spines
use for crawling and feeding Sea urchins
,

of some spccics
are well protected by their many sharp spines
arc pOl50nOU5
ECHI NO DERM CLASS IFI CATI ON
‘ SEA CUCUM BER
These echinoderms can measure The phylllrn of Echinodermata incllldes abollt 6,000 species,
lI P to 1 m [3 ft 3 inJ long They
, divided into six classes
live on the sea floor and feed on • Sea lilie5 and fcather stars • Starfish • Brittle sta rs and
decaying matte r. After a Ill eal , a basket stars • Sea cucumbers • Sea urchins • Sea daisies
sea cucumber p 비 I s its tentacles
into it5 mou th to clean them

FIND OUT MORE 애 Invertebrates 102

SPONGES
These animals look like plants or fungi , but they are
actually simple invertebrates. Most sponges dwell in salt
water, spending their lives attached to rocks or reefs.
HOW 00 SPONGES FEEO? YELLOW TUB ESPONG ES ..
Sponges feed by drawi ng seawater in through pores Sponges exist in a wide variety of
colou rs and may be shaped like
in their surface and then fìl tering out tiny organ isms
fingers , chimneys , or va5es, They
Sponges lack the obvious body parts 1110st animaJs range in size from less tha n
have , They have no heart or other orga ns of any 10 cm [4 inJ to Ill ore than
description Sponges' bodi es are stiffened by tiny
, 1 111 (3 ft 3 in) lon9
grai ns of Jimesto ne , sil ica , or a fìbre called spongin

SPONGE CLASSIFI CATION

This phylulll incllldes about 5,000 species, divided into four classes
• Calcareolls sponges • Glass sponges • Demosponges [including the
famil iar bath sponge and tube sponges) • Seelerosponges

FIND OUT MORE 애 Invertebrates 102

WORMS
Earth wo rm s a re th e most fami lia r wo rm s , but t here
are tho u sa nds of other types of these soft , legless
creatures . Som e are micro scop ic , o t hers g row to
severa l m et res long. Earthworms and round wo rm s a r e
tube-shaped. F latwo rms are s h aped like leaves or ribbons.

POLYCLAD FLATWORM ‘
WHERE 00 WORMS lI VE? Most non-parasitic flatworms
Worms li ve on lancl ancl in water ancl can be founcl hunt or scavenge for food. Flatworms are a major
in virtua ll y every habitat on Earth. Earthworms live in group of wor l1l S that ind udes tapeworrl1 s and flukes
the soi l. Lceches an cl blooclworms inhabit poncls ancl ... EARTHWORM
ri vers. Most ri bbon wo rms ancl some flatworm s live Earthworms aerate and enrich
the soil as they burrow through
in the ocea ns. Ragwo rms and lugworms are f<ouncl on it. They feed on plants and
the seashore. Some wo rms are IlJI:h1:ι‘:111 ::1.' animals , Qr their rotting remains
that live on 0 1' insicle other an imals
WORM CLASSIFICATION
HOW 00 WORMS SENSE
THEIR SURROUNOINGS? There are over 100,000 species of wor l1l in three l1l ain phyla
Some fl atworms have vely simpl e eyes - know n • Flatwor l1l s (includes lurbellarians , tapeworms , and flukesl
holds
as eyespots - that can c1 etect Ii ght, bllt most • Scgmcnted worms, or annelids (includes carthworms, lugworms.
/• rrilized
ragwor l1l s, and leechesl
worms arc bl incl. Thcir most importanr scnse is eggs a(rN
• Roundworms (includes th readworms and pinworms)
touch. The ealthworm’ 5 slU n picks up vibrations mal lf1 g

causecl by sOllncls or movements. Some preclatolY

wo rms have sensitive tentacles on their heacls Horny cutkJe
tha t help them to capture their foocl. proteclS th e
body fro m
damage
expanrl i1 nd
rontrart 10 help
the wQrm move

5ometlmc5
contai115 teeth
to grÎnd food

AnU5
expels solid
‘Vc1Sle
Tiny bristles on the front part of an ROUNDWORM ..
earthwor l1l help it to grip the soil as it These worms are a150 known as nematodes. Some
moves. The worm propels itself forward by species contain more than 27 l1l illion eggs at any
elongating and contracting its body seg l1l ents ti l1l e, and rnore than 200 ,000 in a single day

PARASITES
Pa ras ites li ve on or ins id e other a nimals or live in the guts of animals such as
plan ts , ca ll e d th e ir h osts. They Feed on t h e cats, ancl humans. The host becomes
when it eats foocl containing
b lood o r t issu es of their h ost, or stea l its
rm eggs or young , Inside the gllt, the
food. Some p a rasit ic wo rms in p eop le feecls on the host ’ 5 half- c1 igestecl foocl
survive w it h out their host even not icing . it matures , the wo rm produces
Ot h e rs ca n cause serious di seases . packages of eggs , which
out of the victim’5 bocly.
HOW 00 LEECHES FEEO? 511ckers
Leeches use sllckers on their heacl ancl ta il to latch
on to anima ls, inclllcling hllmans, in orcler to sllck
their bloocl . They inject a chem ical that keeps the
hosfs bloocl fl owing freely. Th is lets them feecl
ing hooks al1 d suckers 011 their heads
lI ntil they are bloated , then they drop off. Leeches reaches 60 cm (2 ftl long. Some
lurk in poncls , strea ms, ancl other wet places can grow up to 30 111 (100 ftl long

FIND OUT MORE ~~ Ecology 80 • Inverte bra tes 102 • So il48

m
때
따
N
MOllUSCS
Soft-bodied invertebrates , molluscs
include slugs , snails , octopuses , squid ,
clams , and mussels. Most molluscs
have I】1의:.:•••헤 to protect them.
Eyes , similar
10 human
eyes, glve
excellent
Ihe oclOpuS 10
grab hold of
slippery prey
SHELLS
Mo l1 usc she l1 s come in m a ny shapes a nd
siz es , but most have the same , simple
function - providing somewhere t o hide in
times of dange r. In land molluscs , the shell
also helps to prevent the moist , soft-bodied
crea ture from drying out.
WHAT ARE MOLLUSC SHELLS MAOE OF?
Mollusc shells are made of a chalky materi al c어 l ed
calcium carbonate. The shell has three layers for extra
sπ'ength: a tough outer layer, a chalky middle layer,
and a shiny inner layer, next to the animal’s sldn.
Th e shiny layer in some bivalve molluscs is known
as mother-of-pearl
FIND OUT MORE .H lnvertebrates 102
~ GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL There are about 51,000 11l0llusc species split into several major classes
Gastropods such as snails • Gastropods (the largest class) include slugs, snails, winkles, whelks, and
glide along on a trail of slime limpets . 8ivalves incl ude scallops, clams, and oysters • Squid , oct이씨ses，
oozing fro m an area by their cuttlefish , and nautilus are cephalopods ' Smaller groups inci ude tusk
broad , muscular foo l. The shells and chitons (oval moll uscs with jointed plates)
distinct head often carries tw。
pairs of tentacles. The longer
set may bear eyes on the tips WHAT FEATURES 00 MOLLUSCS HAVE IN COMMON?
Gastropods live mainly in
water, but also in a variety As well as a shell. most molluscs have a muscular foot
of land habita ts fo r creeping or burrowing. Some also have a head with
sense organs. The soft body incl udes lungs or gi lls fO I
,Cephalopods
OCTOPUS IN ACTION
as octopuses
such
breathing, and di gestive and repro ductive parts , all
enclosed by a skin-like orga n called the mantle.
and cutilefish are stealthy
hunters. Octopuses creep along
the seabed or lie in wait for fish HOW 00 MOLLUSCS FEED?
and crabs. They pou nce on their Most molluscs have a raspi ng to ngue ca lled a rad ul a,
preι seize it with their suckered armed with tiny teeth. This scrapes ti ny plants and
arms, and paralyse it with animals off rocks or tears foo d into chu nks. Bivalves ,
poisonous saliva
such as oysters and mussels, ñlter foo d particles from
the water with their g iJI s.
HOW 00 MOLLUSCS REPROOUCE?
Molluscs reprodu ce sexually. Slugs and snails are
herm aphrodite (possessing both male and fe male
orga nsJ, but they must still mate to fertil ize thei r eggs
Most aqu ati c molluscs lay eggs that hatch into small ,
free-swimming larvae called ve l.i ge r.
Shell can 5nap
5hul a l Ihe fir51
sign of danger
Eyes along lhe
edge of Ihe shell
look Olll for prcdalors
Li ke all
QUEENSCALLOP
bivalves, the queen scallop has a two-paπ shel l. Most bivalves live
‘
attached to rocks or in burrows on the seabed. They take in water using a
muscular tube called a syphon , and remove food particles with their gills
NAU TlL US SHELL ~
The nautilus is a cephalopod (a relative of squ id
and octopuses) with a many-chambered shell
The mollusc lives only in the shell ’ s largest
outer chambe r. The smaller inner chambers
are used to control the animal's buoyancy
The spi ra lling form can be seen clea rly in
this cut-away shell
Buoyancy chamber
’
Outer chamber contains the I ving anirnal
HOW 00 MOLLUSCS MAKE SHELLS?
A mollusc ’ s mantle (skin) releases
liquid shell materials, which harden on
contact with water or air. Gasσopod and nautilus shells grow
from their outermost edge. As the mollusc grows, its shell develops
more whorls (single turns in a spiral shell) or chambers. Jn bivalves, new
shell material is deposited on the edge tha t is farthest From the hinge.
ARTHROPODS
Centipedes , millipedes , insects , crus tace a ns , and
ara chnids , in c1 uding spid e r s , all b e long t o a s up e r-
group of inve rte brates call e d arthropods. Arth ropods a r e
more num e rous a nd varied th a n any other animal group .

WHAT FEATURE5 DO ARTHROPOD5 5HARE?

AII arth ropods have 1)odies divided into segments and
covered with a hard ITI.:t:('J.":U l:Illll~1 . Th is to ugh ... PI LL MILLl PEDE GIANT CENTIPED E ‘
casing is made of a protein called chi tin , which is also With their tough , rounded bodies, Ill illipedes make Centipedes paralyse or kill their
found in huma n fin ge rna il s. The armour is Oex ibl e at difficult prey. The p川 Ill illipede has al1 extra trick to prey with poison , injected by
deter predators - it rolls into a ball fang -like claws just behind the
joints on the legs, which makes arthropods nimble when attacked. SOllle Ill illipedes Ill outh. There are over 3,000
defend thelllselves with poisons , species of centipedes. The largest
WHAT 15 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN such as quinone and cyanide‘ live io the tropics and rnay grow
A CENTIPEDE AND A MIL Ll PEDE? produced by glands up to 30 cm (, 2 in) long - large
between thei r segments enougll to ki ll a mouse
Centipedes are active hun ters, while 11l 0st mi lli pecles
eat plant matter. Also, centipecles have two legs per
bocly segmenl. Mi ll ipedes ha ve fou r. Centipedes and Long antC l1 11a
mi lli pecles are col lectively known as myriapods h c/ps lhc /obslcr
navlgale 0 f1
the sea bed
Do ALL CENTIPEDE5 HAVE ONE HUNDRED LEG5?
The wo rd centipede l11 eans “ 100 legs" , but SO I11 C
centipecles have Fewer than 100 legs , and others have
1110re. Si l11 ilarly, the wo rd mill ipecle l1l eans “ 1,000
legs" , bu t in fact no l11 illi pecle has 111 0re than 750 legs

ARTH ROPOD CLASSIFICATION

Arthropods Ill ake up tlle largest pllylulll (Ill ajor group) in tlle anilllal
kingdolll. There are Ill ore tllan 900,000 nallled species divided into '3
classes: • Crustaceans • Insects • Arachnids • Centipedes • Millipedes
• Sea spiders • Pauropods • Symphylans • Springtails • Proturans
• Two-pro l1 ged bristletails • Three-pronged bristletails • King crabs

EXOSKELETON
An arthro p o d ’ s exoskeleto n is a protective
case a nd a n a n c h o r p o in t fo r mus cl es . As
we ll as b e in g to u g h , it is wate rproof,
h e lp in g t h ese c reatures to surv ive
in even t h e h a rs h est h a bitats .

In order to grow, arthropocls have to 1110 1l lt

are joi11l ed În
several pJaces
.t.LOBSTER
The lobster’s hard exoskeleton supports and protects its
body. Even delicate parts, such as the legs and antennae ,
are completely encased. The North Atlantic lobster is the
world ’s heaviest arthropod , weighing up to 20 kg [44 Ib)
(shed their exoske)etons) evely so often. They
then expand the ir bod ies befo rc their new casing
hardens. Arthro pods are vulnerable whi le 1110ul ting, so
try to find a safe place to hide beFore they begin
WHERE DO ARTHROPOD5 L1 VE?
Arthropods occur in virtuall y every habitat, from the
cold ocean c1 epths to the hottest deserls. They can live
throllgh extre l11 es 디lat wo ulcl kill 1110St ve rtebrates.
Scorpions, for exa l11 ple, can survive being frozen solid

FIND OUT MORE 애 Invertebrates 102

꿇í Nature

ARACHNIDS
A large group of eight- legged arthropods , arachnids
include spiders , scorpions , ticks , and mites. Al l scorpions
and spiders are meat-eating hunters. Ticks and mites are
tiny creatures with sucking or biting mouthparts. Most
ticks live as parasites on animals or plants.
HOW 00 SPIDERS SPIN SILK?
Spiders prodllce liqllicl silk from g lancls in sicl e their
abclomens . Structllres callecl spinn er ets sqlleeze Ollt the
silk , w hi ch the spid er t h en Plllls in to l ong threa cls w i th
its legs. Most spider s lI se silk to sp i n webs a nd catch
fl y ing prey. Some spide rs hllnt w i thollt lI sin g web s.
‘ MEAL MITE
Sorne rnites are so srnall that they cannot be seen
HOW 00 SCORPIONS KILL TH 티 R PREY?
wi t h the naked eye. This photograph of a rneal
Scorpion s u se the ir pin ce rs to catch ancl k ill p rey.
mite was taken wi t h an electron microscopc and
Th ey pOllnce on insects , spicl ers , an cl even m i ce ancl rnagnified many thousands of tirnes. Meal mites
l i za rcl s , t h e n lI se t h ei r pin cer s to t ea r th e m to pi eces feed on cereals and are often found in kitchcns. The
Th e poisonous st in g i s lI secl to k ill on l y powe rfu l long hairs help the mite to sense its surroundings
v ictims t h at put up a fi g h t. Scorpions hlln t at ni g h t
a ncl lI se m a inly rollch a ncl smell to sen se their prey . ARACHNID CLASSIFICATIDN

... PROTECTI VE MOTHER

Alrnost all arachnids live on land. The class Arachnida includes
The fernale scorpion carries her babies on her back for two to three
about 95 ,000 species , divided into 10 orders
weeks to protect thern frorn predators. After their first rnoult (shedding
• Scorpions • Pseudoscorpions • Spiders • Mites and ticks
of skinl. the young leave their Ill other to hunt on their own. Male and
• Harvestmen (daddy long legsl • Whip scorpions • Micro-whip
fernale scorpions court by perforrning a synchronized dance. After
scorpions . Solifugids (sun spidersl • Ricinuleids • Arnblypygids
ma t ing , the eggs develop inside the rnother ’ 5 body, so she gives
bi rth 10 living young

5piders kill or paralyse their prey by biting it with

poisoned fangs. Then they inject digestive juices
into i t. Tarantulas are active hunters , pouncing
on prey rather than catching it in a web. Most
tarantulas live in 50uth and Central Arnerica

{ee/ers

FIND OUT MORE ~ Arthropods 107 • Invertebrates 102

 CRUSTACEANS
These ,
invertebrates include c r a b s b a m a cl es , 따훨E며， a nd wo o dlice . Th e y a re
s ometimes calle d the insects o f the sea , b ecau se they are the m ost num e rous ocean
arthropods . Al I c rus tacean s h a v e h a rd s kin , g ills , a nd two p a irs of a n te nn ae.

WHERE 00 CRUSTACEANS Ll VE? WHAT 00 CRUSTACEANS EAT?

Most crustacea ns live in th e ocean - although so me Many crustaceans are scavengers, feeding on scraps
species li ve in fresh water, and woodli ce and a few and dea d crea tl.l res. Crabs, shrimp , and praw ns sea rch
crabs live on land. Prawns and shrimp sw im freely in for foocl main ly at ni ght ancl hicle in crevices by day
open wa ter. Barnacl es Some crabs and lobsters are acti ve preclators , seizing
li ve attached to rocks , prey in their powe rful c1 aws. Barn acles lì lter tiny
harbour wa lls, or th e creatures from th e water using th eir hailY legs
sides of ships Woodlice munch on plant remains.
‘ GOOSE BARNACLES
ARE BABY CRUSTACEANS Ll KE THE AOULTS? These crustacea ns extend their
Most crustacea ns hatch from eggs in to nauplius larvae , sle nder legs to trap tiny floating
creatures for food. As ad ults,
which do not resembl e their adul t form at all. These they live fixed to one spot
tiny creatures fl oat near the ocean surface , where
they feed ancl grow. Th ey moul t th eir hard skin ’ NAUP Ll US LARVAE
several times before beco ming adu lts Most young crustaceans floa t
freely near the ocean ’ ssurface
Crea lures that live in this
‘ HERMIT CRABS way are known as
These creatures wear elllpty moll usc shells for plankto n. The word
protection from predators. When they outgrow pla nkton I1l cans
one shell , they si mp ly move into another

覆鐵1

COPEPOD

CR USTACEANCLASSIFICATI ON

Crustaceans make up the second largest class in the anÎma l kingdom

They include about 58 ,000 species , split into eight sub-classes
• Lobsters, cra.bs, prawns, sh rim p, and woodlice • Barnacles
shri mp • Fish lice • Copepods • Branch iopods
Cephalocarids • Mystacoca rids

KRILL ARE KRILL UNOER THREAT?

K rill a re s m a ll , p in k is h , s h rim p-like
c reatures fo und in th e o c eans i n huge
numbe rs , T h ey f o rm a n im porta n t pa π o f
t h e mari ne foo d c h a in a nd a re t h e m a in
di et of m a ny la rge r sea c reatures.
K.rill are extremely numerous and there is no 야lfeat of
their dying ou t. However, they are being t때 en from
the ocean in inc reasing amoun ts by lìsherm en.
As kri ll disappea r, th e animals that feed on
them su ffer. Kr ill traw li ng in the Antarctic
has had a maj or effect on p e n gμin numbers.

‘
WHAT 00 KRILL EAT?
Krill feed on plankton , such as Kri lJ sometimes occur in such huge
nu mbers nea r the ocean’s
an삐
1111
ll’빼
1 surface that thei r rosy colou r
with th e ocea n 디c uπn댄
r en
따 t s . They, in
lα언 appears to turn the water red
tum , are eaten by evetything from
HU MPBACK WHALE ~
penguins to whales. Some whales
Baleen whales sieve up to 2 tonnes of krill from
migrate thousands of kilometres from warmel the wate r în a single feed î 때 session, usin g-'
waters j ust to feed on seasonal swa rms of kril l. fringed baleen plates in their mouths

’
FIND OUT MORE H Arthropods 107 • Invertebrates 102 • Oceans 40-41
 INSECTS
T h e most n u merous animals on Earth , insects form about

Thorax (middle 75 p er cen t of t h e ani ma l k ingdom. Aro u nd 800 ,000 species

section of the body)
h a v e b een ide n t ified , b u t t h ere co ul d be u p to 10 m illi on.
Ins ect s a r e six -l egged invertebrates w it h keen sen se 0rgans ,
including I11..까애매 N~'!l 톨 . Some live in l:m<<.](tlm 흩:t

WHY ARE IN5ECT5 50 5UCCE55FUL?

Wings held together at
rest - unlìke dragon f1 ies ’
wìngs, wl1 ich are
held opel1
The main reason fo r insects ‘ success is th eir va riety‘
There are so many species that there is aJ most nowhere
on land they ca nnot live , and almost nothing they
cannot ea t. Their small size enables them to go almost
anyw here in search of food. Many insects ca n fl y,
which makes it easy for them to colonize new places.

‘Various
BED BUG
insects feed on blood inciuding head lice mosquitoes and fleas
, , ,
Th e bed bug lives in mattresses and emerges when it feels the heat of a
body. its mouthparts are adapted to pierce skin and suck up blood

INSECT ClASSIFICATION

• Insects have th rived on Earth
for over 400 million yea o;
The insect world is divided
dragonflies form into 29 groups, called orders
;a.very ancient group of insects. • The largest order, the beetles
GianUrag뼈flil5 f1e w in swampy !Coleoptera), contains more
foresls 350 mUUon years ago. than 370.000 species
beforedinosaurs‘혐ds뼈.
• Other major orders are l1l oths
and butterflies (Lepidoptera ,
,65 ,000 species) , bees, wasps ,
and ants (Hymenoptera ,
,98,000 species) , flies (Diptera ,
100,000 species) , and bugs
(Hemiptera , 80,000 species)

ANTENNAE
The main sense organ s of most insects are the a n tennae (fee lers)
on their heads. These often long and slender projections are covered BUTIERFLY 5EN5E5 þ-
Long antennae and large
with tiny sens itive h a irs. As well as feeli n g , the ante n nae are also compound eyes help butterflies
u sed for smelling , and sometimes for taste and h earing , too . to sense the world around them

WHAT DO IN5ECT5 U5E THEIR ANTENNAE FOR?
Insects use antennae to fìnd food and detect enemies.
Lice, fleas , and other insects that feed on other anim aJs
use their antennae to sense the body heat or moisture
of their victims. 50me male insects have especially
sensitive antennae , wruch can pick up scents call ed
pheromones given off by fema les (thei r mates).
WHAT OTHER 5EN5E5 DO IN5ECT5 HAVE?
Many insects have compound eyes , with dozens of lenses
that work together to form a detailed picture. 50me also
have sensitive bristles on their abdomens , which detect
air currents caused by moving predators or prey. lnsects ’
eardrums may be on their legs or body. 50me insects ,
such as fl ies , have taste organs on their fee t.
 Nature 1111

Compo l1r1 d eye

HOW 00 INSECTS OEFENO THEMSELVES? made of dozens of
Many insects are ca mouflaged (natural ly disguised), six-sided lenses

so that predato rs do not see th elll. Some species are

armed with stings or foul-tasting poison. Many of
these have bright colou rs, such as black-and-yellow An terma
s t:Jipes , to wa rn enem ies away

WHAT 00 INSECTS EAT?

Insects eat a hu ge range of foods. Around ha lf are
plant-eaters, feed ing on leaves , roots , seeds, nectar,
or wood. Praying mantises are predators , hunting
other sma ll creatures. Fleas and lice are parasites ,
eating the fl esh or blood of larger anilllals without
killing thelll. a caferpillar

MONARCHCATERPILLAR ~
Many insect larvae (young) look
very different from the adults
Moth and butterfly larvae are
known as caterpillars. These feed
on leaves. building up a lot of
weight in a relatively short time
They then stop feeding and
develop a solid body case in
wh ich they pupate (change) into
their adu lt body shape ... MONARCHBUTIERFLY
After metamorphosis (the
change from larva to adult). an
adult l11 0narch butterfly emerges from its
pupal case and slowly purnps lI P its wings
Like all bllttcrfl ies, the rnonarch butterfly
feeds on nectar produced by flowers

WHERE 00 INSECTS GO IN WINTER?

Many adu lt insects die off in winte r.
Their eggs or young survive in sheltered places
and emerge in spring. SOllle insects survive the cold
by hibernat ng. Others, such as mona rch butte rflies ,
‘

migrate long distances to avo id th e win te r chill

‘ COCKCHAFER BEETLE
In beetles such as this
cockchafer, the front wings have
evolved into tough , rounded
cases calied elytra. These protect
the delicate back wings frorn
darnage when the beetle is on
the ground. The elytra are lifted
out of the way as the beetle
ta kes off and fl ies
HOW 00 INSECTS AFFECT HUMANS ?
Plant-eating insects can harm crops and fruit trees.
Wood- Ill unch ing termites destroy homes and furni ture,
while biting insects ca n spread disease. However,
many insects are helpful to hUlllans - for exa mple ,
honeybees make hon ey, lady birds eat aph ids (which
damage ga rden pl ants l, and silk wo rms produce sil k

COLONIES
Most insects live so litary li ves , b u t termi tes , TERMITE QUEEN WITH
SOLDIERS AND WORKERS ~
a n ts , and some wasps a n d bees li ve togeth e r
Each in5ect colony con tains
in large co lo ni es. Me mb ers cooperate in several different castes, Qr ranks
b uilding t h e nest and fi nding foo d The queen's job is to lay e9gs-
queen termites are 50 f비 lof
eggs they ca nnot rnove. Large
HOW 00 SOCIAL INSECTS RAISE TH 티 R YOUNG? numbers of non-breeding female
Most insects take littJ e or no care of the ir young , but workers tend 10 the eggs and
maintain the nest. Many insect
social insects are an exception. Wo rkers carefully ('010nie5 al50 have a defensive
guard the young and bring them food. Worker wasps caste of soldiers, armed with
bring chewed-up insects for their grubs (Iarvae) huge jaws or poison
Honeybee grubs are fed on ho ney. These young
insecls gro w up in a nursery at the heart of the nes t.

FIND OUT MORE 뻐 Arthropod s 107 • Reprodu ction 101 • Sense s 99

n2

뼈
따
N

FISH
F is h a re a quatic a n ima ls w ith a n inne r skelet on ,
ribs , a nd b ackbone. Most fi s h h a v e bon y s k e let ons, but
a n d ray s k e leto n s a r e m a d e o f rubbe ry ca띠lage. Fish
oxyge n 什o m t h e wate r u s i n g 따뀔훤， a nd swim using
ta il a n d fins . A fis h ’ s s kin is cove r e d with t oug h sc떠es.

WHERE DO FISH Ll VE?

Superbly aclaptecl to life in water. fi sh are fo uncl
lhrollgholll the wo rlcl ’s oceans. frolll wa rlll tropical
seas to icy po lar wa ters. SO llle fish clwell near the
sllrface. Others live in the clepths. where sO llle lI se
lill:lllnlJ미ml 흩;{II 괴~[II=II . Fish are also founcl in

fre앉s h wat야
잉r h a니
e l비
b) i 때
t ats sllch as r i ve
윈rs . lakes. ancl swamps

FISHCLASSIFICATION
• There are over 29,000 species
of fish - more than half of all
the world’ 5vertebrates. Fish
divide into th ree major grou ps
• The first group. and by far
the largest, eontains the bony
fish. There are more than
25,000 speeies alive today
//
• The seeond group eontains the
600 species of cartilaginous
fish - sharks and rays
• The smallest group , with
about 60 species, is also the
most primitive. It5 members,
the lam preys , have skeletons
but no jaws

uP to 21 lonnes.

GILLS HOW GllLS WORK

Li ke a ll an imals , fis h need a co nsta nt rhe

s u pp ly of oxyge n t o s u rvive. Th ey d o no t
breath e a ir but extr a ct disso lved oxygen Water exits
body rhrough
from t h e water us in g t h eir g ill s - feathery
gil1 slils
o rga n s located b eh ind t h e eyes a nd
s upp li ed w it h m a ny tiny b lo od vessels.

HOW DO FISH BREATHE UNDER WATER?

Wate r co ntaining clissolvecl oxyge n is clraw n in
,Mudskippers
MUDSKIPPER
come oul on 10
throllgh the fish’ s mouth. to pass over four or five sets DO ANY FISH lIVE ON LAI muddy shores 10 graze 31g3e.
of gills on either sicle of the heacl . The gill arches holcl They keep Iheir gills puffed oul
clelicate. fl ap-like membranes with very thin walls for years. For example. when the p。이 or1* where
with water, returni ng eve이 so
often for a refil l. M udskippeπ
Oxygen passes throllgh these Ill embranes into the they Iive d꺼es up. African lungfish can ~뼈슐~cwhile wrigg le over the mud using Iheir
fish’s blooclstream. to be clistriblltecl aro uncl the bocly. buried in the mud. extract:Îl)훌훌훌;ygen pectoral fins

BIOlUMINESCENCE
Li ttle light from thes뀔때ce reaches the
twilight zone in the ocean d epths below
200 m (660 삐. However, over 1,000 species
of fish that live there are bioluminescent -
able to produce their o wn natural ligh t.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF BIOLUMINESCENCE?
Bioluminescence has several uses. Deep-sea anglerfish
dangle a glowing lure infront of their jaws to attract
prey. Other species use light to identify mates. A few
even 따e it for camouflage - lights on the undeπide
ofthe body help fish 비end in뼈th 암le small amount of
light filtering down. Many fiSh nearer the surface have
light-coloured bellies for the same reason.
striking marki ngs. Coral
reefs are ve이 crowded places
Scientists think that the bright
colouπ and patterns may help
fish to recognize others of
their own kind
DEEP-SEA AN6LERFISH ~
Adeep.sea anglerfish glows like
an underwater light bulb. In some
species, bioluminescence is caused
bya chemical reaction in which
energy is released as light. Other
species are illuminated by glowing
bacteria in their skin , and some
have glands called photophores
which can be switched on and
off like miniature flash lights
FIND OUT MORE
Natu re 1113
‘50meYELLOWH EADJAWFI5H
species of fish protect their eggs by incubating them in their
mouths. Before setting off to feed , this male yellowhead jawfish will
spit his mate's eggs out into his burrow, to keep them safe
HOW DO SHARKS HUNT?
Predatory sharks detect prey with the aid of keen
sensors, which ca n pick up tiny traces of blood fro m
several kil ometres away. They hOl11 e in on victil11 s
using electrosensors that detect tiny charges given
off by the prey ’ s Ill uscles. At c1 0se range , sharks use
their eyesight to target their qu arry
LAMPREY Þ-
Although lampreys
are jawless fish , they
st川 have plen 이 of bite. Inside their
sucker-like mouth are rings of sharp , rasping teeth
for ripping into the flesh 01 their victirns
ARE THERE ANY PARASITI C FI SH?
Lalllpreys are parasites. They attach thelllselves to
larger creatu res using their sucker-like mo uth and
dri nk their blood. Lalll prey sa li va contains a natural
anticoagul ant, which prevents a victilll ’ s blood from
c1 otting , so that the lamprey ca n co ntinue to feed.
.~ Cnidarians 103 . Fishing 67 . Oceans 40-41

5ticky ñngers
give tree frogs
greater grip
'R뻐-EYED TREE FROG
Frogs and toads are tail-Iess
and have long hind legs. The
most widespread amphîbians ,
they are found in many habitats ,
including rainforests , woodlands,
mountains, and deserts
AMPHIBIANS
Frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and
the strange , worm-like caecilians are
all amphibians - a group of smaJl ish,
generally moist-skinned vertebrates.
The word amphibian , meaning
“ living two lives", refers to the fact
that most amphibians spend part of
their lives in water and part on land.
CAN AMPHIBIANS BREATHE THROUGH TH 티 R SKIN?
Yes , they can. Oxygen from the air or water can pass
through the moist sk.i n of amph ibians to enter the
blood. Many young amph ibians also have feathery
gills to extract 0지rgen from wate r, but later lose these
and d eγelop lungs. Some “ axolotl " sala ll1 anders keep
their giJls thro ughout life.
Contrastíng colollrs
stand oll llike a
warning nag
,Newts
SALAMANDER
and salamanders have lon9 tails and liza rd-like bodies. They feed
on slugs. insects, and other small anÎ mals. SOllle species, such as this fire
sala mander, have poison glands on their heads
HOW DO AMPHIBIANS DEFEND THEMSELVES
AGAINST PREDATORS?
Most a ll1 phibians hop or crawl to the safety of the
nearest water when danger threatens. Some also have
glands in their sk.i n which ooze poisonous
foul-tasting fluids when they are attacked. The
toad and a few other species con fuse
by puffing the ll1 selves up to look bigger‘
are long , slender amphibians found in hot
AJrnost a11 li ve underground , where they
through the soil us ing their wedge-shaped
Like other arnp hibians , caecil ians are predators
hunt worms, insects, and other sll1 all soil-dwellers
caecilians are legless , but sO ll1 e have tiny limbs
 15 p0l50nOU5

COMMON FROG GREEN TOAD

WHAT 00 AMPHIBIANS EAT? ... FROG AN 0 TOAD
Al I adu lt amphibians are meat-eating predato rs. Adul t frog5 and toads have four
Their prey include insects , slugs , wo rms, and even legs and no ta il. Although there
is no real scientific difference
small mammals, such as mice. Aquatic amph ibians eat between them , frogs are generally
wate r snaiJs, insects , and small lìsh . Many amphibians considered to be rnoist-skin ned ,
hunt at night, using their keen sight , smeJl, and hoppi ng animals and toads
hearing to track victill1 s‘ dry-skinned amphibians
that wa lk

BLUE POISON-DART FROG ~

Poiso n-daη frogs are so named
beca use South America n Indians
u5ed thei r pOi50n to tip blowpipe
da rt5. One Specie5, the golden
poison-dart frog , ca rries
enough poison to kill alm05t
1,000 people

HOW IS COLOUR IMPORTANT TO AMPHIBIANS?

Colour helps amphibians find mates and hide from
predators and prey. Some species are brightly coloured
to tell predators that they are poisonous. Others are
ca mouflaged to merge in Witll their suπ'Oundings .
... COMMON TOADS SPAWNING
In the breeding season. am phibian5 gather to spawn (Iay jelly-coated
egg5 in pond5, ditche5 , and creeks). They attract their mates usi ng AM PHIBIAN CLASSIFICATION
brig ht colour5, 5pecial 5cents , or loud croaks
WHY 00 MOST AMPHIBIANS Ll VE NEAR WATER? • Amph ibia n5 are the m05t • The order Urodela contains all
The 1l1 0ist skin of 1l1 0st a ll1 phibians is no t waterproof, ancient class of land-livi ng newts and 5alamanders. There
so they live in da ll1 p pl aces to prevent them drying vertebrate5. They are 5plit are about 500 specie5
into three orders • The largest order, Anura ,
ou t. Many a ll1 phibians lay tlleir soft, jelly-covered
• Caecilians make up the order contain5 the frog5 and toad5
eggs Jn water, which is known as spaw nin g. Their Apoda. There are around 170 Altogether, there are around
yo un g, call ed I))1.맨’I 의111 :1:’ ， gro w up in the wate r living species 5,000 different 5pecies
and cO ll1 e on to land only when they ll1 ature

|탱9 Wlt띠tl뼈 pll1

newt tadpole inside Feathery ex ternal g ;1I5 TADPOLES
still used fo r breathing
τ'a dpole wriggles Most amphib ia ns h atc h as wate r-dw e lli ng
larvae call e d tadp 이 es. With big h eads , long
ta ils , and no limbs , t h ey l ook more like fish
t h a n amph ibi a n s . As t h ey grow o lder, the
ta il s ho rte ns and limbs d evelop. Finally ,
they start to resembl e min iature a dults

HOW 00 TAOPOLES BREATHE?

Most tadpoles extract oxygen frO Il1 fi'esh water using
GiIIs }wve internal gills and feathery extern al gills on their
necks. As they ll1 ature, they develop lungs and theil
NEWT METAMO RPHOSIS ‘ the newt can nQw
gills norma lly shri vel up. Unlike their adu lt forms,
Li ke all am phi bians , newts go through a breathe thro ugh
change in sha pe known a5 metamorphosis ilS lungs as well many tad poles are herbi voro us, feed ing on pl ants
as they grow fro m tad poies to adul ts as il5 skin which they scrape off pond rocks using rasping teeth

F1 ND OUT MORE ~ Reproduction 101 • Vertebrates 102

m
따
N ”

연
u

REPTILES
This group of scaly-skinned , backboned animals includes
snakes , lizards , crocodiles , hard-shelled turtles , and the
tuatara , from New Zealand. Most reptiles live on land but
turtles , crocodiles , and some snakes live in water. N
all reptilies are equipped with senses similar to

WHAT 00 REPTILES EAT?

Most reptil es are active predators. Li za rds hunt mainly
insects. Snakes target prey such as rodents and birds.
So me snakes subdue their 따ims with mm훨꽤 .
Crocodil es prey on creatures as large as wildebees t.
TlI rtles and terrapins eat mainly fish and
Tortoises, which live on land , feed mostly on pla

HOW 00 REPTlL ES ESCAPE FROM OANGER?

Ma ny reptiles hide, or are ca mouflaged to blend
in with their surroundin gs. Some are speedy and
ag il e, a nd can scurry off at lightning speed.
Others are brightly coloured to warn
predators that they are venomolls.
Some Ii za rds ca n break off their tail in
ord er to esca pe, gro wing a new one
throllgh U).:~:(히 ::m ::ll :.ιUIIl ’ l

Forked tongl1 e pick5 l1 p 5ce l11

particles from the air

• There are around 8.000

species of reptile split into
fo ur different orders
• Snakes and lizards belong to
the same order - Squamata
Altogether there are more
lhan 7.000 species of snakes
and lizard s.

VENOM
The majority of snakes k iJJ their prey with
venom produced by glands in their heads.
Tbe glands pump poison through long ,
pointed teeth called fangs , wbicb bite
deep into their prey.

Vipers lift their

fangs forward just
Snake '{,enom works on,fV ictims in two main ways. before biting. as this
Th e venom of snakes such as vipers causes death model shows. At rest.
by 뻗m略in~ 한I~rey’ s body tissues and blood. the fangs are held
against the roof of
neurotoxins, which attack
the mouth
system , paralysing the heart,
and muscles.
 Nature 1117

WHAT IS THE Dl FFERENCE BETWEEN A TURTLE ANO A TORTOISE?

TurtJes Iive in water and tortoises live on land. Turtles from the
same scientific family as tortoises are sometimes called terrapins.
Terrapins have clawed feet and live in freshwater habitats. Tortoises.
turtJes, and terrapins have changed li ttJ e in 200 million yeaπ. πley
all have bony or leathery shells.

85 species of chameleon
on the island of Madagascar.
inciuding this Nosy Be chameleon
CARING PARENT ~
Nile crocodiles are among the
few reptiles that look after their
young. Once she has laid her e9gs.
the rnother watches Qver the nest until the
babies hatch. Then she helps her offspring down
to the water, sorneti rnes carrying them in her rllouth

REGENERATION Fracture POi11t hc15 blood 터iJ regrows complelely

vessels Ihal dose tlP qtlickly in !e55 than a year
Some animals are able to regenerate (regr ow) 10 redtlce bleeding
tails , limbs , or other body paπ5 lost in
accidents or bitten off by predators. Am ong
vertebrates (backboned animals ), th ese species
in cI ude Ii zards such as the tree skink and the
salamander (an amphibian).

WHY 00 SOME lI ZAROS SHEO TH 티 R TAILS?
Losing 311 or part of the tail is a defence mechanism
for some species of lizard. lf grabbed by a predator,
the tail breaks off at a fracture point, which minimizes
bleeding , and continues to wriggle, disσac tin g the
predator while the lizard escapes. Within nine months
the tail regrows , stiffened by ca며Jage instead of bone.
WHICH OTHER ANIMALS REGENERATE BODY PARTS?
Starfish, sponges , f1 atwo rms, and crabs ca n also
regrow body parts severed in accidents. Sponges have
an even more amazing ability. When passed throllgh
a fi ne mesh these silllpl e mlllticelllllar anilll als are
abl e to reasselllble thelllselves. The cells seek each
other Ollt and j oin back togethe r.
Å BEFORE AN D AFTER
The tree skink is just one of many
lizards lhal can regenerate lheir
lails. Before il was lost. the end
of lhis lizard ’5 tail contained
bones. Now lhose bones have
been replaced by grislly carlilage

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Cetls 73 • Reproduction 101 • Vertebrates 102

 BIRDS
B irds have wings covered with feathers , which allow most
of them to fly. Most birds also h ave extremely good ey es ig ht
and hear ing. They r epro du ce b y laying eggs , and many b u ild
l】:3 ~1 흩3 밑I to rear their young . 5 0me b irds fly on long
jou rneys call ed IDli'jU헤 :ι~n'H넙 to breed or find food.

HOW ARE BIROS’ BO Dl ES DESIGN ED FOR FLl GHT?

Birds have evolved many features to make fli ght
possible. The skeleton is strong but light, with a large
fearhers and breastbone to SllppOrt powerful mllscles for fl apping
muscle on the wings up and down . The wings themselves are cllrvecl
leading edge on top , flatter beneath - air σavels faster Qver the
ofthe wing
lI pper surface, proclllcing lift. The long tail helps with
direction and balance, while strong legs assist take-off.
arc long and
broad to ellable
soaring f1igiJt

Tai/ feathers are

used for braking
and as a ruddeι
letting the eag/e
slow down or
turn sudden (y
Å BONE STRUCTURE
Birds‘ bones are honeycombed
with holes which reduce weight
but not strength. Beaks are also
lighter than jaws with teeth

81RD CLASSIFICATION

• With around 9,500 species, • Birds are classified into 27

GOLDEN EAGLE IN FUGHT ... birds make up the second different orde r.;
8irds of prey are powerful f1iers largest vertebrate class after • The largest order, Pa sserilormes
and have superb eyesight, fish. Th ey are also the most or perching birds, includes well
aUowing them to spot prey on widespread , occurring from over hall 01 all bird species
ground even when they are the polar ice caps to the most • The smallest order has just
of metres up in the air. islands‘ one species - the ostrich
눴遺띈깐
3
→
」二
.. SKILLED NEST-BUILDER
NESTS
··!

Af rican weaver birds construct

→變
생!，‘

elaborate nests by knotting

Nests are safe places where birds lay their stems 01 grass togethe r. Some
weaver birds nest together in
eggs and rear thei r young. Adult birds do huge hanging structures that

‘-
ι

not normally sleep in nests , but roost in are occupied all year round
」깐
」??「←

trees o r other sheltered spots. Different GUILLEMOT EGG ~ •

Guillemots lay their eg9s

species of bi띠 b u ild different types of nes t.
Some are simple , others extremely com p lex.
WHY 00 BIROS NEST IN TREES?
Many birds nest in trees because eggs laid there will
be out of reach of many predators. Some birds nest in
other inaccessible places. For example, swallows and
martins nest under the eaves of houses. and storks on
rooftops. Many sea birds, such as gulls. nest on c1 iff
ledges , while ldngfìshers dig burrows in riverbanks.
on narrow cliff ledges. The
pointed shape enables the eg9 to
roll safely round in a circle il knocked
CAN ANY YOUNG BIROS LOOK AFTER THEMSELVES?
The young of ground-nesting bircls, sllch as clllcks ancl
geese, hatch out as fluffy chicks , which are soo n able
to stand and fend for themselves. Most bircls, however,
hatch out blind, bald, and helpless. Their parents bring
them food for several weeks while theLr feathers
sprout and they grow strong enollgh to leave the nes t.
HOW 00 FEATHERS HElP BIROS FlY?
Feathers on a bird ’ 5 wings provide a lig htweight but
solid surfa ce to push against the ai r. As the wing fl aps
downwa rd, they mesh together, then part to allow air
throllgh as it sweeps upwa rd again. As well as allow ing
it to fly, a bird ’ s feathers keep it warm an d dry

“ FEATHER STRUCTU RE
Strands called barbs branch from
the cen tral shaft. These bear even
thinner barbules. wi th toot hed
edges that zip together
CO NTOUR
CAN All BIROS FlY? FEATH ER
SO ll1 e island bi rds, sllch as New Zea land ’ s ki wis, lost
the abi li ty to fl y beca llse their islands had few • FEATH ER 1YPES
8irds have three types of
predato rs. Large fli ghtless birds such as ostriches, feather. Contour feathc rs CQver
emus, and rh eas are strong runn ers. Pengllins Ca nn Ol the body, while down feathe"
fl y, but are expert at swimming and di ving. are fluffy to provide warmth
FLl GHT
FOOT SHAPES FEATH ER

8irds’ feet are shaped to hel p them move in thei r pa rticular habitat
The jacana's long toes help it to walk on floating water plants without
si nking. Ostriches’ hoof-like toes help with ru nning , and ducks' webbed
feet with swimming. Eagles’ ta lons are designed to seize preι and the Many birds have extremely bright
feet of perching birds, such as pipits , lockaround twigs feathers. These are often grown by
males to attract mates but sometimes,
as with toucans , both sexes have them

WHAT 00 BIROS EAT?

Birds eat a wide range of plant and animal foods.
So me feed on speci fi c parts of plants , sllch as frujt ,
seeds, or necta r. Others are predato rs. Hawks , owls,
and eagles catch s ll1 aller creatures sllch as rod ents
OSTRICH RHEA PIPIT WOODPECKER Many sea birds feed on rìsh. SO ll1 e shore birds have
long beaks to probe the mud for WOllllS

MIGRATION
A LONG JOURNEY ~
Ma n y b irds fl y lo n g d istan ces on yea rl y The ruby-throated hu mmingbird
migrates thousands of kilometres A u l umn r OlJte
m ig ratio n s to fi n d foo d , avo id dro u g h t or eve마 year. As well as nectar, this sOLJlhwards to
w inte r chill , o r reach s h e lte re d s p ots to rear bird feeds on insects. In the North Central America

t h e ir yo un g. [n s p rin g , m a n y fl y to coo le r America n win ter, both of these

foods dry up , so the bird flies south
regio n s w h e re foo d is a bund a n t in s umm e r. to Central America , to find food. In
They return to wa rm e r la nd s f o r w int e r. spring , it flies back north to breed

HOW 00 BIROS KNOW WHEN TO MIGRATE? Do OTHER ANIMAlS MIGRATE?

Changing te ll1 peratu res and daylight are thought to Many ki ncls of animals ll1 igrate, from
tri gger bird ll1 igrations , In sOll1 e species, the young ll1 a ll1ll1 als, reptil es , and a ll1 phib ians to crustacea ns ,

fo llow thei r parents and learn the way fro m the ll1 fish , and insects. Reindeer move across the Arctic
Others set off alone, gllided by instinc t. Birds navigate tu ncl ra and wildebeest cross the African plai ns to find
by the p os i 디 o n of the Sun , Moon , stars, and phys ica l fres h graz ing. In the ocea ns, blue and grey whales RU8Y-THROATED
landmarks ‘ SOll1 e can sense the Ea rth ’ 5 mag netic 터 e ld swim from polar seas to mate in the tropics. HU MM ING81RD

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Re produ ctio n 10 1 • Ve rte b ra te s 10 2

120 I Nature

MAMMAlS
A group of warm blooded animals with a bony skeleton , mammals include
mice and other Im~Ulll :l ~1 찌， I)~. 되 ~m’jf!l l:l때， such as monkeys and humans ,
and a nimals as various as hippos , deer, and cats. The 5 ,000 or so species
include elephants , the largest creatures on land , and whales , the largest of
all animals on Earth.
WHAT FEATURES 00 ALL MAMMALS SHARE?
ln almost all ma mmals , the babies develop inside the
mother before they are born. Th is process is ca lled
l】 l.n ::l."!lI lll~1 . Once born , baby mammals suc kJ e、
or Feed , on their mother’ s milk. Most mammals have
hair, and all land mammals have four limbs. However,
in whales , the rear li mbs have disa ppea red

WHAT 00 MAMMALS EAT?

Ma mma ls have become vely successful because of
the wide range of foods they ea t. Meat-eaters in clude
cats , hyenas, and dogs Shrews and hedgehogs eat
‘

insects. Planl-ealers include hoofed animals such as

ho rses and deer, and also rabbits and rodents. Some
mammals are omn ivores, eating both plants and mea t.

‘Dolphins
DO LPHI N
and whales form a group
of mammals called cetaceans
Cetaceans spend their whole lives
in water and even give birth there
They resemble fish but have lungs
not 9 川S， and $0 must come to
the surface to breathe air
Ll ON5 HU NTING ..
Predators such as lions and tigers
have sharp daws and long canine
teeth to seize and kill their
victims. Li ons hunt in groups to
bring down large prey such as
zebras and buffalo

GESTATION Placfnta nO llrishes and

maintains the em bryo through
the umbilical CO Tl이 and ;5

Gestatio n is t h e t im e yo un g m a mm a ls s p e nd g ro w in g in th eir Gorilla embryo expelled after birtlJ

groW5 fo r nine
m othe l ’ s wo mb. Most m a mm a ls develo p in t his way, so th e m oth er rnonths before
g ives bil매 to full y formed yo un g . Ma ny mI~'j，!，:，，"m 딩 J!1J b a bi es , s uch being bom

as ka n ga roos , co mpl ete th e ir d evelo pm e nt in th eir m oth e r ’ s pou ch .

WHAT HAPPENS OURING GESTATION? PREGNANT GORILLA "

ln most mammals , the fertil ized egg implants itself in This cross-section model shows
how a baby 90rilla is carried inside
the mother ’ s womb. There it develops into an embryo , its mother’s wornb before birth
which is nourished by the placenta. Marsupia ls have
no placenta and give birth to ti ny, helpless yo ung. Um bilical cord
lJ .J. I’'j[llmn:‘’‘’l ’::1., , such as the pl atypus , lay eggs ‘ Ii nks lhe embryo
to the placenla

HOW LONG OOES GESTATION TAKE?

Gestation takes longer in some mammals than in
others. ln rodents , such as hamsters , it takes just two
to three weeks. Larger mammals produce fewer
off야 Jring ， which usually take much longer to gestate.
El ephants take the longest time of all - 20 months.
 MAMMAL CLASSIFICATION

• Ma mmals make up the • The second group contains

vertebrate class Mammalia
There are about 4,500 species
split into three main groups
• The first group - the
monotremes - is al50 the
smallest, with five species
the m aπ u pials‘ with 331
species in all
• The third group contains all
plac:ental mammals and is
split into 17 orders. Rodents
make up the largest order.

• POLAR BEAR CUBS SUCK Ll NG HOW DO MAMMAL5 REPRODUCE?

At birth , young m8mmals are
fai rly wea k and defenceless. One
or both of the parents, and
sometimes other adults, looks
after the young until they are
wea ned and able to find food for
Al I mammaJs reproduce sexually - sperm from the
male fertilizes the female’s egg. In some mammal
species, mal es establish breeding tenitories, where
they display to the females, show ing that they are
fit and strong. In others, the males fight for the
WHY 15 BEING WARM-BLOODED U5EFUL?
Mamm aJ s maintain a constant body temperature, which
lets them stay active in all wea thers. Maintaining body
temperature takes up a lot of energy, so mammals need
large quanti ties of food To help reduce the amoun t of
‘

themselves. The babies learn rood they must find , mammals in cold environm ents
survival skills from the adu lts and righ t to mate. Many male hoofed mammals have
often by playing with others of horns or antlers which they cras h or lock togetllel have thick fì.lr 0r fatty blubber to reta in body hea t.
their Qwn age in tests of strength. Some go into I~. :u mm~r!U('J~I to survi ve win ter

HIBERNATION
Many mammals , such as bats and do rm ice , surv ive winter in coo l
andp이 ar lands by entering a deep s leep called h ibe rn ation. Th is
strategy helps to conserve energy t h at wou ld otherwise be lost in
the struggle to keep warm and fìnd scarce food.

WHAT CHANGE5 HAPPEN DURING HIBERNATION ?

Heartbeat, breathing, and other body processes slo w
right down, and the animal ’ s te mperature drops so
that it feels cold to the touch. When the weather
warms again in spring, these processes are reversed ,
and the mam mal wakes up to resume active life.

“ SURVIVING THROUGH SLEEP WHAT OTHER TYPE5 OF ANIMAL HIBERNATE?

Adormouse passes the wi nter in
a snug ball of grass and bark in
its underground nes l. Not dead
but simply saving e ne rgι it lives
on stored fat and wakes when
temperatures rise agam in spring
Hibernation is very common among cold-blooded
animals, such as amph ibians, reptil es, and insects, that
live in cold or temperate regions. In d ese π5 and other
barren places, some animals enter a simil ar state,
ca ll ed aestivation , to survi ve drought

FIND OUT MORE ~ Marsupials 123 • Monotremes 123 • Primates 122 • Rodents 122

RODENTS
With over 2 ,000 species , rode nts m a ke up the largest gro up of
m a mm a ls. T he s m a ll est rode nts weig h just a few g ra m s. The la rgest,
South Am e ri ca ’ s capy b a ra , is the size o f a large dog . Al I rode nts
h ave c hisel- like inciso r teeth at the fro nt o f the i.r j aws to g n aw foo d.
WHERE ARE ROOENTS FOUNO?
Rodents can surv ive almost anywhere except the sea
Ma rm ots and lemmi ngs inhabit snowy moun tains and
Arctic wastes, while jerboas and gerbils live in deserts.
Rats and mice have colonized our towns and cities.
Di ffe.rent rodents are adapted for c1 imbing , swimm ing,
burrowi ng, or gliding through the air.
PRIMATES
These mostly tree- Ii v ing mamma ls a re d ivi d ed in to two g ro u ps .
Prosimi a n s , o r p rimi t ive prim ates , include le mu rs , lo ri ses , a nd
t a rs ie rs. A n t hro p o ids , o r hig h e r prim ates , include m a rm osets , apes ,
monkeys , a nd hum a n s . Primates ra n ge in s ize fro m mouse le murs
weig hing 100 g (3 1/2 oz) to g orill as , w h ic h a re 2 ,000 t im es h eav ie r.
WHAT FEATUR ES 00 All PRIMATES SHARE?
Pri mates are intelligent ll1 a ll1 mals. As well as hailY
bodies, most have long anns and opposable thumbs
and big toes , which enable them to grasp branches.
Prim ates ’ eyes face Forwards, giving the ll1 binocular
vision , which helps them j udge dista nces as they
swing throllgh the trees. Thei r main senses are sight
and tOllch; hea ring and scent are less impolt ant
Do MANY PRI MATES lIVE IN GROUPS?
By living in groups, pri mates ca n defend large feedi ng
territories and are more li kely to spot predators than
they would on their ow n. Grollp living al so helps with
raising young. Primate babies ta ke a long time to grow
up - three to fìve yea rs in apes such as ch ill1 panzees.
Having other adul ts around helps take the burden off
mothers and gives the babies added protection.
J. PREHENSILE TAIL
... CHIMP CRACKING NUTS Many 50uth American monkeys.
Apes are the largest and most intelligent primates. Sorne apes use tools. such as this red howler, have a
Chimpanzees , for example, use stones as weapons or to crack nuts , rnoss grasping tai l. African and Asian
to soak up water, and slicks 10 probe for insect food. mon keys' tails are not prehensile
WHAT 00 ROOENTS EAT?
Most rodents are pl ant-eaters,
searching out food with their
sensitive noses and long whiskers.
Razo r-sharp incisor teeth make
short work of nuts and seeds. Some
rodents carry food in cheek pouches
J. BABY HOUSE MICE
Rodents breed ve이 quickly.
Mice can produce up to 50
offspring in a year, which grow
up so fast that they themselves
are ready to breed in six weeks
Rodent populations multiply
quickly when food is plentiful
‘ BUSY BEAVER
Beavers fl밍 1 trees with their
teeth to dam rivers and form
lakes. They build a home called
a lodge in the middle of the
lakes, where they c:an rear their
young in safe이 The lodge’s
entrance 15 under water.
 Nature 1123

MARSUPIALS
Th e g roup o f m a rs upi a ls includ es k a n garoos , w all a bi es , possum s ,
g lid ers , a n d wo mb ats. A ll m a rs upia ls a re b o rn ea rl y a nd co mplete
t h e ir d eve lo pm e n t in t h eir m oth e r ’ 5 po u c h o r cling ing to h e r fu r.

WHERE 00 MARSUPIALS L1 VE?

’ NEWBORNJOEY
Ayoung kangaroo , or joeι IS
born after just 4-5 weeks. Blind
and hai rless , the tiny baby crawls
up its rllother’s fur 10 her pouch
and clamps onto her nipple
Most l1l arsupia ls live in AlI stra lia and surrounding
islands , bllt sO l1l e are found in South Al1l erica , and
one , the Virginia opossum , lives in Norlh A l1l erica
Marsupials l1l ultiplied and evo lved into all sorts of
species in Austra li a because there we re no placcntal
ma l1l l11 als there to compete with them

WHAT 00 MARSUPIALS EAT?

~ JOEY INTHEPOUCH
The fully developed joey begi l1 s
to leave its mother’s pouch at six
months old , but hops back in at
the first hint of danger. It becomes
independenl when Ol1 e year old.
Many l11 arsllpi als are plant-eaters.
Kanga roos and wO l1l bats feed 1110stly
on grasses, wh il e koa las eat leaves
Some gliders feed on nectar fro l1l
fio we rs. Tas l11 anian devils are so lita ry
and noctllrnal , preyi ng on rabbits ,
chickens, and other s l11 all ani l11 als.
Virginia OpOSSll l11 S are ol11 ni VOrOlls,
eating fru it, eggs , insects , ancl
oth er s l11 all crearll res.
CLAMBERING KOALA ~
Many marsupials are expert climbers. Koalas
feed exdusively on tough eucalyptus leaves. The
leaves contain little nou rishment, so koalas save
el1 ergy by sleeping for "P 10 18 hOllrs per day

MONOTREMES
The s m all group of egg-laying m a mm a ls co nta ins j ust fi ve s pecies
the duc k- billed p l a인pus a nd fo ur species of echidn a . M o n otrem es are
fo und only in A ustra li a a nd o n th e is la nd o f New Guin ea.
T h ese secretive , burrow ing c reatures a re rarely seen .

WHAT 00 MONOTREMES FEED ON? STRANGE COMBINATl ON ~

Monotremes eat inve rtebrates, which they search for
at night. Echidn as , also known as spiny anteaters , feed
on ler l1l ites and other insects. They slurp the l1l up WitJ1
their long , sticky tongues. P l a 인puses hunt under
water, sea rching out wor l1l s, crustaceans, and insects
with their soft, sensitive beaks

HOW MANY EGGS 00 MONOTREMES LAY?

Platypuses and echiclnas lay between one ancl three
soft-shellecl eggs. Fel1l ale echiclnas incubate their eggs
in pouches on their abdo l1l ens. The pl atyp us
curls aro und her eggs in her bllrrow
When the eggs hatch , after about
10 days , the bab ies feed on l1l ilk
seeping fro l1l patches on the
11l 0ther ’ s abdo l1l en . The yo ung
become independenr after four
0 1' five months

Long snout used for probing

inro rermites. nesls

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Feeding 98 • Reproduction 101 • Vertebrates 102

124 1Nature

ENDANGERED SPECIES EXTINCTION

All over the wo rld , p l ant and animal species a r e now at risk
o fl】1 톨，:tll~(. I[.l~I becau se of c h anges humans are cau sing
to t h e e nvi ron m e n t. E x perts estimate t h at u p to
these e n dan g e red s p ecies may n ow b e d yin g o u t each year
inclu ding man y t h at h ave not y et been iden tified .
Extin ctio n occu rs w h e n a ll t h e m e m be rs
of a s p ec ies d ie o u t. Extin ct io n is a natura l
pro cess t h at h as h a ppe n ed t h ro u g h o u t t h e
30 ,000 of
3 .5 b illi on yea rs th a t li fe has existed o n
o u r p la n et - bu t no w m a ny c reatures a re
dy in g o u t at o n ce b ecau se of hu mans .

WHAT 15 THE WOR5T PROBLEM FACING WILD Ll FE?
The greatest si ngle threat to the wo rld’s wildlife is
habitat loss - clestruction of the wild places where
animals live. In many regio ns, forests are fel led ,
l1l arshes clrained , and grasslands cleared to build roads ,
towns, l1l ines, and da l1l s. Pollution frO I1l towns , far l1l s,
and factories also poisons w ild l if농 on lancl ancl at sea.
WHAT ARE MA55 EXTINCTION5?
Mass exti nctions occur when large nU l1l bers of
species di e out at once due to rapid cha nges in the
environ l1l en t. Around 65 l1l ill ion years ago , a mass
extinction wiped out the clinosaurs. Now experts fear
that hU l1l ans are causing a new wave of exônctions .

WHY ARE 15LAND 5PECIE5 E5PECIALLY AT RI5K? ... OEAOAS A0000

Oodos were large flightless birds that once lived on
Island species are at grealer risk than most because islands in the Indian Ocean. They became extinct
many are founcl nowhere else. Their populations are by 1800 because sailors hunted them for food
o Ft en very small , so they are more easily aFfected by
new threats. Many island an ima ls are not usecl to
preclators. Wh en new creatures such as cats or rats are
brought to islancls, they can devastate wilclli Fe.

.1. SPOITED OWL Each rusk is made

Spotted owls are at risk because of ivory worlh
the Nortll American forests where thousands of
they live are being cut down dollars on the
Tropical ra info rests hold a huge black markel
variety of plants and animals , but
these are also disappcaring fast

BURN ING IVORY ~

These elephan t tusks were confiscated from HOW DO INTRODUCED 5PECIES THREATEN WILD Ll FE?
poachers and are being destroyed so they cannot Wb en new an il1l als are bro u땅g밍ht까t í ntη1tO an area they can
be sold. Although elephants are protected by law,
there is a large illegal market for ivory, so someômes take ove겐r habi냐t때ats . If they are stronger or
elephants remai n in constant danger. r
~담뱉
빠
b마ree
야d 뎌S았te안r떼때미an비loc않a떠lμsp야ec디ie앉s， 대
th야
뼈e양y ma애Y 01ω
삐
them for food . New predators o Ften multiply rapidly
비
ult-c
뼈t-c

and sta lt killi ng local wilclliFe. Creatures that cannot

escape, such as fl ight1 ess b i 띠 s ， are
especialJy at risk.

FIND OUT MORE >>1 Dinosaurs 78-79 • Evolution 74-75 • Habitats 82-84 • Human Impact 64-65
CONSERVATION
Governments , scientists , wildlife
organizations, and volunteers
undertake a range of conservatíon
work to protect wild places and the
species living there. We need plants
and animals for food , clothing , and
medícines. In addition , pl ants
províde life-givíng oxygen. It makes An endangered black rhino sucklcs her calf in the Ngorongoro Reserve Calf stays with mOlher
in Tanzania , Africa. Tou rist fccs hclp pay the park’S C05t5. Around unli/ more than a year old
sense to protect the natural world. 10 per cent of the Earth ’ 5 land arca is nQW protccted by reservcs

WHAT IS THE BEST WAY TO SAVE WILD Ll FE?
Preserving natural habitats protects all of the animals
and pl ants that li ve in the l11 . AII over the wo rl d , large
areas of wil dern ess arc now protected as natio nal
parks and reserves , where harmi ng wildlife is illegal
Types of forestly and fa rl11 ing that harvest resources
without da l11 agi ng the en vironme nt are also
il11 porta nt. 50 is legislation against pollution .
HAS CONSERVATION SAVED WILD Ll FE IN THE PAST?
Without conservation, there wo uld be a lot less wildlife
around. In the seco nd halr or lhe 20th centllry,
conservationists helpecl stop large-sca le hll nti ng of
‘ whales, allow ing their popu lations to reco ver. HlI ge
areas of ra in fo rest and other habitats have also been
protected , saving l11 any species From extinction
WHAT ACTl ON CAN BE TAKEN TO 5AVE J-f erdsman gua rds
his call/e from /ions
SPECIES ON THE BRINK OF EXTINCTl ON?
The Convention for Inle rn ational Trade in Endangered
5pecies (C1TE5) restricts trade in th reatened w iJ dlife. ln
add ition, ma ny zoos rlln captive breedin g programmes
1: 0 save rare animals. [n most countries, it is illegal 1: 0
harm or distu rb rare species
MA5AI HERD5MAN WITH CATTLE HERD ..
Farm animals, such as cartle, compete with wild animals for food
As the number of people on the planet grows, so more
and more land is taken over by farmi ng. This
leaves less space for wildlife to live in

... BACKTO THE WILD

The Arabian 。이x had been hunted to the brink of extinction by the
’
1970s. The last few individuals were taken to ZDOS and bred. In the 980s,
a small number were reintroduccd to Oman - whcrc 300 live toda y.
HOW DO CAPTIVE BREEDING PROGRAMMES WORK?
As a fìrst step, scientists ñnd out about the needs of
the enda ngered species , so that suitable conditions
ca n be provided. Next, zoos lend each other animals
for breeding. If the programl11 e is successfu l, so me
of the off야) ri n g may be re in 1: rodu ced 1: 0 the wilcl

HOW CAN ORDINARY PEOPLE HELP CONSERVATION?

Qne way to help is to j oin a large orga nization
such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) or
Greenpeace. Membe rship fees are used to pay fo r
conserva tion work or save areas of natural habitat
Yo u can also j oin loca l wil dlife groups to conserve
hab ilats near your home.

FIND OUT MORE 써 Farming 66 • Fishing 67 • Forestry 67 • Habitats 82-84 • Human lmpact 64- 65 • Plants 88-89