TEC빼 해O[OG~

SCIENCE J. i 154 LENSES 181

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TECHNOLOGY l : Ii 154 ELECTRICITY 182

MEASUREMENTS 155 MAGNETISM ‘←~-- 183

MATHEMATICS 155 CIRCUITS 184

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MATTER 156 ELECTROMAGNETISM 186

ATOMS 157 ELECTRICITY SUPPLY 187

TIME 158 ELECTRONICS f 188

QUANTUM THEORY 159 MICROCHIPS 189

ELEMENTS 160 COMPUTERS 190

CHEMISTRY 162 NETWORKS 、

191

PHYSICS 163 INTERNET 191

FORCES 164 TELECOMMUNICATIONS 192

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MOTION l 165 ROBOTS 194

ENERGY 166 NANOTECHNOLOGY 195

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NUCLEAR ENERGY 167 MACHINES 196

HEAT ·‘ι ~ ~ 168 ENGINES 198

MATERIALS ""'~-‘κ 170 TRANSPORT 200

/
CHANGING MATERIALS 171 CONSTRUCTION 202

MIXTURES 172 INDUSTRY 204

SEPARATING MIXTURES 173 MANUFACTURING 205

ALLOYS 174 CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 206

........ι-'"
NEW MATERIALS 175 BIOTECH NOLOGY 208

SOUND 176 GENETl CS 209

Ll GHT 178 GENETIC ENGINEERING 210

COLOUR 180
FIND OUT MORE ÞH Computers 190 • Design 326 • Machines 196- 197
FIND OUT MORE ~ Physics 163

.1.50UO
Ice is water in the solid state. The ice
in this iceberg is at a temperatu re of QOC
(32 F) or below
0
PLA5MA .
Afourth state of matter forms
when matter is heated to ve 이
high temperatures - like the
flame of a welding torch. Plasma
glows brigh tly. 5tars and the
hottest parts of flames are made
from matter in the plasma state
MASS
Mass is the a mo u nt of matte r an object c onta ins. AJ l obj e cts w it h
mass h ave in e rtia (a force is n e eded to start , s t op , or ch a n g e t h e ir
motion ), and a re attracted to each oth e r by t h e fo rce of g ravity.
CAN MAITER BE DESTROYED?
Matter can be destroyed by changing its mass
into pure energy. This can happen when a particle
0 1' matter collides with a p aπicl e of antimatte r. The
matter and antim atter annih il ate (destroy) each
other, and va nish as a f1 ash of radiati on‘
157 e En~멸y166
living things , oceans , mountains , a nd planets -
y ou can to uch is made from matte r. Wi t h
ectron micro sco pes scient i sts ca n see that a ll matter
made from p a rticles - tiny s pecks of m atter t h at stick
r like crystal s in a cube of s ugar.
WHERE DOES MAITER COME FROM?
The Universe is still expanding AII matte r in the Uni ve rse was created by the Big
and cooling today. As it cools , Bang 14 billi on yea rs ago. In less than a second , the
the force of gravity draws
floati ng particles of matter Uni verse was Fi ll ecl with vast amoun ts of energy, such
together to form new stars as light ancl hea t. The explosion macle the Uni verse
and galaxies ex pancl. As it expa nded, it cooled , and p aπicl es with
m훨켈 formecl and c1 umpecl together
When the temperature rises above QOC The hot steamshooting from a geyser is
(3 r F) ice melts to liquid water. This is wa ter in the gas state. Water boils at lQQoC
water‘ s normal state Qver most of the Earth (212 F) , changing from liquid 10 gas
0
WHAT ARE STATES OF MAITER?
Most matter on Earth ex ists in one of three states -
solicl , liquicl , or gas. In a solicl , the particles are packed
c1 0sely together in a rigicl pattern . In a liquicl , th e
particles are touching, but tu mble freely over each
other. In a gas , the particl es are wiclely spaced ancl
1110ve about at ranclo l11.
WHAT ARE FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES?
Matter is bu il t fi'om particles. The small est pa 다i cles
are funcl amental particl es. Scientists have c1 iscoverecl
two kincls of fu ncla l11 ental pa rticle - quarks ancl
leptons. Evidence for quarks ancl lepto ns is fou ncl by
smashing togethe r larger particles at vely high speeds ‘
The particl es spli t ancl new pa lt icl es are form ecl
PARTICLETRACK5 •
In a particle accelerator,
physicists investigate high-energy
colJisions between particles. Some
particles are destroyed and some
are created. Their tracks spread
out from the point of impact
e
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ATOMS
Al l matter is made from particles called atoms. The
Ancient Greeks described atoms as the smallest pa
that make up everything. W e now know that atoms
built from even small er particles. Atoms link to
and make U~띠 (1】 1:(.111 훌:t

HOW BIG 15 AN ATOM? ATOM IC BOMB ‘

The radius of a typical ato m is one te nth of a billionth
of a metre. A string of atoms one metre long contains
spli t. Neutrons . re rele.sed
one atom for every person in the wo rld. A cube of .nd hit other nuclei , setting
sugar conta ins as many atoms as there are stars in the off a chain reaction. The
Universe. The biggest atom (caesium) is abollt nine • big rele.se of energy in •
times the diameter of the smallest atom (helium) of he.t , lighl , .nd r.di.tion

WHAT’ 5 IN5IDE AN ATOM ?

The particl es that make up ato ms are electrons,
protons , and nelltrons Their position in an atom is
l)~"!1I'1i'1J[.찌 m l[.lI m :l ‘ Electrons are a type of

lepton. Protons and neUlTo ns are made up of three

qllarks each. Quarks and leptons are fundamental
particles - the smallest particles in the Universe.

.1.SEEI NG ATOMS HOW CAN ATOM5 BE 5P LlT?

Eleclron microscopes c.n m.gnify
objecls 10 million limes to show
individual atoms. This picture
shows a clu mp of gold .toms (red
and yellow) on a regular p.ttern
of c.rbon .toms (green)
Protons and nelltrons are held together in the nucleus at
the centre of the atom by a 5σ'o ng force. But this
can be overcome by striking the nucleus with a
a proton , or another particle. The nucleus may split
form new atoms. Atoms are split in this way inside
nuclear reactors and during nuclear explosions

’
Prot01 5 (grec l1)
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Most of an atom is empty space. Protons and neutron s
occupy the nucleus at the ce n tre of the atom , Electro n s
orbit t h e nucleus li ke planets aro und a sta r. T h ey are
gro uped in laye rs ca ll ed s h e ll s ,

.. CARBON ATOM WHAT MAKE5 ATOM5 5TICK TOGETHER?

This l1l odel of a carbon atom is
split in half 10 show the inside
The nucleus of a carbon atom
contains six neutrons and six
protons. Six electrons orbit the
nucleus in tWQ shells
Electrons carry a negative electric charge, protons
ca rry a positive charge , The attraction between them
holds electrons in orbits. When atoms come together
they share electrons in their ollter shells to foml
chem ical bonds

MOLECULES 야二PX3t2geI1
WATER (H씨
Different atoms bonded (stu ck) toget h e r in particular
arrangements are call ed molecules , Wate r mo lecu les , for examp le , .1. SIMPLE MOLECULE
have two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom , Asingle water l1l olecule consists
of three atoms
WHAT 5HAPE5 ARE MOLECULE5?
... COMPLEX MOLECULE
The simplest molecllles consist of jllst two ato ms, and are shaped like du mb-bel ls Every molecule of Ihe sugar
BlI t atoms can link together to make molecllles of almost any shape il11 agin able - sucrose is built from 45 atoms
pyramids , chains , rings, spirals , balls, or tubes. linked in an idenlical pattern

( .ω摩靜蠻讓靜靜篇혔篇축I
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TIME
We use time to say when an event happened or how
long it lasted. Time seems to pass at the same rate for
everyone , but Einstein ’ s theory of I】:~m ::lr.퍼 l 매 u~ shows
that time is not constant throughout the Universe.

HOW DO WE MEASURE TIME?

The steady ticki ng of a clock marks the passing
J. RADAR
of ti me. An accurate clock is controlled by Arada r system locates
something that repeats at a precise , unchanging ships in space and time
interva l. Early clocks were set by the swing of position at a Using rada rs helps to
a pendulum. Modern clocks are set by the grven tlme prevent collisions in
busy shipping lanes
vibrations of a qu aπz crysta l.

DOES TIME BEGIN AND END?

Time began when the Universe was created
in the Big Bang about 14 billion years ago.
The Universe is currently expanding. Scientists are
not sure if the Universe will expand fo rever, so that
time never ends, or if it will co lJ apse in a “ Big
Crunch", stopping time for good.
J. ATOMIC CLOCK , U5A
This accurate clock uses the
regular ~ibra tions of caesium
atoms to 에easu re time. 1I is s。

Gennan, 1879-1955
Albert Einstein did not do
vel)' well at sc/ JOol, but was
f" scinated by mathematies
and science. The Special
Theo l)' of Relativity (1 905),
the General TlJ eo l)' of
Relativity (1 916), and his work
0 /1 the qua /1 tum theo l)' of
light established him as one
of the most original and
creative thinkers of all time.
He was awarded the Nobel
Prize fo r Physics in 192 1

Einstein ’ s t h eo ry of r elativ ity states that

time is not t h e sa m e for everyone. Time
passes more slow ly if y ou a re travelling
very fa s t , almo st at the speed of ligh t.

HOW DOES RELATIVITY WORK?

lf a perso n watches two identical clocks , one
stationary and one travelling at high speed, the
moving clock ticks mo re slowly. To another person
travelling with the moving clock, the other clock
appears to be movi ng, and ticking, more slowly.

... 5HORTCUT THROUGH 5PACE AND TIME

5cientists have shown that , in the。이， two distant parts of the Universe
could be linked bya tu nnel th rough space and time called a wo rmhole
Awormhole might work as a time machine. By making a return journey
th rough the tu nnel you could arrive home before you left
QUANTUM THEORY
Qu a n t um t h eory g r ew from t h e ideas
of Max P l anc k . He p roposed that
ato m s co ul d only emit (give o u t )
e n ergy i n fixe d units called quanta .
The theory has been devel oped to
expl ain the behavi our of paπicles
and the energy they emi t.

WHAT 15 A QUANTUM?
A quan tu m is the smallest possible amou nt
of ene r잃r. A qua ntu m of light (or other
electro mag netic radi atio n) is ca Ll ed a photo n.
A photo n may be emi tted by an electron as it
ma kes a l】 Jltllf!.1’ 11111'’í" :1!.1 의

WHY 15 QUANTU M THEORY 50 5TRANGE?

Quantum theory shows that energy behaves as both
waves and particles at the same time. Quanta are
packets of energy that exist in lumps or units like
separate particles - but when they travel, they spread
out like waves on the surface of a pond.

HOW DO 5CI ENTI5T5 U5E QUANTUM THEORY?

A1 though quantu m theory is hard to understa nd , it is
one of the most accu rate scientific theories ever
developed. With quantum theory, scientists can HELl UMATOM ~
calcul ate precisely the properties of atoms, molecu les , This picture shows the
and materials. Quantum theory is used to design tracks left by leaping
electrons ìn a helium atom
e l ecσonic components , new materials, and drugs.
Quantum theory shows electrons as
Without it there would be no computers、 mobi le fuzzy clouds, rather than in rings
phones, or many other rece nt inventions orbiting a nucleus

Electron5 leap 10 higher

energy levels. away from
QUANTUM LEAP
the nucleus, absorbing
energya5 they do 50
Electrons in atoms o ccupy s h ells . In each
s h ell an elect ron h as a certain e n e rgy . If a n
NucleU5 electron moves t o a hig h e r o r lower en ergy
s h ell , it is sa id to m ake a qu a n t um leap .

WHAT 15 THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPlE?

Quantum theory shows that the position and the speed
of a qua ntum , such as a photon or an electron , can not MAX PLANCK
both be known exactly. The more accurately we know Gen l1 an , 1858- 1947
the position , the 1l1 0re uncerta in we are of the speed , Max Planck wa5 bom in
Electrons emil and vice versa. The uncerta inty principle shows that Kiel, Gennany. He wa5
energy a5 they we can only calc ulate probabi lities , not certa inties
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ouls1anding al all 5ubject5 al
drop 10 lower 5chool and wa5 a lalenled
energy level5 musician, bul he decided to
... ABSORPTIONAND EMISSION devole hi5 life 10 physi<α
NuclcU5 When an atom absorbs (takes in) energy. Planck 's conslanl (fixed
its electrons jump to higher energy levels number) i5 u5ed 10 calculale
As electrons fall back to their original levels lhe energy of quanla. He wa5
they emit (give out) photons. If an electron awarded lhe Nobel Prize for
Pholon of emits a photon of blue light , it is losing more Physics in 1918.
red lighl energy than if it emits a photon of red light

ANDOUTMORE 써 Atoms 157 • Energy 166 • Light 178-179 • Motion 165

 N o
써 Itrogcn O꺼9"
12 14 16

131 5i
15
P
16
5
17

Silicon Phospho ’” Sulphur

28 31 32

31 32 33
v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As 5e Br
'"’C m
lU
Scandlum TIt amum ’,
Vanad m Chromlurn Mangan ts/! ,,,," Cobalt
Nκ'" CopPf r Zmc Galhum Germanlum Arse nic ’
Seler "m
40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 58 63 64 69 74 75 80

38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
5r Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In 5n 5b Te
얘 iobium Pa lladiurn ‘
Strontium
88
Yttriurn
89
Zl rconiurn
90 93
Motybdenum
98
Technetium
97
Ruthenium
102
Rhodium
103 106
SlI ver
107
Cadmium
114
Indium
115 "'
120
A' imony
121
Tdlurium
130
lodi
127

5& 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
a Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir R Au Hg Ti Pb Bi PO At
Banum Hafnium Tantalum Tungstcn Rhcnium Osm lum Indlum Pl atmum Gold Mercu 이 Thallium lead ’‘
B muth Po lonium Astatir
138 180 181 184 187 192 193 195 197 202 205 208 209 209 210

17 88 ’
89- 03 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116
Fr Ra Rf Db 5g Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
Radium Rutherfl이6…m Dubnium Sξabol1l ium 80hrium Hassium

Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Promethium 5a mariU IlI Eumpium Gadolinium T('rblum Dysprosium Holmium Erbiurn Thulium Yttcrbium lutetiL
145 152 153 158 159 164 165 168 169 174 175

92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

U Np PU Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Plutonium ’
Amcr rium Curi잉m fkrk eJ iurn Ca!i fomium Einstónium Fermium Mcndclcvium 써 obelium

FIND OUT MORE ÞÞI AlI oys 174 • Atoms 157 • Electricity 182 • Heat 168-169 • Materials 170 • Matter 156
162 I Science and
pH 14
Caustic soda
(oven deaner)
Caustic soda ~acts with
fat and grease marks, and
destroys skin and flesh.
it ;5 neither an acid nor
a base
pH 4
Oranges
,
Oranges a e mildly acidiζ
which is why they taste
slightly sharp
pH 3
Vinegar
Th e acid in vinegar kills
“
bacteria, so is used in
pickling to preserve food.
pH 2 atoms in graphite are bonded in sheets that
Lemon j uice
Lemons taste sour because
they contain citric acid.
」배
Acid means “ 'sou , " ;n La tin
[ bonded in a strong 3-D network
Hydrochloric acid
Th is ;5 a strong, corrosive
acid. It eats through most
metals ;n a fizz;ng reaction.
CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is the science of matte r. Scientists study
chemicals , t h eir properties , and l :m =~ :f.:.,.nll
l1】l 헤 [111m=-띠 n...'U =~T. is t h e c h emistry of living things.
’‘’
WHAT 15 A CHEMICAL?
Chemicals are the basic types of matte r. The elements ,
such as hyd rogen and oxygen , are chemicaJs. 50 are
the compounds , such as water, that are made when
ato ms of different elements j oin. Our bodies , food , and
the clothes we wea r are all made from chemicals.
STRONG REACTION ~
WHAT ARE CHEMICAL PROPERTIE5? Chemists use experiments
The properties of a chemical describe what it does to to find out how chemicals
react when they are mixed
other chem icals. Oxyge n, for example, makes iron in different ways. Some
rust, or oxidize, so oxyge n is an oxidizing agent. chemicals react 5trongly.
bubbling , burning , or even
WHY ARE 50ME CHEMICAL5 DANGEROU5? exploding. Other chemical5
Our bodies contain tens of thousands of chemicals do not react at all
that mix and react to give us energy and keep us
alive. Toxic (poisonous) chemicals interfere with these
reactions. 50me chem icals are also corrosive - they
eat through solid materi al
.. THE pH SCALE
The pH 5cale is a measu re of acidily. Very slrong acids have a pH of 1,
neutral chemicals are pH 7 , and strong bases. or alkalis , are pH 14
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A chemical reaction happens w h e n two
or more chemicals combine to make new
chemical com pounds. Many reactions
release h eat, for examp le burning.
WHAT ARE ACID5 AND BA5E5?
Acids are chem icals that react with metals.
5trong acids, such as sulphuric, nitric , and
hydrochlo ric acid , are vely corrosive. A base is
a chemical that neutralizes an acid. Wh en acids
and bases react, they form chemicals call ed saJ ts
Al kalis are bases that dissolve in wate r.
.. GRAPHITE
Graphite is a form of pure carbon. The carbon BIOCHEMISTRY
slide over each other easily. This is why a
graphite pencil leaves black marks Biochemistry studies the molecules in
liv ing things , includin g plants , animals ,
DIAMOND ~ and t he human body. These molecules a re
The carbon atoms in diamond are
a 1l compounds of the element carbon.
Thi5 makes diamond the hardest
WHY 15 Ll FE BA5ED ON CARBON?
Carbon ato ms can link to each other (and to other
elements) in many, many ways , including rings
and chains of any length. This enormous va riety
means carbon is the perfect main building block
for the complicated molecules of life.
PHYSICS
Physics is the study of the forces , t he energy,
and the matter that make up t he Universe and
everything in i t. I】)IJ괴되되 11 :1 1" 뭔~'iμ[1I;l uses the
discoveries of physics in medicine , engineering ,
and other practical situations.

WHAT 00 PHYSICISTS STUOY?

Physicists investigate what atoms are made of, ho w
materials behave , and the fo rces that keep planets in
orbi t. They also study heat, light, sound , electricity,
and magnetism . They try to discover the basic laws
that matter and energy obey. Discoveries are usually
wri tten down as scientiñc I1))】)1:111 .，꾀'
;!lI
ι …l''I~‘찌:1 .•

WHAT ARE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES? HOW 00 PHYSICISTS WORK? ROLLERCOASTER .t.

Physical properties are features that can be measured
as numbers - length , weight, and volume, fo r
example. Other physical propelties include hardness ,
density, elasticity (how flexible a material is l,
conductivity (how wel l it conducts electricity or
heat) , and reflectivity (how much light it reflects)
There are two main types of in vestigation in physics. Designers used physics to make
Experimenta l physicists wo rk in laboratories , sure this rollercoaster is safe, but
also fun. They use the basic laws
designing experiments to measu re physical properties of motio l1 to predict the forces
and processes. Theoretical physicists work with ideas , you will experience at every loop
equations , and models to uncover new laws of physics and turn of the ride
that can explain or predict 미 e results of experiments.

Engl i5h, 1642- 1727
Isaac Newton made some
of the m05t importa /J l
scientific and mathemaliral
di5coveries of all time. Hi5
laws of motion and theories
of gravity explain how all
。이"ects from atoms to pfanets
mOVf. His theories of optics
(l igh t) show that white lighl
is made of a speclrum of
colour lighl
EQUATIONS
An equation is a short way to write a
scientific idea. Fo r examp le , t h e density
of a material is a measure of h ow tightly
packed the matte r in side it is. The equati
density=m assjvo lum e says that a n 0 ’ .
density is its mass divided by its vol u me.
WHAT 00 EOUATIONS TELL US?
An equation states that the amount to the left of
the equals sign is the sa me as the amount on the
righ t. Letters are used for physical propeπies - in the .t. STOPPING DISTANCE
equation F=ma , F is fo rce , and ma means mass (m) This equation shows how the stopping distance (d) of a braking car
depends on its speed , or velocity (v). The dislance has two parts. 0.7v
multiplied by acceleration (a). Some equati ons show (0.7 times the speed) is the distance travelled while the driver is reacting
the results of an experiment, and others show the (lhe th inking distance). 0.07v' is the distance travelled during braking
predictions of a theory The symbol ' means the number Ill ultiplied by itself

APP Ll ED PHYSICS
Applied physic ists u se the basic laws of th e physical
wo rld to design usefu l too ls and techniques for
many a reas of science a nd tec hnology, including
medicine , astronomy, meteoro logy, materia ls sc ie n ce ,
a nd information tec hn o logy .

.. MRI SCAN HOW IS PHYSICS USEO IN MEOICINE?

With an MRI (magnetic resonance
illlaging) scan ‘ a doctor can look
inside the body without surgery
MRI is based on the magnetic
properties of atomic nuclei ,
discovered by physicists
Physics has been used to develop many valuable
Ill edical instruments and techniques. Scanners , X-ray
machines, and laser surgery are based on discoveries
Ill ade by physicists , as are heart monito rs and
radiation treatment for cancer

OUTMORE 뻐 Energy 166 • Forces 164 • Matter 156 • Measurements 155

164 1Science and Technology

FORCES
When you strike a ball wit.lllιbat， stretch a
rubber band , or li한 a suitc훌옳you are applying
a force . Al l fOLC털_are pushes홈ld p ulls . S
forces can act over long distances , for
the force of I】)1야 ~l!\'~ ••~' I pulls you down when
you jump from a high divi ng board.

WHAT CAN FORCE5 OO? WHAT ARE BALANCEO FORCE5?

Forces change motion and shape. The force of a
boot kicking a ball speeds the ball up. The force of
a parachute on a skydiver slows the skydi ver c1 own.
The fo rce of a string on a whirling ball constantly
cha nges the direction of motion , keeping it movin g
in a circJ e. Combinations of forces appliecl lo ma terials
can 5σetc h. twist. ancl crush them
Two forces are baJancecl when they are equal
in size and opposite in direction. If the
baJancecl forces a π applied to an object, 야ley
wiU have no effect on its motion in a sσai방lt
line , but may stretch or compress it. [f the forces
c1 0 not act aJong the same Ji ne , they may cause the
o 내 ect to rotate

HOW CAN YOU MEA5URE A FORCE? FUNDAM ENTALFORCES ‘Forces

IMPACT
always come in pa; rs
FORCE EFFECTS RE lATl VE STRENGTH
Forces are measurecl by their effects. 5pring balances As you head a ball. the force
Gravity Gives objects weight Ve 이 weak
on your head is opposite in
are used to measure the effect of forces. The stronger Holds moons and planets in their orbits
the force appli ecl to a spring , the more it is stretchecl direction to the force on the ball
Electromagnetic Holds electrons in atoms and atoms 5t(On9 Duri ng the im pact both the head
The amoun t the spring is stretched from its normaJ in molecules
Givξ5 materials strength and shape and the ball change shape. Thei r
size is proportionaJ to the force appJiecl to it. The uni t Responsible for ele c: t r ici 이， magnetism , light , motion changes in opposite ways
of measurement of force is cal Jecl a newton One ‘ and other forms of electromagnetic radiation The ball 90es away from you as
newton of force increases the speecl of a on e ki logram Weak nuclear Involved in radioactivìty Weak your head 90es back
mass by one meπe per second every seconcl 5trong nuclear Holds protons and neutrons in the Very strong
nuclei of atoms

GRAVITY
Gravity is the fo rce t h at acts between a ll
objects w it h mass. Gravity always attracts ,
n ever repels - it is alway s a pull a nd never
a push . The strength of the fo rce of
gra띠ty increases either w h en mass is
increase d or when t h e distance b etween
the obj ects is decreased.

WHAT 15 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

MA55 ANO WEIGHT?
Mass is the amoun t of matte r in an objec t. The mass
of an object c1 0es not change if it is taken from Earth
into space. Weight is a fo rce. The weight of an 0 미 ect
on Earth is the force acting on it because of Earth ’s
gravity. On the Moon the object weighs Jess than on
Earth since the Moon’ 5 force of gravity is less

WHY 00 THJN G5 FLOAT OR 5JNK?

If yo u pJace a bJock of wood in water, it c1 isplaces
(pushes asicle) some of the water but floats. A force
in the water ca lJ ecl upthrust acts upwarcls on it to
" SKYDIVERS counter the c1 0w nwa rds pu lJ of gravity. The upthrust
The force of gravity p비 15 these skydivers towards the Earth. Their표P$ed equaJs the weight of the c1 ispJaced water. When you
increases until their weight is exactly balanced by the force from the air
(air resistancel. which acts in the opposite direction. They continue to pJace a heavy 。이 ec t in water, the weight of the
fall. but at a steady rate. By spreading their arms and legs the skydivers dispJacecl water, which equaJs the upthrust, is Jess
use air resistance to steer as they fall. linking hands to make a ring than the weight of the object, so the obj ect sinks

聯隨薦灌簡때‘I I
FIND OUT MORE 써 Atoms 157 • Forces 164 • Materials 170
166 1Science and Technology

Without energy, the world would be lifeless , dark , and stil l. When
something has energy, it can do work and bring about change. Energy
produces light and movemen t. Energy is required to produce heat , to
generate electricity, and to overcome forces such as friction.

WHAT FORM5 CAN ENERGY TAKE?
Speeding cars, wh izzing rockets , the wi nd , and waves
have ÐmmI켈며 (motion) energy. A stretched ru bbel
band has pote ntia l (stored) energy because of the
forces tha t try to mak.e it return to its original size.
Heat is the kinetic energy of paπ.i cles in materials ‘ as yo u raise your body against gravity. The amount
Li ght is radiation energy created by the
electromagnetic force.
Kin el"Ï c cnergy
increases with speed
HOW DOE5 ENERGY CHANGE FORM?
Wh en something happens, energy is changed frolll
one fo nn into anothe r. When you cl illlb stairs ,
chemical energy in your food is changed into kinetic
energy by your Ill uscles , an d into potential energy
of ener없 σansfe때 is measured in mm!I멸덩
‘ BUNGEE JU MP
Abungee jumper uses gravitational energy to power his dive from
a bridge. As he accelerates down , gravitational energy is converted
into kinetic energy. As the bungee rope begins 10 stretch , then slow his
fall , kinetic energy is converted into elastic (potential) energy.

DOE5 ENERGY GET USED UP?

Elastic energy
is slO rcd by Ihc
rope a5 it st retches
______ Gravitational potent ial
energy ;ncreases with height
above the Earth 5 sllr f.1cc
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only
change from one forlll to another. There is always as
Ill uch energy after an event as there was before, but
sOllle of the energy Ill ay be wasted as heat that
esca pes into the surrollndings.

KIN ETIC
Movin g and vibratin g objects h ave kinetic
energy. The greater the mo v ing object ’ s
mass , and th e hi g her its speed , the more
kinetic energy it has.

WHY 15 IT WOR5E TO CRA5H AT HIGHER 5PEED5?

You might think a 64 kmfh (40 Ill ph) crash is twice as
dangerolls as a 32 klllfh (20 Ill ph) crash . [n fact , KI NETIC ENERGY ...
doubling the speed increases the kinetic energy by Racing cyclists convert food into
fou r. At 64 kmfh (40 Ill ph) , 미 e re is four times as Ill uch muscular energι and then into
ki netic energy
energy to cause damage as at 32 klllfh (20 mph).

JOULES
The modern inte rna t ion a l unit of energy is
the joule. One joul e is th e ene rgy used up
w hen a force of one newto n moves
t hroug h a distan ce of one metre.

WHAT 15 A CALORIE?
The calorie is an old-fashioned unit of heat energy.
lt is equal to just over four joules. The lI nit called
PLAYER POWER ‘ the Calorie (with a capital C) is still used to give the
An athlete playing high-intensity energy content of foods. One Calorie is equal to
sports consumes lots of Calories
He can burn 1,000 Calories an 4,200 jOllles. An active teenager needs between
hour during a game. You use just 2,000 and 2,500 Calories of energy a day. The body
50 Calo ries an hour watching TV stores excess Calories as fat
 NUClEAR ENERGY
The energy that makes the stars shine and prod
the heat inside a nuclear reactor is nuclear
It is produced by the strong force that holds p
and neutrons together ins ide atomic nucle i.

WHAT ARE FU510N AND F15510N?

Two kinds of reaction release nuclear energy. Fusion Cra l1 e
takes place when two light nuclei combine (fuse)
to make a heavier nucleus. This is the process that
powers the stars. Fission takes place when an unstab le
nucleus of a heavy element, such as uranium , splits
in two. Fission is used in nuclear power stations.

HOW 15 A NUCLEAR REACTION CONTROLLED?

The fìssion of I:U.:(!Hm1.:.t.n'~I uranium produces
nuclea r energy. The process is controlled by
a 이 usting the number of neutrons produced. Control Water cools the fuel
rods that abso rb neutrons are inserted between the rods and shields
workers ηom
uranium fuel rods. They are raised or lowered to
dangerou5 radiation
maintain a steady release of energy.
Neutron . Nuc/eus of
FUSION ..
Deuter;um
At the temperatures found in
nucleus
the interior of stars, nuclei of
deuterium and tritium (forms
of hydrogen) fuse to form a NUCLEAR FUEL .1.
nllclcus of helillm. The fusion Rods of nuclear fllel generate
reaction releases a large heat in a nuclear reactor. The
used fuel rods are still hot and
Ncutron amount of energ y. highly radioactive. Aremotely
FISSION .. operated crane transfers rods
Aneutron triggers the fission Energy from the reactor core to a
released nuclcus water-filled cooling pond
(splitting) of a large , unstable
nucleus , ura niu m-235 for
example. Energy is released
along with more neutrons ,
Nc utron
which may trigger further ucleus
lJ
El1 ergy
fission reactions formed rεleased

Neutron

RADIOACTIVITY HOW 15 RADIOACTIVITY U5EFUL?

Strong forces act inside the nuclei of
atoms , Some atoms are unstab le - they
d ecay (break down) over time , releasing
energy as radiation , These atoms are
radioactive. There are three main types of
radia tion - alpha , beta , and gamma .
... NUCLEAR WASTE
Al1 uclear technician checks
nuclear waste storage containers
for emissions of radiation. The
radiation detector records the
number of radioactive particles
(alpha , beta , and gamma rays)
penetrating the thick walls of
the storage containers
Rad ioactive substances decay over time in a
predictable way. Geologists and archaeologists ca n
date rocks by measuring the radiation they emi t. In
industry, radiation is used to trace lI nderground pipes
and to kill dangerous ge l1l1S on food before it is
packaged. In medicine, radiation treats ca ncer and MARIE CURIE
sterilizes medical instruments Fre l1 ch, 1867- 193 4
Polish-bom p"ysicist Marie
WHY 15 RADIOACTIVITY DANGEROU5? Cu ,.;e was one of lhe firsl
scientists to investigate
To a living cell an alpha palticl e, beta palticle, or
radioactivily. 5"e discovered
a galllma ray is like a bllllet from a gun. Its energy the radioactive element
dalllages molecules, disrupting the ce )J' s li fe processes. radium. 5"e was the first
Long-term exposure to radiation can cause cancers, perso l1 ever to win two Nobel
Pn.zes. Marie Cu ,.;e died from
sllch as leukaem ia. Exposure to a sin gle, large dose of
leukaemia caused by the
radiation can procluce radia tion sickness and death.
radiation she wo펀펀←」
Radioacti ve Ill aterial mllst be han dled with great ca re.

.빼톨톰훌體難織購縣 J짧 11찌11 ι
Fl NÐl)iUllL 삐’ ‘ 행 끼 〓 ε- 쩍 ιyδ μ
輔홉앓뿔 짧 끼째찌沙~J~ ~l '~;':~ ~ ~~~{~.~.~;
16S I science a뼈hnology
HEAT
Eve rythin g around us contains hea t.
a form of energy - the energy of the
jiggling motion of particles th at make
matter. I:mI 1 :fi'JI 잉괴 ~l!lllm 톨 is a me
how hot an object is - it can be
usmg a l:mI1:I::I ~~ι(IJ띠I~I ::I ~I

HOW DOES HEAT FLOW?

I-I eat always flows from a higher tempera ture to a
lowe r temperature. If you sta nd next to a radia tor,
the heat from it wa rms yOll IIp. Different materials
let heat flo w through them at different rates. Metals
are the best co ndllctors (they let heat fl ow easily).
l)~. I:I :mi’'，f!1 .I~ Io"IJ If!'lIm，히 don ’ t conduct heat well.

WHAT ARE THE THREE TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER?

Conduction is the transfer of heat from one molecule
to another. Energetic molecules pass on hea t energy
when they col lide with less energetic molecll les
Convection is the transfer of heat through a Ii qu id
or a gas as wa rm flllid rises and cool flllid sinks.
These movements are co nvectio n currents. Radiatio n
is the move l11 ent of hea t by electroma gnetic rays.
AII obj ects e l11 it rad iation

‘ THERMAL-IMAGING
Rescue workers use a thermal-imaging camera to search for survivors in
dense smoke or under fallen ru bble. Awa rm body shows up as a brigh t
area in tlle image

CAN WE SEE HEAT?

We cannot see heat, but we ca n see its effects.
Convection currents risi ng from a hot ta rm ac roa d THERMOGRAPH ‘
This false-rolour image shows the temperature differences over a
l11 ake the air above shimme r. A therma l- imaging
camera detects radi atio n el11 itted by hot 0비 ects. man's head and shoulde15. Thermal 꾀lagin9 cameras installed at
airports can spot ~
Electronics convert in visi ble e1 ectromagnetic rays temperature) who may be
into an il11 age on a television screen al50 used at ports to
 뼈

뼈
m r ” myv
J
m02

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-

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J

TEMPERATURE
14 miflion "C,
The temperature tells u s ho w hot a n object is. It is a measure ’
25 I Ji llion "F. 14 million K
of how fast the p a rticles in the o bj ect are m ov in g . Th e hotter Intcrior or thc 51111

an object , the more v igorou s ly its molecu les m ove . Temperature

is measured in degrees on a te mpe rature sca le.

WHAT 15 AB50LUTE ZERO?

lf you could remove all the heat energy from an
TEMPERATURE SCALE ~
Three different tfmperature
_I_. . . ..
~ ./ --~
w.~ \
'--...

object, its molecules would be effectively stationa lY

Th e temperature at which molecules are no longer
moving is caJ led abso lute zero. It is the lowest
sc:ales are cornmonly used. On
the Celsius scale the melting
temperature of ice is WC
On the Fahrcnheit scale
302 7"C, 5480 ' F, 3300 K
Metals are welded
1Ií."{‘
~ l ~_'..
’'- .-1
. . .. ,
1
possibl e temperature. Absol ute zero is equi va lent to the temperature of meJting
-273.15 C ( - 4 59.67 。 티.
0 ice is 3r F. On the Kelvin scale
ice melts at 273.15 K
WHERE 15 THE HOTTE5T PLACE IN TH E UNIVERSE?
Th e centre of the Sun is 14 millionoC (25 mi llionOF) 660 ’ C, 122 0' F, 933 K
However, in 2010, a laboratory in New York , USA , N :1 tural gas burns
generated tem peratures 250 ,000 tim es hotter than
the Sun. But even these telllperatu 댄 s are small in
comparison to the Big Bang - th is was Ill ore than
10 billion billion billonOC!

THERMOMETERS 184 ' C, 363.2 ' F. 457 K

Paper bll r11 s
Th e instrum e n t fo r m easurin g temperature
is ca ll ed a thermomete r. Most thermometers
have a sca le with two fì xed points - t h e
melting point of ice and the boi ling point
of wate r. A II temperatures are m easured
aga in st t h ese poin ts.
100' C, 2 12 ' F, 373 K
Water boils
HOW DOES A THERMOSTAT WORK?
Thermostats control the temperatures of builclings ancl
l11 achines. A simp le room therl11 0stat has a two- Ill etal

‘ GLASS THERMOMETER
This thermometer contains liquid
in a glass capsule. The liquid
expands when heated , and flows
up the soale. This gives the
temperature of the liquid
strip as palt of a switch that turns the heat on and
off. As the telllperature rises , the two Ill etals in the
strip expand by different amounts. The strip bends,
breaking the ci rcuit and turning off the heat supply.
58 ' C, 136 .4 ' F, 33 1 K
As the room cools , the strip straightens, completes Highest lemperature 011 Earlh ,
the circui t agai n, ancl turns the heat back on Dealh Valley, Califomia , USA

TH ERMAL INSULATORS
Any material that resists t h e flow of heat
is a thermal insu lato r. Many a nim als 37 ’ C, 98.6 ' F, 3 10 K
Flask Normal body lemperature
keep warm beca u se fur is a goo d
insulato r - it stops h ea t flowin g
away fro m t h eir bodi es.
vacuum
iJ etween
HOW DOES A VACUUM FLASK WORK?
A vacuulll fl ask is designed to keep hot food
hot, or cold food cold. Double walls prevent -89 ' C, - 128.2 ' F. 184 K
heat flow in or out by conduction. The walls ... VACUUM FLASK Lo \Vcst tcmper:lfllre 011 Earlh .

are coated in shiny silver to reflecl electrolllagnetic ‘

Anlafl lì C;J
silvered dOllble walis with a
rays, reduci ng heat transfer by racliation. The space vacuum in between. This prevents
between the wa lls co nta ins air at a low pressure heat transfer by conduction , -2 73. 15 ' C, -459.6 7' F. 0 K
(vacuulll). This reduces heat transfer by convection convection , and radiation Abso/ute zcro

FIND OUT MORE 써 Atoms 157 • Circulation 134 • Energy 166 • Sun 15
and Technology

MATERIALS
Any substance that is used t o m a ke some thin g is a
mater ial. Natural materials such as stone a nd wood
are used as they are found in nature. m""，'.~II:I 톨1[.
materials are made from natural materials with the
help of heat and chemical reactions.

WHAT ARE MATERIAlS ’ PROPERTIES?

Materials are se!ected for use according to their
properties (characteristics). Mechanical properties , such
as strength, are important fo r materials used in
construction. Chemical prop er디 es show if a material
will react with other materials. Tbermal properties
show how a material conducts hea t.

TENSILETEST~
This machine tests the strength of
the plastic toy by using a pulling
(tensile) force. If the head comes
off easily, the toy is a choking
hazard to small children

HOW STRONG IS A SPIDER ’S WEB?

J. SPIDER ’ 5 WEB
Aspider weaves its web from
silk fibres made from proteins
called fibroin. The silk is not
easily broken because it is both
strong and elastic
Millions of years of evolution have produced natural
materials ideally sui ted to the j obs they do. A spider’ s
web i ι weight-fo r-weight, 10 ti mes as strong as steel,
and far more elastic. Bones, teeth, and tusks are also
very strong natural materials. They can be used every
day fo r a hu ndred years witho ut breaking
HOW ARE MATERIAlS USED?
The chosen mate rials for a product need to be shaped
and joined. Wood is shaped by sawi ng, pla ning, and
drill ing. Tt is j oined with nails, screws , or glue. Metal
is bent and hammered into shape - or heated un til it
melts , and poured into moulds. Meta l is joined with
nuts and bolts , rivets, or by welding.

SYNTHETICS
A subst an ce m a d e a rtific ia lly , by h eat a nd chemi cal
reactio n s , is a syn theti c. It m ay be s imila r
to a natural m aterial , o r h ave
completely n ew p roperties.

WHAT WERE THE FIRST SYNTHE Tl CS?

Heat melts sand and other minerals to make glass
The firs t glass bottles were made about 3,500 years
ago in An cient Egyp t. The lìrst modern synthetic was
made in 1909 , when Leo Baekeland , an Am erican
chemist, created a plastic ca Ll ed Bakelite.

J. GLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC
te materials combine the usefu l prop eπi es of (GRP) CHAIR
or more materia!s in one. Steel is strong and AGRP chair is Iight and tough
It is made from glass fibres in
IS Sσong ， but steel-reinforced concrete is plastic. The fi bres stop cracks
stronger. It is used for constructing tall bui ldi ngs from spreading th rough the
and long bridges. material. givi ng it great strength
CHANGING MATERIALS
We can use chemical reactions and heat to c h ange
m aterial s a nd t h e i r pro p erties to o ur n eed s . S ome
cha n ges a r e I】】I~ :I ~~I'I'!'’ I :I ~I. ， oth e r s a r e l】1 헤:l'j :l~，‘의 m. 톨

HOW 00 CHEMICAL REACTl ONS HOW OOES HEAT CHANGE MATERIALS?

CHANGE MATERIALS?
Chemical reaclions take place when existing bonds
between atoms are broken and new bonds form . Wh en
the gas ethene is heated at high pressure , its molecules
join together in long chains to make the plastic
polythene. P이 ythene is used to make wash ing up
bowls , squeezy bottles , and plastic bags ,
Heat makes many solids, especially metals, softer and
easier to shape. As the temperatu re rises , most solids
eventually melt to the liquid state , but some materials
an orange-brown substance
react differentJ y to hea t. Heat can trigger chemical called rus t. Rusting is a
reactions between mixtures. In an oven heat changes chemical reaction between
a cake mix fro m a sticky liquid into a fluff'y solid. iron , oxygen , and water

WHAT MAKES GLUE STICK? Fungus spores

A good glue is a substance that starts as a liquid , but ultiply 017 the
l71

nectarine skin
transforms in to a so lid when exposed to air. As a
breaking down
liqllid, the gllle ca n fl ow into evely nook and cranny its slruclure as
of the surfaces where it is spread , The glue molecllles they feed
fo rm bonds with the molecules in the surfaces , As the
glue sets , tJle sllrfaces are held fì rmly togethe r.

ROT AND DECAY ~ Water escapes

The complex molecules in living ;nlo lhe
things are decomposed by almosphere and
micro-organisms after death the nectarine
shrivels and dies
FRE5H NECTARINE ROTIEN NECTARINE

REVERSIBLE CHANGES
Melting and boi li n g are reve rsible changes produced by h ea t.
Stea m from a boilin g kettle condenses back into drops of water
when it comes into contact with a co ld surface , s uch as a window.
CAN STONE MELT?
"' lAVA FLOW
Liquid lava pouring from a CandJe wax meJts at 60 C (140 o F), Jead melts at
0

voicano is solid rock melted by 327 .5" C (621 .5"F), iron at 1,540 o C (2,804 F). Even
0

heat from the Earth ’5 core at
about 700.C(1 ‘ 292.Fj. The lava ’s
surface cools first , setting into a
thin skin that wrinkles as the lava
sto ne can mel t. The mate ri al with the highest
known meJting tempe rature is the metal tungsten ,
which melts at 3,3 87" C (6, 129 F). TlI ngsten wire is
0

moves. When it is completely lI sed to make the fìl aments of electric light bulbs
cool , it sets back into solid rock and television tubes

PERMANENT CHANGES
Burn ing , rustin g , and coo k.i ng are p e rmanen t c h anges. They can ’ t
be u n done by reversing the cond itions that bro u g h t t h e m abou t.

HOW OOES CONCRETE CHANGE FROM

A UOUIO TO A SOUO?
Concrete is a mixtu re of sand , gravel , cement, and CONCRETE ~
wate r. Cement powder contains calcillm ox ide (l ime) An electron microscope picture
and sil ica or sil11 ilar chel11 icaJ compounds (substances of setting concrete shows the
that are two or more ele l11 ents). When cement is changes that take place as the
concrete hardens. As cement
mixed with water, the compounds react and set into a reacts with water, C 이stals form ,
S이 id. The seπ in g cement gJ lI es the sand and gravel bonding sand and gravel
particles together to l11 ake a pemlanent solid structure. particles together.
MIXTURES
A mixture is a jumble of different
things. Soil is a mixture of sand ,
clay, stones , roots , and plant and
animal remains. The air is a mixture
of different gases. Sea water contains
a mixture of different chemical
compounds in l DJ."'I']I .. n.]~1
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MIXTURE
AND A COMPOUND?
The cOlllponents of a mixture are physically Ill ixed
WHY IS IT EASIER TO MIX THAN TO SEPARATE?
It cou ldn ’ t be easier to mi x a bucket of red balls with
a bucket oF whi te ba lls - just tip them together.
Mixing ma kes the balls more j umbled . Scientists say
th at they have mo re entro py (d isorder). Separating the
balls is much harder. To make thelll ordered aga in,
red balls in one bucket, whi te in another, yo u have
to pick the balls out one at a time.
... LAVALAMP
The larn p contains tWQ liquids
with sligh tly diffe rent densities
that do not Ill ix
Wa rm bubblcs risc.
cool, and sink again

together, but they ha ve not reacted chelllica lly. When

materials react chelll ically, chel11 ical bonds break and
refo rm , prod ucing compounds with new properties Liquid bubbles
expand and r-7 oal up
Do SO Ll DS , Ll QUIDS , AND GASES MIX?
Al I the states of matter ca n mix , with the l11 selves and
each other. Soli d powders l11 ix easily. Most rocks are a
Lamp base contains an electric
l11 ixture of different l11 in erals. SO l11 e liquids l11 ix easily,
bulb. This heats the bubbles. The
and some don’t. Water and alcohol mix together, but liquid nearer the heat expands.
water and oil do not l11 ix. Gases l11 ix rapidly by becomcs less dense. and riscs
l】J. I1I ;;I J.'U'I~I - their molecules ca n mo ve between
each other because gas 1110lecules are widely spaced

SOLUTION WHY DON 'T Oll AND WATER MIX?

A solut ion is a mixture in th e li q uid state. Oil is insoluble (does not dissolve) in water because oil
M o lecul es of o n e s ub sta n ce a re di s pe rsed and water molecules repel each other Cooking oil an d
‘

water can be physical ly mi xed together by shaking

(scattere d) t hro u g h o ut m o lecules of a n oth e r
- t h e s ubsta n ce is di sso lved. T h e a moun t of
a s ubsta n ce t h at w ill di sso lve in a n oth e r is
ca ll ed its s이 ubili ty .
them vigorously in a bottle, but when the mi xture
is left to stand , the oil and wa ter molecules gradually
separate again. Oil is less dense (heavy) than water,
50 the oil fl oats on to p of the water.

... LAYERS OF OIL AN DWATER

Oil and water don't l1l ix, and therefore do not fo rma solution .r;;--、

DIFFUSION 뇨츠; ‘ MIXING BY DIFFUSION

Crystals of potassium
When two liquids or g a ses a re in t h e sa m e permanganate dissolve in wate r,
prodllcing a dark purple
co n tain e r, t h e ra nd o m m otio n o f th eir solution. Evcn without
m o lecu les m akes t h e m ming le togeth e r stirring , the purple
solution spreads
un t il t h e mixture is t h e sa m e gradually through
thro ug h o u t. Thi s is call ed di ffu sio n , the clear water
in the flask
WHAT IS A RANDOM WAlK?
The movement of a single molecule in a Potass;um
liqu id or a gas is a zig-zag random walk permanganate
The 1110lecule is continually moving and diffuses ìnto
the water
changing direction as it colli des with othel
1110lecules, A group of 1110lecules that we re
concentrated in on e spot grad ually sprea d Polélss;um
permanganate
a p a π ， This explains how an od our, fo r example
cryslals
perfu me, spreads through a room
 Science and Technology 173

SEPARATING MIXTURES
댁
1
’ih ?매F1ra
How do we extract salt from sea water? Methods for
Wa ter boils 3 1 ij펜 제 jla1j의
at 100 ’ C (21 2"다 iιυ‘κ*μ‘ E ‘，「
sepa r ating a mixture depend on differences in the
physical properties of its components.

HOW CAN 50 Ll D5 BE 5EPARATED? PANNING FOR

ηr

·•
i Differences in size, density, solub ili ty, an d magnetic GOLD .
• Gold i5 5epara ted
샤냐 J”‘J

properties separate one so lid fro m anothe r. Adding

L‘
r--i-

from 9 rave l. Gold i5

water separates salt from sand - the salt dissolves, the heavier and sinks nlQre
이2-g­

sa nd does no t. ITIUII.:.ι，1 I('I~I separates an insolu ble qu ickly to 5ettle in the

solid (on e that does not dissolve) from a liquid bottom of the pan

HOW DOE5 DI5TILLATION WORK?

When a liquid mix ture is hea ted, the liqu id with the
lowe r boiJing point evaporates (becomes a vapourl,
leaving behind the liquid with the higher boiling
poin t. Cooling condenses the va pour back to liquid
Fractional distill ation separates substances one
--4 by one as the temperature rises

... LABORATORY DISTlL LATION

In this laboratory demonstration , ξZ← ‘ r
Waler is led thc 50lution to be di5tillfπI i5
orr η0111 the boilcd by a Bun5en burner. Vapour
outer tube from the boiling liquid i5 directed
in to a water-cooled condenser Cold waler is red
The conden5er i5 angled 50 that infO t}/(' condenser's
gravity causes the condensed ouler lube
liqu id (turned from vapour back
to liquid by cooling) to run down Vapour condensr:s -----,
into the colleeting flask and liquid runs into
collecling nask

HOW ARE GA5E5 5EPARATED? I I

Air is separated to produce nitrogen , oxyge n, and
other gases by first cooli ng it to the liquid state at
- 196 (-32 1oF). The liquid air is fractio nall y distilled
0
(

Bunsen
Gases may also be separated by the rate they di ffu se
burner through a barrier. Light molecules diffuse more
gives heat quickJy than heavy molecules.

FILTRATION
F iltration is a method of separating a solid from a liquid by CENTRIFUGE ~
trapping so lid paliicles in a material that only lets the liqu id Ablood samplc in a microtube is
placed into a centrifuge. The
through. A coffee fìlter separates so lid coffee grounds from liquid high-speed rotation separates the
coffee. The size of the pores (holesl in the filter paper determines blood com ponents into layers
ready for
which particl es w ill pass through.

WHAT 15 DIALY515? WHAT 15 A CENTRIFUGE?

Your kidneys c1 ean your blood. Waste chemicals
dissolved in the blood pass through a membrane to
be excreted in urine. Blood cells are too big to pass
through and are retained in the body. If a patien t’ s
kidneys fail they can be treated on a dialysis rn ach ine.
This uses a synthetic membrane outside the body
A centrifuge is a spinning mac hin e (l ike a spin
dryer) that separates materi als. A mixture of
liq uids and solids is spun at high speecl in a
The large r, clenser panicles sink and collect at the
bottorn. Light particles co ll ect at the top. Blood
cells are separated from plasma (the liquid paπ
of blood) by th is method.
ALLOYS
An a lloy is a mixture of metal s , or of metal s and other
s u bst ances. Mixing metal s and oth er e l ements i n alloys
can improve their properties . The a ll oy bronze is a
mixture of the metal s copper and tin. It is res istant
to water corrosion and is used in outdoor structures.

ARE ALLOYS STRONGER THAN PURE METAL5?

The metal fo r a good tool
mU5t be 5trong enough to
ta ke blow5, and hard
enough to sharpen to a
fi ne cutting edge. Modern
tool5are 5till made from
iro n, alloyed with carbon
A pure meta l has identical atoms arranged in regulal
layers. The layers slide over each other easily. Al joys
are harder and stron ger because the di fferent sized
atoms of the mixed metals make the atomic layers
less regular, so they cannot slide as easily.
Do ALLOY5 MELT EA5ILY?
The di fferent sizes of atoms in an alloy make their
arrangement less regular than a pure meta l. This
makes the bonds between the atoms weake r, and
lowers the melting poin!. Al loys that melt easily,
such as m햄밸 ， have impoπa nt uses

WHO FIR5T U5ED ALLOYS?

About 6,000 years ago, eariy peoples made the all oy
bronze by roasting together copper and tin ores
(minerals). Bronze is stronger and longer-Iasting than
pure copper. This period in history when bronze was
the main materi al used is called the Bronze Age.

metal iron which ALLOY5

i5 extracted from NAME MAIN CONS TlTUENTS USES
ores (m ÎneraJs)
Brass copper, Zlnc musical instruments,
decorative Îtems
~ STEEL ALLOY Bronze copper, tlO statues, bearings. coins
The Atomium in Bru5sel5, Cupronickel copper, nîckel colns
Belgium, is built from 5teel Duralumin aluminium , copper, ai rcraft, bicycles
girder5, which give it 5trength magnestum , manganese
Steel is a mixture of iron and Nichrome nickel , chromium electrical heating elements
carbo n. The Atomium is covered 51eel iron, carbon construction , tool5,
in al uminium , which protects it vehicles
from the weather. The nine Stainless steel iron , chromium , carbon kitchen fjttings ,
5phere5 are arra nged like the cutlery, su rgical equipment
atoms in iron. There is a science 50lder lead , tin joining metals
mU5eum in5ide the 5phere5

SOLDER
Lead is a heavy, soft metal , and melts at a
low temperature , 328 0( (6 220F). By adding
tin to make the alloy solder, the melting
point is lowered further

WHAT 15 FLUX?
Flux is any substance that stops a metal ox idising
(combining with oxygen) , such as sal!. Most metals
oxidise in air - the process is speeded up with heat
HEATING 50LDER ..t.
Wh en a plumber joins a copper pipe with solder, he
Solder i5 melted with a hot
coats the surface with flux. F1 ux stops the copper 50ldering iro n to connect
o x.i dising. If the copper made an oxide, the s이 der electron ic components on
would not stick, and the pipes could not be joined. a circuit board
17 6 1 sc암lce and Technology

FREQUENCY SCALE
BAT 12,000 - 150,000 Hz
Bat5 hunt and fly at night
To help them find thei r way
in the dark , they make a 5erie5
of very high-frequency clicks
(wh ich human5 ca nnot hea r)
Then they U5e their 5en5itive
ear5 to li5ten fo r the echoes
bouncing back off objects
in their path
GRASSHOPPER
7,000 - 100 ,000 Hz
To attract fe males , ma le
gra55hoppers make a loud
ra5ping 50und by 5crapi ng their
hardened wing cases across a
comb-like 5erie5 of peg5 on
their back leg5. Gra55hopper5
have ears on thei r abdomens
SOUND
Our world is fu11 of sounds. Sound is a form of energy
that travels as Im.'1'IIJ~":'W;페헤 . As well as m a1d ng
and hearing sounds, we also record them. Today, many
recordings are made using U:3 1】【야 u낀톨:{'lIJ ~"J
HOW ARE SOUNDS MADE?
Sound is made when someth ing moves or vibrates. The
movement sets up a sound wave in the surro un ding a ir.
Con tinuous sounds, such as drum min g, are made whe n an
object vibra tes to a nd fro . A sudden da p or ba ng se nds out
a single sha rp pulse of sound c alJ ed a shock wave. The shock
wave from an ex plosion ca n knock peo ple over.
Jet engíllfs work
HOW DO MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS MAKE MUSIC? ’
hardest and make /1 ost
Strin ged instru ments (such as v iolins) have a 5ε ri es o f no;se al t~Îkeoff
stretched strings , whi ch vi brate when they are plucked Eardrums need
or strok ed. Players of wind instru ments (such as flu tes) “
protec on from
blow across or into a mou thpiece to fo rce columns of very loud sounds

HOWLER MONKEY air to vibra te in tubes or pi pes. Percussion instrum ents

400 - 6,000 Hz
The loud hooting ca ll of
a howler monkey ca n travel
for several kilometre5
through the dense forest
where it lives. Aholiow space
in it5 neckbone5 work5 like an
amplifier to strengthen the
call through resonance.
HUMAN 85 - 11 ,000 Hz
Human heari ng is not as
5ensitive as that of a bat or
a dog ‘ but we do ma ke a wide
range of 50und5. U5ing the ai r
in Qur lungs‘ we vibrate the
vocal chord5 in our throat
to make compl ica ted 50und
pattern5. We c이， scream ,
laugh , 5igh , 5peak , and 5ing
FROG 50 - 8,000 Hz
A male frog croak5 to attract
a female. The frog puffs up a
pouch of skin under its jaw
Then it force5 ai r th rough it5
vocal chord5 to make them
vibrate. The air in the pouch
picks up the vibration and
strengthen5 it by resona nce ,
making the 50und louder.
ELEPHANT 10 - 10,000 Hz
When an elephant trumpet5 a
(such as dru ms) vibrate wh en they are struck.
WHY ARE SOUNDS DIFFERENT?
Sounds are different because sound waves have
different frequencies. The frequency is the numbe'r
vib rations or sound waves produ ced in a second. We
sOllletillles descri be frequency as pitch. Hi gh- pitched
sou nds , such as from whis tJ es , have a hi gh er
frequency (Ill ore waves per seco nd) th a n low- pi tched
sou nds , such as from bass dru ms.
WHAT IS RESONANCE?
A wine glass has a natural frequency at
which it vibrates. A singer ca n break the
glass by sing ing a note at the sallle
frequ ency. Beca use th e frequ encies
match , energy tra nsfers from the
sou nd to the glass un til its
vibrations become so stro ng
it shatters. This is called
resonance. Resonance is
used to strength en the
sou nd in so me types
of Ill usica l instru lllent
DEAFENING SOUND•
The sou nd of a jet aircraft at
takeoff i5 million5 of times louder
than the qu ietest sounds we can
hea r. Very loud 50unds ca n ca U5e
us pai n and da mage our ea rs
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low-frequency 50und5 that we Fr Mm ‘‘ per

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SOUND WAVES
direct;o115
A vib rating o bject moves to and fro . As it moves forward s it
pus h es aga inst the a ir a round it , compress ing or sq u as h in g
it . As it m oves backwa rds it lets t he a ir sp read ou t. These
squash ing , expand ing movements create a so u n d wave.
Am erican, 1847- 193 1
111 1877, Thoma5 Edi50n
and his team invented the
phonograph, the fiT5 t practical
device for recording and
playing back 50UI1" 5. 7ñ i5 "5ed
a vibrating needle to scratch
a groove into a wax ζylinder.
3 5 6 6
COUNTING WAVES .l
In a digital recording , the
pulsing pattern of each
sound wave is mapped as a
series of numbers
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HOW DOES SOUND TRAVEL?
The energy in a sound wave moves
outwards from its source, passing from air
molecule to air molecule in a series of pulses
ca ll ed compressions (ai r is squashed) and
rarefactions (air is spread out). Sound travels
easi ly through air
HOW IS SOUND RECORDED?
A microphone changes sound waves into electrical
signa ls that rise a nd fa ll in the sa me pattern as the
sound. Analogue recordings store the pattern as a SOUND BARRIER ‘
wavy groove cut into a plastic disc (reco rd ), or as a Ajet travelling faster than sound
creates a loud shock wave. This is
mag netic pattern on a plastic tape
called breaking the sound barrier
... SOUND WAVE
In a sound wave , a series of
compressions and rarefactions
COMPRESSION RAREFACTION carries the sound energy along
DIGITAL SOUND
Sou nd can be reco rded or tra n s mitted as
a digital s igna l. A digital signal h o lds t h e
pattern of a soun d wave as a seri es of
nu m bers t h at can be stored on a CD, digita l
tap e , o r in a compute r. When the s ignal is
p layed , it c h a n ges back into soun d waves.
WHY IS DIGITAL SOUND BETTER THAN ANALOGUE?
Analogue record ings rely on making an exact copy
4 12 2
of the sound wave pattern. But making more copies of
1The low point5 the original recording ca n distort the pattern and add
of a sound wave have extra noises (hiss, for exa mple) . Because a digital
the lowest numbers
recording is just numbers, it ca n be copied and
corrected, if necessary, over and over aga in.
... RECORDING NU MBERS
The numbers in a digital
recording are stored as bi na 이
code. Th is is made up of just two
digits.O and 1. Each bina 이
are ShOWl1 as pits
or 1)0 pil5
SOUND OF AN ENTIRE ORCHESTRA?
Different instrum ents make sounds with a mix tu re of
different frequenc ies. By mak ing sounds with the right
mix of frequenci es, an electronic synthesizer can
im itate any instrumen t in an orchestra. A computer
helps the player to arra nge the sounds into music
FIND OUT MORE ~ Atoms 157 • Colour 180 • Eye 140 • Lenses 181 • Matter 156
 Divcrging rays
oflight

FIND OUT MORE 빼 Eye -14o • Light 178- 179

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Lightning Ilash

ELECTRICITY heats the

surrounding air
to 30.000' C
(54， 000 '티
A lightning strike demonstrates the incredible energy of
electricity. This intense f1 ash of heat and light is created
naturally by static electricity. We use this same electric
force to provide a clean , controllable power supply to
our homes , farms , factories , and cities.

WHAT 15 ELECTRICITY? ELECTRIC Ll GHTNING ..

The electrons and protons inside every ato m carry a The build-up of electric charge
property called an electric charge. Electrons have a in a thunder cloud creates an
opposite charge in the ground
negative charge and proto ns a positive charge. These Eventually a gigantic electric
‘,

charges either attract or repel each othe r. Unlike spark leaps between the two
(opposite) charges attract, and like (the same) charges cha rges in a spectacular release
repel. The force they do this with is called electricity. of energy.

HOW MANY FORM5 OF ELECTRICITY ARE THERE?

Electricity comes in two forms - as electric current
when electric charges fl ow along wires in a circuit,
and as static e l ec미 띠 ty， when electric charges do not
move. No rmally, most materials are neutral (have no
charge). But if a material gains or loses large numbers
of electrons it becomes cbarged with static electricity

HOW 00 MATERIAL5 BECOME CHARGED?

Materials can become charged with static elecσ i c i ty
by IJ~. ’~1Il1l.1l'1~I or by fri ction. Wh en two mate rials
rub together, fri ction σa n s fers electrons from one to
the othe r. This gives one material a negati ve charge,
and the other a positive charge. A nylon comb gains a
negative charge when it is pulled through hair.
... PLASMA GLOBE
Acharged metal ball causes electrons to separate from gas atoms inside
a glass sphere. The gas gives out light as electrons flow through it

ElECTROSTATIC INDUCTION
Electric induction is the process by w hich a charged object can
charge anoth er object without touching i t. A charged
nylon comb , for example , w ill attract scraps of paper,
even though the scraps are not charged themselves

HOW 00E5 INOUCTION WORK?

When the comb is brought close to
the paper, the negative charge
on the comb repels electrons in
the paper to the side faπhest away
from the comh. This creates a
positive charge (fewer electrons) on
the side or the paper facing the comb.
Positive and negative atσact，
so the paper is pulled towards the comb.

... GOLD LEAF ELECTROSCOPE

Electric charge can bc measured by an electroscope. One of the simplest
is a gold-Ieaf electroscope. Acharged object held near the cap repels
like charges to the far end of a metal rod , onto a thin sheet of gold. The
charges on the gold leaf and the rod repel each other, and the leaf rises.
The amount by which it rises can be measured against a notched
 샤
피
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3

MAGNETISM
Magnetism is an invisib l e force
that attracts or repels some
materi a l s , s u c h as iron and steel ,
but n ot oth e r s , like p l asti c a n d
s ilver. In a m agnetic materi a l , t h e
ato m s 1ine up in groups or regio n s
c a ll e d R:3i'if!ll헤’ l 톨 n ••n]l'if!"I~ J，."t
WHAT ARE MAGNETIC POLES?
Every magnet has a north magnetic pole ancl a
south magnetic pole. These are the places where the
magnetic fo rce is stronges t. The laws of magnetism
J. MAGN ETl C EARTH
are 미 at like (the same) poles repel each other, ancl The Earth ’ s magnetlc p이 es attract parti cJ es from the 5un that glow
unl ike (opposite) poles attract each othe r. when they reach the atmosphere. The Earth's magnetic north and south
poles are close to its geographical North and 50uth Poles
WHAT ARE MAGNETIC MATERIALS?
The elements iron , nickel, ancl cobalt are magnetic HOW DOES A MAGNETIC COMPASS WORK?
materials - they can be magnetizecl by ano ther The Earth ’ s co re acts as a giga ntic magnet with a vast
magnet. But in their pure form , they easily lose 나lell ll.ll ，'’‘민.tC'l WII[.~I :III n In a magnetic compass , the

magnetism by heat or hammering. Permanent magnets norlhern encl of the co mpass neecl le always points in
are macle from mixtures of 미l ese e1 ements with others, the clirection of the Earth’ s no 며1 magnetic pole.
such as steel (i ro n ancl carbon ), fo r examp le Its other (southern) encl always points south.

MAGNETIC DOMAINS
Every atom in a p iece of iron is a tiny, pe rmanen t ma g n et. These
t iny magn ets g roup together in magn etic regions ca ll ed doma ins.
If the north-south ma gnetic pol es of these domains a ll poin t in
different directions , t hey ca n ce l each other’ s magnetj s m ou t.

~ MAGNETIC POWER
To keep a magnet strong. place a
keeper between its poles when
it is not in usc. Akeeper is a
piece of soft iron. The poles
magnetize the keeper. which in
turn keeps the poles’ domains
pointing in the sa ll1 e direction
WHAT MAKES A PERMANENT MAGN ET?
In a permanent magnet, the magnetic po les of the
domains point in the same clirection , so their magn ctic
fìelds reinforce one another. Magnetic material can be
magnetized by stroking it with a magnet to line up
the domains. Heat or hammering shakes the domains
out of position , ancl the material loses its magnetism ‘

MAGNETIC FIELD
A m ag n et creates a force in th e s p ace
around it. T h e area in which the force
operates is the magnetic fìeld. A mag netic
field can be imagined as Ii nes of force that ,
l ron fìlings show how tWQ like
pofes repef ea c/, ollle s fje/c/s
spread out from the m ag net ’ s po les .

HOW CAN A MAGNETIC FIELD BE SEEN?

If iron fìlin gs are sprinkled arou nd a mag net, they will
line up along the li nes of force of its magnetic fìeld Filings show the allract;on
The pattern made by the fìlings always shows the between lI nlike poles
lines of force looping outwa rds between the magnet ’ s
north and south poles. The magnetic fì eld gets weakel
MAGNETICPOLES ‘
Iron filings can be used to show the repulsion
as it gets farther away from the magne t. between two like p이 es. and the attraction between unlike poles
 I때 th M'Q
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e!ffifii.i4bblli.J

FIND OUT MORE þþt Chemistry 162 • Electricity 182 • Electricity Supply 187 • Electromagnetism 186
186
Cran"jib
movt'S magnet
;nto plaæ
ElECTROMAGNETISM
An electric current produces magnetism , and a magnet
can produce an electric curren t. The two forces are so
c1 0sely connected that scientists talk abo u t the single
force of e lectromagnetism. Without it , we would not
h ave an electricity supply, or l】】l 괴 1::(•• 헤【.미(')('1:‘헤

HOW DOES ELECTRICITY CREATE MAGNETISM?

Each electron is surrounded by a force called an electric fielcl. Wh en an electron
moves , it creates a seconcl fielcl - a magnetic fielcl. When electrons are macle to
flow in a cUITent through a concluctor, such as a piece of metal or a coil of wire ,
the concluctor becomes a temporary magnet - an electromagne t.
‘ METAL DETECTOR
A metal detector makes use of
electromagnetic effects to fi nd
metal landmines hidden under
the soi l. Wi re coils in the detector
produce a changing magnetìc
field, which induces (ca uses)
’ electrÎc currents to flow in the
metal landmines. These in turn
produce magnetism that can be
sensed by the detector

lron and steel scrap HOW DOES MAGNETISM PRODUCE ELECTRICITY?

;s altracl ed by Ihe
magnet wlJen it is on
‘ ELECTROMAGNET
Unlike permanent mag nets,
electromag nets can be switched
on and off. This is useful in a
scrapyard, where a powe rf비
electromagnet separates iron and
steel scrap from other materials
No n-magneUc scrap
is len behind
If a coil of wire is placed near a magnet with an
unchangi ng magnetic fìelcl , nothing happens. But if
the magnetic fìe ld is changed , by moving the mag net
back and forth , or spinning the wire , the changing
magnetic field produces an electric current in the wire.
WHAT DO GENERATORS DO?
Generators supply us with most of the electric current
we use. They turn mechanical energy (movement) in to
electrical energy. Inside a generator, a coil of wire is
spun inside a powerful magnetic fìeld . This creates an
electric current in the wire. A large generator can
procluce enough electricity to run an entire city.

ELECTRIC MOTORS
Electric motors a re machines that turn
electrical energy into mechanical energy to
do work. Electric motors can be small , like
the motor that turns the fan in a h airdryer,
or huge , like th e eng ine that drives a tra in.

HOW 00 ELECTRIC MOTORS WORK?

A current turns a conducto r into an electromagnet. À MICRO MOTO R GEARS
If the current is reversed , the electromagnetic poles In 1960 , engineer William
wiJ1 reverse , too. When the electromagnet is placed Mclellan built a motor the size of
near to a fixed magnet, the two sets of p이 es repel and a ful l stop from 13 separate parts
Today‘ engineers are t마II1 g to
attract each othe r. This procluces a force which makes build motors thousands of times
the conductor rotate (sp in) at high speed. This turns smaller. This picture of motor
a shaft wh ich then drives a machine gears is l11 agnified 200 tirnes
 Science and Technology 1187

ElECTRICITY SUPPlY ENERGY EVERYWHERE

POWERSTATION
Elect rici ty has revolutioni z ed th e w ay w e us e e n e r gy. It Alarge , coal-fired power
station like this may prod uce a
can be generated in large I】)1 딛11TiTj 믿톨헤센1l11~ 찌 f a r away continuous flow of up to
1,000 MW (megawatts)
from towns and cities , and distribu t ed cl e anly to hom e s ,
of electricity. That ’s enough
offices , and factories through a network of power lines. power to light 20 million light
bulbs, or meet all the power
needs of a small city
HOW ARE M05T GENERATOR5 POWERED? NATIONALGR ID~
To make electricity, the coils inside a ge nerato r are generated by the
티 ect n cl 아

tu rn ed by tu rbines. Most large generato rs are powered power stations is fed into a
national grid of inte rconnecting
by turbines spun around by high-pressure steam. The power lines. These take the
steam is produ ced in boilers heated by fossil fuels (or energy wherever it is required
in a nuclea r reactor). Water turb ines are also used to When you switch on a 1ig ht. you
turn the ge nerators in hydroelectric power stations. have no way of knowing which
power station the electrici ty
came from
WHAT 15 THE NATl ONAL GRID?
From the power stations, electri city is fed into a vast
POWERLl NES
Electric cu rrent is carried
around the country by power
lines. Most power lines are
sl ung high above the ground ,
on ta ll metal pylons. In towns

혔짧
network of ca bles and wires caJl ed the national gri d or cities, the lines may go
Electricity travels through th e grid in to almost every underground. Power lines
ca r마 electricity at 400 ,000
room in the coun try. Controlling the power in the grid volts - thousands of times
is co mplex . Engineers must try to make sure that greater than the voltage
enough power is ava il able whenever it is needed. received in Qur homes

SUB STATION
At various stages along the
way, the power lines feed into
sub stations. These conta in
transformers and heavy-d uty
swi tching gear that reduce
(Iower) the voltage to safer
levels and direct power to
where it is needed

FACTORIES
Large industrial plants
WHAT 15 ALTERNATING CURRENT?
‘ NIGHT Ll GHTS
This nig ht-till1 e satellite
such as this chemical
factory use tremendous
Current is produ ced in two forn1 s: direct current (DC) photog raph shows the artificial amounts of electrical energy.
and alte rn ating current (AC). Di rect current (produ ced light produced on Earth byelectric Many have their own
by ba따 ri es) only fl ows in one direction. Altern ating road and building lights. North dedicated power stations.
America , Europe, India , China,
current (produced by power sta 디 o n s) switches back
and Japan are the most brightly
and fo rth , reversing direction regula rly. An AC current lit regions. Over ti ll1 e, this ll1 ap wi ll
sw itches bac k and fo rth 50 or 60 times a seco nd change as countries increase - Qr
decrease - their electricity output

POWER STATIONS
HOMES
P owe r stat ions work d a y a nd ni g h t to p rod u ce t h e e lectri c ity t h a t Electric power travels from
sub stations to homes
p rov id es u s w it h h eat a nd lig h t , a n d d ri v es a ll k inds of m ac hi nes , through underground cables
f rom h a irdrye rs a nd refri ger a tors to t e lev is io n s a nd tra in s , or lig htweight overhead li nes
For domestic use , voltage is
reduced to 110 or 240 volts
HOW DOE5 ELECTRICITY GET FROM THE POWER 5TATION TO U5? Each house has its own meter
Electri city fro l11 a power station is boosted from 25 ,000 volts to 400,000 volts to to record the amount of
electrical energy used
travel along power lines. But the voltage l11 ust be lowe red before it is safe to use ,
Transformers reduce the voltage in stages to di ffe rent levels to su pply factories ,
rail ways , farms, hospitals, offìces , homes , and 1110torways
FIND OUT MORE ÞÞI Circuits 184-185 • Elements 160-161 • Sound 176-177 • Telecommunications 192-193
FIND OUT MORE >>1 Computers 190 • Etectronics 188
 mo

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COMPUTERS WHAT 15 A MICROPROCE550R?

An electronic machine that uses binary code to store
and process data is a compute r. Binary code can
represent numbers , text , sounds , pictures , and movies.
This data is stored in the computer's memory and on
magnetic discs , CD-ROMs , and DVDs.
WHAT 15 MEMORY?
Data is storecl in bin ary code on microchips. They are
made up of millions of trans istors that are on or off -
1 or 0 in bin ary code. The capacity (size) of a memo ry
chi p is measured in megabytes (MB). One byte is an
eight-cligit binary number. One megabyte is just over
one mil lion bytes of information
A microprocessor is a computer ’ s brain. It is an
integrated ci rcuit made of millions of transistors
lt canies out the instructions (the programs) that
make a computer operate. Everythin g the computer
does is broken down in to simple steps‘ The power of
a micro processo r is measurecl by how fast it ca rri e
out these instructions.
HOW 15 VIRTUAL REA Ll TY CREATED?
Virtual reality controls what you see, and responcls to
you r movements and actions. When yo u wear virtual
reality goggles , the scene you see changes as you
move. 5ensors on special gloves , or a body sui t,
aJl ow you to interact with the scene by pointing or
touch ing. Sounds increase the experience of reality

... VIRTUAL REA lI TY

Virtual reality goggles feed
Liquid
slightly different images to the
monìlor screen
right and left eyes to create a
Screen
realistic 3-D scene. These goggles
dispfays oulpUI

끓핑
help architects visualize plans
on a grid 0 1'
almost on f'
Read/ write f1 ead million coloured
dOIS (pixefsl

Track
se/ector
mechan ism

... HAR DDISC DRIVE

The computcr‘ s hard disc is the
main storage area for programs,
documents, images , and other
files. It can hold tcns of 9’gabytes
of data (billions of binary
numbers). Information is written
(put on) and read (taken off) by
electromagnetic heads that swing
‘
Qver hc disc surfaces as they
spin at high speed

... LAPTOP CDMPUTER

AII the components of a personal computer can be built into a
Kcyboard To ucf1 pad 1 convenient folding package the size of a book. 50me laptops use
used 10 inpu( reads and moves the poimer wi reless technology to interact with printers, scanners, and other devices
Ic tlers and writes disC5 round Ihe screen, by radio waves. Through wireless telephone links, you can log onto the
other charactrrs fike a mouse Internet to send emails from your laptop

.?쩍*영-찌j;;rrJ??rr
 Brili5h, 1955-
MA RC ANDREESSEN
American , 197 1-
Tim Berners Lee invented the

of information for scientists in

the 19805. In 199], Marc
Andree5sen developed the fjrst
brow5er program (Mo5aic)

ANDOUTMORE ’써 Computers 190 ,; light178-179 . Telecommunications 192-193

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TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Aircraft waming
beacons flash
on lhe lop and
sides of lhe
Telecommunications are messages carried round the tower at night

world in seconds by electric signals and waves from the

l J3=-.::(•• ~{t)띠'!l'헤 ~I:" 【.찌되::(•• 헤”띠! . They include radio

and television broadcasts , and telephone conversations.

HOW DOES A TELEPHONE WORK?
A teleph one has a microphone and an earpi ece. The
microp hone co nverts sound in to an electri c signa l.
The signal travels at the speed oF lighl along wires ,
through optica l fìbres , or via microwaves. A network
con nects the phones. The earpiece conta ins a
loudspeaker. This changes the signaJ back in to sound
1talian, 18 74-193 7
HOW DOES A RADIO WORK? Scien tist and in vfnlor
Radio broadcasts are made from a centraJ transmi tte r. GugJielmo Ma rconi made the
Sound signals fTom microphones in the radi o studi o firSl radio transrniss;ons ;n
1894. His transmitter rang a
are combined with radio waves broadcast from an
bell lO m βo f l) away. By
ante nna Your radi o at home has a receiver that
‘
190 " he had developed his
separates the sound signal from the radi o signal and invention and made the first
sends it to a loudspeaker. This is the sound you hea r. wireless transmission acroS5
lhe Atlantic Ocean from
Eng land to Canada. Marconi
was awarded the Nobel Prize
fo r Physi，σ in 1909
\

... COMMUNICATl ONS SATEL Ll TE

Asatellite bounces
telecommunica tions signals
from one side of Earth to
another. The satellite travels
In a g eosta t lD n a 이 orbit so that

it stays Qver the same point on

Earth ’5 surface at all times

HOW DOES A TELEVISION WORK?

An analogue television transmitter sends pictures and
sounds as a patte rn of radi o waves through ca bl es.
l】JlmC! u.， .mrU괴낀l파:n연 tra nsmi t the sounds and

pictures in binary code through cables and satellites.

HOW DOES A MOBILE PHONE WORK?

A mobil e (or cell) phone sends and receives signals
usin g Ill icrowaves. A phone has a range of only a Few TELEPHON ETOWER ~
Ill il es , so land-based ae ria ls are used. The area that The BT tower in London ,
each aerial covers is called a cell. A phone exchanges England, provides
telecommunications links into
signals with the nearest aeri a l. As yo u move fro lll cell and out of the city. It is an
to cell the phone changes aeri als. The aeri als are electronic comm un ications
con nected to the globaJ telephone network. centre for radio and television
broadcasting , telephone
services, and dig ital computer
data transmissions

... HIDDEN MOBILE PHONE MAST

To create an effective ll1 0bile
phone network, mobile phone
masts are bui lt at regula r
intervals nationwide. In some
locations. masts spoil attractive
views of the countryside or
historic buildings. This mast has
been disguised as a tree.
 193
Gamma rays

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM have wavrlengths

of up to about
0.0 1 nm
rays a re wa ves o f e lectr o m ag n etic fo rc e (nanomrtre -

σavel at th e s p eed of l ig h t. Th e f ull ra n ge of rays

one billionth ‘ GAMMA RAYS
o( ~"1 mctrl리 Nuclear reactions and
u p the e le ctrom agn etic s p ectrum . radioactive decay emit
these high-energy rays
WHAT ARE RADI O WAVES?
Electro ns prodllce radio waves as they vibrate. They
are low- freqllency, long-wavclc ngth waves. Radio
broadcasts lI se the lower- freqllency range of radio
waves, and television broadcasts use the higher range

HOW ARE DIFFERE NT WAVE BANDS USED?

X-rays
Waves are grouped in wave ban cls by frequ ency. 0.001 - 10 /1 111
... X- RAYS
Low- to medium-frequ ency wave bands travel far, and X- rays go th rough
are used for shipping signals. High- frequency waves materials tha t block light.
such as clothing and skin
are used for radio and telep hones. The 1I ltra- high to
extremely high- frequency bands ca rry huge am oun ts
of in fo rmati on, including TV, mobi le phone, rad ar
signals, an d micro wave co mmlln icati ons.

ELECTROMAGNETICSPECTRU M• Ultraviolet rays

The spectrum arranges the waves according to frequency (nu mber of 10-390 nm
waves passing a poi nt per second) and waveleng th (the distance
between the crest of one wave and the crest of the next) ‘ ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
These da ngerous rays
fro m the Sun ca n
7.000 nm
DIGITAL BROADCASTS damage your skin

Have y ou see n televis ion pict ures as

clear as co mpute r g ra phi cs ? l n a di g it a l
In f rared rays
broad cast , s ounds a nd p ic tures a re 700 nm- I rn m
conve rte d into strea m s o f bin a ry numb e rs.
The re sult is hig h e r-qu a li ty recep t io n ,
and m a n y m o re c h a nn e ls . ‘Night-vision
INFRARED
cameras
de tect infrared rays to see
missiles in lhe dark

... RADAR
‘
M icro vaves Radar systems transmit
O‘ 3 111- 0.001 m radio waves to detect
rnoving ships and aircraft
... DIGITALBROADCASTING
ATV cameraman records a foot bal l match to be broadcast digitally.
The image is crea ted with 25 still pictures (frames) each second. ’ ·
30 in the USA. Only the changes fro lll frame 10 frame are translllitted Radio waves ’
I mm-I km+ ’ ’
HOW DOES DI GITAL TV WORK?
Digital TV converts souncls ancl images in to bin ary j ’ ‘ ’ ’‘ l.o
‘ ‘-
cocle. The cocle is carriecl on electromagnetic waves
Digita l pictures are cl ea rer because binaly cocle can
... RADIO WAVES
be com pressecl (macle sma ll er) to sencl lols more
Radio waves are used for
informatio n abo ut the picture to the receiver radio , TV, telephone , and
Broadcasters ca n also send 1l1 0re channels this way. satellite communication

FIND OUT MORE ÞÞI Home Entertainmént 351 • Internet191. . ‘Media 298-299 • Networks 191 • Sate l\i tes 28 • Sound 176-177
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ROBOTS
Robots are automatic machines. Some robots can
perform mechanical and repetitive jobs faster, more
accurately, and more safely than people. Robots can also
handle dangerous materials , and explore distant planets.

WHAT CAN ROBOTS DO? HUMANO ID ROBOT .

Robots can sense and respond to their surroundings. Thi5 humanoid robot ha5 been built for
They can handle delicate 。이 ects or apply great force, the entertainment ind ustry. Dressed as
pirate5 or COWbOY5 , robots li ke thi5are
for exa mple to perfo rm eye operations guiclecl by performer5 in theme park attraction5
a human surgeon , or to assemb le a ca r. With
α파합liIilι~.lm :l •• [C'J :m.3 , robots will also
be able to make decisions for themselves

HOW DO ROBOTS SENSE?

Electron ic sensors are a robot’ s eyes ancl ea rs. Twin
video cameras give the robot a 3-D view of the
wo rlcl. Microphones c1 etect souncls. Pressure sensors
give the robot a sense of touch, to juclge how hard
to grip an egg. Built-in compu ters send ancl
recei ve in formation with radio waves.

‘Monitoring
ROBOT5 IN MEDICINE
progress on a TV , a skilled surgeon
perforrns an operation by rernote controL Robot
instruments carry out his actions on the patient Movements
controlled by
a computer
ARTIFICIAL INTEL Ll GENCE
Art ificial intelligence attem pts to create CAN ROBOTS THINK?
Robots can think. They can play complex games,
computer programs th at think like human
such as chess , better than human beings. But wil\
bra ins. Current research has not achieved a robot ever know that it is thinking? Human
this , but some computers can b e beings are conscious - we know we are thinking
programmed to recognize faces in a crowd . - but we don ’ t know how consciousness works.
We c1 0n ’t know if computers can ever be conscious.
• ROBOT ClEANER
Thi5 robot vacuum cleaner find5 WILL ROBOTS TAKE THE PLACE OF PEOPLE?
its Qwn way around as it cleans Robots have replaced people performing repetitive
your home. With three
computers, and over 70 5en50r5, jobs , and in dangerous jobs, such as bomb disposal.
it plan5 an efficient route , In future , robots may do housework and other
remembering where it ha5 been jobs we hate. But will robots replace people
and deciding where 10 clean nexl in jobs that need kinclness or creativity? It’s
harcl to imagine a robot teacher or dancer.
NANOTECHNOLOGY
A nanometre is one billionth of a
metre. This is about a million times
smaller than the full stop on this line.
Nanotechnology aims to make tiny
machines measured in nanometers.

WHAT 15 A NANOMACHINE?
A nanomachine is built from individual atoms ,
like the palts of a tiny construction kit, with atomic
wheels and motors. A nanomachine will make
other products from atoms, such as nanoveh icles
to transport drugs through the body ’ 5 bloodstream
Vast armies of nanomachines migh t even assemble
l:n1.m~:{I)~.‘”띠 1 :.1 111 :1:，‘” , atom by atom.

WHAT 15 5ELF-A55EMBLY?
Na nomachines will be designed to build and copy
themselves. They will be self-assembling in a
similar way to the molecules that make up living
things. To build a large strllcture, such as a car,
billions of nanomachines will be
NANOTECHNOLOGY IN MEDICINE ‘
This imaginative artwork shows how nanotechnology might work
organized to work togethe r. in medicine - tiny nanorobots the size of cells 8re programmed
to travel through the blood stream , find ing and repairing defects
NANOTECHNO LOGY BEARING ~
in the bodγ5 organs and tissues
Before cornplete nanomachines and
robots ca n be constructed , scientists ARE THERE ANY DANGER5 A550CIATED
will build basic machine components ,
such as levers , gears , bearings, and WITH NANOTECHNOLOGY?
motors , all at a nano scale, This One danger is that self-assembling
computer design shows how a nanomac hin es cOll ld ll1 ul tiply and spread out
frictionless beari ng might be of contro l - da ll1 aging natural ll1 ateri als. They
assembled from individual atoms
wo uld have to be progra ll1ll1 ed 50 that they
could not escape into the environ ll1 enr in this
destructive way.

CARBON COMPUTER
At an atom ic scale , scientists think carbon w ill h ave b etter
e lectri ca l properties t h a n s ilicon for malöng computers. A
computer processor cou ld b e m ade by linkin g individ u a l carbon
atoms . Only nanomachin es could wo rk at this sca le.

HOW COULD NANOTECHNOLOGY BUILD A CARBON CAR?

Nano ll1 ach ines could ll1 ake th ings , such as ca rbon cars, by linking
carbon ato ll1 s one at a ti ll1 e into the dia ll1 0nd structure. These new
cars will be ll1 any ti ll1 es stron ger, yet lighter than ex isti ng ve rsions
ll1 ade with ti ta nill ll1 , alllmin iu ll1, and steeL A carbon car bui lt by

nanomachines wo uld be light enough to li ft with one hand ,

.. NANO FLY WHAT HA5 NANOTECHNOLOGY

Using nano components
built from carbon and
other atoms , it might be
possible to build intelligent robot
insects such as this fly - pictured on
ACHIEVED 50 FAR?
Na notechnology is still at a very early stage, but
some progress has been made , Simpl e wheels, ax les,
and gears have been prodllced Scientists have already
,

manipulated ind ividual carbon ato ll1 s to prodllce nano

scale numbers and lettering.

ANDOUTMORE 빼 Atoms 157 • Machines 196-197

196 1Science and Technology

MACHINES
F rom bottle openers to cranes , macQln.~낭 n:ì ake worlè
easier. Simple machines include mu ‘ - ’ ‘” ’ l)~I 헤IllaTj:’

U】11~[.II~I ::I IJI:，lIr.!.'~1 톨의 , and I】)1 인톨낀r“1. 4

They transfer
fore and movement from o pe place to a nother, oRe n
magnifying the force or t h e m ovement a t the same t ime.

WHAT 15 MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE?

The mechan ical advantage of a machine is the amount A complicated machirì티 such as
that it magnifìes (i ncreases] a fo rce to overcome a this digger. is built from
simple machines that
load. Nutcrackers have a mechanical advantage of together - the digger arms
about fìve. The force you use to squeeze the han dJ es is levers. and the teeth on the
magnifìed fìve times - making it strong enough to
crack even the hardest nu t.

HOW 15 A MACHINE’5 EFFICIENCY MEASURED?

The effìciency of a machine is the ratio of the wo rk
output to the work inp ut. lf the machine is perfect,
then all the work (energy) tbat you put in (the effort]
is used to move the load. lt would be 100 per cent
effìcien t. In reaJi ty, a machine always wastes so me
energy as a result of friction between its paπs

These pliers are a pair of first
class Icvers. The fulcrum is
between the load and the effort
The effort is magnified bccause
the load is closcr to thc fulcrum
LEVERS
A lever is a rod or ba r t h at turns o n a
p ivot (t h e fulcru m) . T h e effort a ppli e d a t
one p lace moves a loa d at a no th e r pla ce
via the fulcrum. Ther e are thr ee differe n t
types of lever, each w ith the effo rt, load ,
and fulcrum in differ e n t pl aces.
Pistons
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT CLA5SES OF LEVER? apply the effort
The three classes of lever are suited to carrying out to lift the load
differentjobs. ln a fìrst-class lever, such as a seesaw, Oil pressure
the effort and load are on opposite sides of the pllshes the
fulcru m. 1n a second-class lever, such as a bottle piston along a
op e n eι the fulcrum is at one end , the effort at the hydralllic cylindcr

other, a nd the loa d in between. In a third- c1 ass lever,

such as chopsticks , the fulcrum and the load are at
either end. with the effort in between.

WHAT 15 A WHEEL AND AXLE?

• SECONO-CLASS LEVER
These nutcrackers have the
fulcrum at onc end. the cffort at
the othcr. and the load betwccn
- ideal for cracking open a nut
The steering wheel of a car wo rks Iik.e a circular lever
- it magnifìes a tuming force. Your hands on the
wheel move through a much larger distance than the
ax le (the steering column). The turning effort is
m ag ni 터 ed to produce enough force to steer the
car wheels. A crank is a turning han dJ e that works
in a similar way, to raise a heavy bucket of water up
a well with a small effort on the winding hand le.

• THI RD- CLASS LEVER

In chopsticks. the effort is between the fulcrum and
the load. The effort is reduced by this lever. but the
movement is magnified. With small movements of the
hand ‘ you can pick up anything from a grain of rice to
a large nut - but you can't crack a nut
PULLEYS
A pulley is a grooved wheel that a rope or
A single length of rope
belt runs over. A s ingle pu lley changes the run5 Dver (our puJII망'5. Thr
direction of a force , without changing its mechanical advantagc or thi
pulley system means it can /i(t
size - for example , to ra ise a flag up a pole
a load lhat ;5 rour timrs bψgcr
by p ullin g d own on the rope. than the e(fort applied

WHAT IS A BLOCK AND TACKLE?

A block and tackle is two sets of pulleys linked by a BLOCK AN 0 TACKLE ~
single rope. Pulling the rope draws the block and A block and tackle is a p 미 ley
tac kJ e together. This magnifies the effort put in so that system designed to lift a large
you can lift or lower a heavy load - a car engine, for load with a smaller effor t. The
crane on the rar right is equipped
example. Block and tackle pulley systems have been with a block and tackle to move
used for centuries to raise sails and shift cargo on heavy loads. such as steel plates.
sail ing ships. into position on a building site

INC Ll NED PLANES WHY DOES A SLOPE MAKE IT EASIER

TO RAISE A LOAD?
The fi rst construction machine was When you push a load up a slope, the weight of the
load is shared between your efforl and lhe slope.
probably the inclined plane. Early builders
You do not have to lift the whole weight in one go
raised loads such as blocks of bu iJ ding However, although the effort is smaller, the distance
stone by pushing them gradu aI ly up a moved is greater. If you climb a zig-zag path up a
slope. The more gradual the slope , the mountain , each step is easier, but you take many more
Cab where the easier it is to raise the load , b u t the farther steps to reach the top than if you follow a steeper,
driver operates
you must travel to get to the top. but more direct route to the top.
controls

WHAT IS A WEDGE?
A wedge is a movable inclinecl plane. As it is pushed
forwards, it pushes a load sideways. The sharper the
wedge, the further it musl be pushed to produce the
same sideways movement, but the greater the
sideways force it applies. The blade of an 없 e IS a
wedge that produces a splitti ng force as it cuts into
hard materials , such as wood , rock, or ice.
‘ INC Ll NED PLANE
This road follows a zig-zag path up a hillside. The distance travelled is
greater than fol lowing the direct route to the top. but the slope is
gentler. so less effort is needed

Gears are toothed wheels that transfer turning motion and fo rces
from one place to anoth er, for example from a car engine to the
car wheels. The gear teeth mesh (fit together) so t hat as one gear
turns , it forces its neighbour to turn in the opposite direction.

WHAT IS A GEAR RATIO ?

lf two gea rs have the sa me number of teeth then
tbey turn at the sa me rate ancl with the sa me fo rce.
If one.,gear h 원 tw ice t따 numl양J of teeψ as the
other, the &êarrwit)Í mó reJeetll .'Y tates at hal f the
speecl orfh e- óthec핑관lr， bu ( wilh twice the force.
~~ i:2ijι •
yY ATCH GEARS ~
1" ~Th-.z낌eã~s i'L this껴~atc.Q 혀rrv_ the turning force f띤m the
. sPO뼈“ 1 찌 d Cl.!h"ë‘ watcfí t~_the-han~s 0 11. its
、t
face. The 9앓 r ratios
'.‘ 'J) ‘ 울진’ :;m~ l(e e~ch hl!.rJ<l ;tt때 att얀 correct ra ~ to-keep time
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FIND OUT MORE 뻐 Engines 198-199 • Forces 164 • Motion 165

A machine that converts energy from a fuel to do work Cranks lJ aft
lums che wheels
is an engine. Steam engines were the first engines for
PiStO I1
transport and industry. Internal combustion engines drives the crankshaft as
il ;5 forced down by
power road vehicles and many trains. Jet engines expanding hot gases
power aircraft , and IDl III 헤:U~넙헤 drive ships.
WHAT 15 A HEAT ENGINE? Aìr intake
Most engines co nvert heat energy into motion. The draws in air needed for
fu e/ to bum. A filter
heat co mes from burning a fuel such as coal, petrol,
traps dust and dìrt
or hydroge n gas. The heat makes a gas , such as a ir,
expand rapidly. In a piston engine, the expa ndin g gas
pushes a pisto n down a cylinde r. The piston moves
down on the po we r stroke, whi ch drives the machin e.
The amount of fueI an engine uses to run for a given
time is called its l】)1; 11 :1.‘'l~"" I/ "jl :.ll ll'l~1

WHAT 15 AN INTERNAL COMBU5T10N ENGINE?

igniled
ln this engine, fu el is burnt in a cylinde r. The cylinder
draws in air a nd fu el through a va lve as the pisto n
moves dow n. As the piston moves IIp , it com presses
th e air and f.uel, ca using them to heat up. The fu el
combusts (explodes), and the expanding gases fro m
the explosion pllsh the piston down, pro dllcing powe r.

HOW DOE5 A 5TEAM ENGINE WORK?

In a steam engine, fuel is burned outside the cylinder
- coal heats water in a boiler, which makes steam
5team is fed into the cylinder, where it expa nds and l끼 I ves
pushes the piston. The pisto n pushes a rod con nected
to a crank to turn a wheel
1111xture mto
cyfinder and
‘ STEAM ENGINE to let exl1 aust
The first steam engines pumped water from deep mines. Scottish gases out
engineer James Watt (1736-1819) introduced many improvements
to the steam engine. His ideas led to efficient steam engi nes that
could power factories and drive heavy locomotives, such Cmllsha ft controls
as this one from Harbin, Manchuria , in China the opening and
c/ osing of the valves

PETROL ENGINE

Petrol engines are internal

combustion engines. Most
modern petrol engi nes operate
on a four-stroke cycle. Fuel and
air are drawn into the cylinder,
the ’nixture is compressed , and spark
ignited. The expanding gases
puSh down the piston. As the
piston descends, power is
applied to the crankshaft‘ and
fi nally the exhaust gases are
forced ou t. Each cylinder
operates out of step with the INTAKE STROKE COMPRESSION STROKE
others , so the four work in The inlet valve opens. Fuel and The mixture of fuel and air is
sequence. Th is produces a air are drawn into the cylinder compressed as the piston rises
continuous output of power as the piston descends Then , the spark plug ignites the
so that the car runs smoothly mixture and it explodes
 영
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HOW DOES A JET ENGINE WORK? TURBINES

Air entering the fro nt of the engine is com pressed
by rotating bl ades an d fed to a combllstion chamber
Jet fllel inj ected into the chamber Ill ixes with the
compressed a iι and bllrns at a high te lll peratll re. This
makes a jet of gas shoo t from the rea r of the engin e
at sllch speed that it thrusts the aircrart forwa rcls
altcm ato r
lO chargc
l hc battc l}'
FRANK WHI 7TL E
English, 190 7- 1996
Engineer Frank Whirlle
proposed lhe idea for jCl
aircraft ;11 1928. But ;1 W8S
not unlil 1937 that he built
the first successful engine.
His ideas were devdopcd in
World War 11. and the first
’
WI ittle engine jel fighteπ
flew in 1944
\-
A turb in e is a n e n g in e that h as a set o f
blades or p a ddl es , rotated by a movin g
li qu id o r gas . Tu rbin es are u sed in
h y dro e lectri c pow e r statio ns a n d s hips .
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TURBINE?
Water- Ill ills and wincllll ills are exalllples of water ancl
air tu rbin es. They are not heat engi nes because they
do not rely on heat to produce motio n. Gas and steam
turbi nes are powerful heat engines - the turbine
blades are spun by hot gases from bllrn ing fu el, or by
high-pressure stealll from a boiler. They are lI sed to
drive large ships ancl tllrn power station generators
WHAT MAKES A TURBINE TURN?
The flo wing gas or liqllicl pushes the tllrbine bl ades ,
‘ 5TEAM TU RB INE
This tllrbine rotor is spun by
spinn ing the shaft. The turb ine is conn ectecl to a high- pressure steam. lt turns a
generato r. In a Ill oclern turbi ne , the anglecl blacles generator to produ ce electricity
have a sim ilar shape to aircraft wings to Ill axi lllize at a power station. The rotor
blades are arranged in stages
the force ge neratecl. The nlli d Ill ay pass throllgh two , Multi-stage tu rbines are the most
three, or Ill ore sets of bl acles arrangecl in seqllence -
to convert as Ill uch energy as possibl e to motion
cfficicnt as they takc all the
cncrgy prodllced by the steam

ENGIN E DEV ELO PMENT FUEL CONSUMPTION

c. 60 CE 5tea m powers
an englne A vehicle ’ s fu e! consu mptio n is m easure d b y how muc h fue l it
16 98 Fi rst practical u ses to travel a certa in distance . The fl1 el cons u mption of a car
steam eng ll1 e depe nds on its engine pow e r, its weight, its ae rodynam ics (h ow
1765
'79 0
’ )ames Watt
il1l proves steam
smooth ly it moves through t h e a irJ, its s p eed , a nd how it is driven .
englnes
1804 ’ First steam
locomotive
HOW CAN ENGINE EFFICIENCY BE IMPROVED ?
The more fue l a ca r needs to work , the less engine
T ELECTRICCAR
50lar panels in this car’ s roof feed
power to its batteries. Electric
... CAR ENG INE
In this high- performa nce , six-
1876 ’ First internal
combustion
effìcient it is. Scien [Î srs are clevelop ing cars that lI se
less fuel , ancl therefo re clo not waste energy or pollllre
cars do not pollute city streets
with exhaust fumes
cylinder car engine , the power eng lnc the ai r. They are also mak ing ca rs that lI se
strokes from the pistons take
place in seqllence. The power is '9 03 ’ First gas
turbi ne
c1 ifferent sources or energy, sllch as
so lar panels, electric motors , or
transferred smoothly through
the cran kshaft to the gearbox
and whecls
'937 ’ First jet engi ne hydrogen fuel , which is
pol lution-free .

Hot gases
expand and
force the
piston down

Cranksha ft
rotates

POWER 5TROKE EXHAU5T 5TROKE

The hot gases expand, which The exhaust valve opens. The
forces the piston down, exhaust gases (waste gases) are
transferring power to the fo rced out of the cylinder as
crankshaft the piston rises
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TRANSPORT
Many people live in one place , but work in another.
At local supermarkets , people buy products from other
countries. Modern transport - the movement of people
and I끄':I~~ ::1[1헤:U by land, sea, and air - lets us travel all
over the world with great speed. Å CYCLE PATH
In some cities, dedicated cycle paths keep cyclists and motor vehicles
WHAT 15 A TRAN5PORT 5Y5TEM? ,Demand
AI RTRAFFI C
for air travel is so
in separate lanes , making cycling safer and more enjoyable
Road, rail , sea , and air transport link togethe r to make
an integrated transport system. A package sent fTom great that a busy airport can HOW EFFICIENT ARE DIFFERENT FORM5
operate flights eve이 minute ,
the UK can be deJivered 24 hours later to an address 24 hours a day. This can create OF TRAN5PORT?
in the U5A. A courier collects the package and ta kes disturbing noise pollution for The most fuel-efficient way to transport people and
it by road to the airpo rt. The freight plane f1 ies people living along the flight goods is by sea , butjourney times are long. Ra iJ is the
overnight to the USA. Its cargo is sorted, and the path. Night flights are 야xt rnost efficient, and safe. Flying is the fastest , but
restricted , or banned
package travels onwards by rail , then road. completely, at many airports least efficient. The most efficient σa n s p ort for short
j ourneys is by bicycl e or on foot - both are poll utio n-
free , suffer few delays , and keep you 터 t as yo u travel

WHAT 15 A 5CIENTl 5T’5 ROLE IN TRAN5PORT?

Scientists and engineers seek solutions to transport
problems. They try to red u ce ~~ an d
pollution , and improve ~).:{lm .....，!l~ :a~r. . They also
wo rk with governments to introduce new scanning
equiprnent to improve securi ty and stop 미e
smuggli ng of illegal goods across borders.

5uch as aluminium

The pilot and crew use fl ight deck computers to f1 y

Turbofan eng ines
power lhe plane at
morc lhan 805 km/ h
(500 mph)
the plane, and radar screens to show their position,
and weather condi tions ahead. Ai r traffi c controllers
into its
on the ground give pilots permission to ta ke off and
docking bay
land , issue flight paths, and make sure that no aircraft
corne within 16 krn (10 miles) of one another
horizo ntally, or 310 m (1,000 ft) vertically.
CONGESTION
Congestion occurs when too many vehicles use
the same route at the same time , and traffic
slows or comes to a hal t. One solution is to
build more roads , but some peopJe argue
t h at the n u mber of vehicles grows to fill
the roads available . An a lternative is to
encourage people to use pub lic transport.

WHAT 15 GR lD lOCK?
TRANSP ORT FI RS TS
The sσ.eets in rnany rnodern cities are
3200 BCE • Wheels planned on a grid. At busy times traffic
3000 BCE • Sailing ships may halt as σaffic jarns forrn at junctions.
1803 • Steam train This is ca l1 ed gridlock. Gridlock rnay be avoided
by synchronizing σaffìc signals frorn one junction
1807 • Steamboat
to the next, and by introducing one-way systems.
1839 • Bicycle
1885 • Car WHY 15 PUB lI C TRAN5PORT IMPORTANT?
1903 • Aeroplane Public transport is more eFficient and less poll uling
than private cars. Underground rail can transpoπ two .1.TRAFFICJAM
1947 • Supersonic Managing lraffic flow al peak periods and dealing with
1 flight mill ion people in and out of a city each day - two
incidenls. such as crashes , are challenging problems for transport
1952 • Commercial rni ll ion cars can block the roads. City planners also planners. Engineers are developing ways to avoid jams - charging road
| passer’ger flight encourage the public to use σams ， bicycles , buses , tolls to discourage drivers, introducing in-car navigation systems to
light raiJways , and ferries to reduce congestion warn drivers of jams ahead, and inslalling synchronized lraffic signals

FREIGHT
Wh en goods are being transported they are call ed freigh t. Al most
everything you purch ase - cloth es , e lectronics , food , a n d books -
has been brought to the store from e lsewhere.

“ LOADING CONTAINERS HOW 15 A CONTAINER 5HIP l OADED?

Ahuge crane called a derrick
loads containers onto the ship
The crew are careful that the shi p
doesn ’ t tilt during loading. They
chalk numbers on the floor of the
ship so they know where to place
the different containers
Contai.ner ships are loaded at special container ports.
The co nta iners are easily transferred from road , to rail,
and to ship because each co nta iner is a sta ndard size ,
2.5 m by 2.5 m by 12 m (8 ft by 8 ft by 40 ft) ‘ They
stack together like bricks. The largest contai ner ship
can carry 4,000 containers.

’NewCRASH-TEST DUMM IES

car models are crash-tested ROAD SAFETY
in laboratories before they go
into production. Dummies in the Scientists are a1 ways Jooking for ways to improve safety on
car show what happens to
passengers in a crash. The impact the roads so that fewer people are h u rt or kill ed in accidents.
forces in the crash are monitored Millions of people are inj ured each year in road crashes around
with sensors inside the dummies
and by high-speed videos the world , but many more injuries are not reported.

HOW CAN ROAD 5AFETY BE IMPROVED?

Driving too fast is a major cause of accidents. Speed
increases the severi ty of accidents. Nine out of te n
collisions with a pedestri an at 64 kmfh (40 mph) are
fatal, but less than one in ten are fata l at 32 kmfh
(20 rnph). Speed bumps and traFfic islands help to
keep speeds down . Radar speed traps and roadside
cameras catch speeding vehi c1 es , encouraging drivers
to obey speed lirnits. Electronic signs on motorways
wam drivers to slow down in fog or snow

FIND OUT MORE 빼 Engines 198-199

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CONSTRUCTION
Giant tower cranes
lifl building materia/s

From houses and skyscraper s to bridges and highways ,

our environment is constructed from many different Scaffo/ding
at the top of the bui/ding
materials. Architects design structures to look good and
provides a p/atform for
suit a purpose - 댄헤 ~[I히 m ::l::l~찌 make rnalerials and constructioll
workers to bui/d higher
structures work.

WHAT DOE5 AN ARCHITECT DO?

An architect’ s job is to design and plan new
buildings and stmctures. Architects must
consider the building ’ s use, the choice of Co ncrete core
materials , and the building’ s environmen t. reinforced with steel rods
Plans sho w the exact position and method
of fLXi ng every detail , even the electric sockets

HOW ARE BUILDING MATERIAL5 CH05EN? Empty shell

HEM ISPHERIU M •
An architect explores his new
designs inside a virtual reality
dome. He uses a joystick to
navigate round the view
does r7 0t contain fitlings
Most large stmctures are built with concrete and or fixtures, such as
stee l. Concrete is used in huge quantities to make solid carpets. yet
foundations. Concrete wa lls, columns, and arches are
reinforced with steel to make them stronge r. Wood is
still used for many smaller buildings, particularly in
l】)1끼 [111111.':" ’:.~ll~"'I:UI.llll~1 . lt is light yet tough.

5KY5CRAPER CON5TRUCTION ~
HOW 15 A ROAD BUILT? When a new building is bui lt
The first stage is pl anning. The rou te must not destroy in a busy city, the CO l1 struction
important landscapes or bu ildings. The design depends company plan carefully so tha t
on the terrain the road crosses. Tunnels are needed they do not disrupt the traffic
through hills , and bridges across ri vers. The site is and trade nearby. This
skyscraper in Hong Kong's
c1 eared, foundations are dug , and a stable stone base financial district will be 88
is laid. The road is paved with concrete or Tarmac. stories high when complete‘

MODULAR CONSTRUCTION
Large paπs of modern buildings can be built away from the s ite ,
then delivered ready for assembly. The modules fit together
in a pre-plann e d way. Modular construction reduces construction
costs a nd the time spent at a construction site.

• M ICROFLAT5
WHAT ARE BUILDING 5Y5TEMS? These modular microflats in
As well as the founda tions , walls, and roof, the paπs Tokyo , Japan , were built to
or systems that go into making a building include the save space in the city. They
heati ng, li g h 디 ng， plumbing, and ve ntilation systems are cheaper because they are
Usually, these systems are instal led when the main smaller than most houses , and
easier to build
structure is complete , but som e modules arrive with
bathrooms and electrical wiring intact
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ENGINEERING
'f BRIDGES
An eng ineer a pplies the prin c ipl es of sc ie n ce to t h e d es ig n of These bridges are some of the
I1l Dst bea uti ful engineering
st ruct ures a nd m achi nes . S t ru ctura l e n g in ee rs , fo r ex a mpl e , m a ke
structures. They are carefully
calculation s to pre di ct th e stability of s t ru ctures . C iv il e n g in e e rs designed to car이 l1 eavy loads.
plan the c onstruction of ra il w a ys , roa d s , a nd d a m s . and survive bad weather

ARCH BRIDGE CABLE-STAYED BRIDGE CANTILEVER BRIDGE SUSPENSIDN BRIDGE

HOW DOE5 A BRIDGE CARRY A LOAD?

Co ncrete and
A straight bea m bends in the mid dl e as it
steel frame will be
c/ ad {coated} with supports a load. A bea m bridge ca n ca rry a
glas550 that it load ove r a narrow ga p, bllt a longe r bridge
looks attractive. needs a stronge r shape. An arch Sll ppo rts
and windows will
the load fro m beneath - it directs the force
be gfazed
around the curve to pllsh aga inst the
gro ll nd at both sides. A sllspensio l1 bridge
S ll p p Oπ5 a load from above, with cables

HOW HIGH CAN A 5KY5CRAPER GO?

The BlI rj Khali fa in DlI bai opened in 2010. Il
stands at a height of 828 m (2,717 Ft) and is the
tallest skyscraper in th e wo rl d. Engineers co uld
build even taller 5tructure5, bllt higher bll ildin g5
cost more money and need to be made safe. ‘ CURVED DAM
The curved shape of this concrete
WHAT 15 THE BE5T 5HAPE FOR A DAM? dam gives it strength. The water
A dam ho lds back water in a rive r to form an artifi cial pressure is directed around the
curve. which pushes against
lake. Water press ure increases with depth, 50 the the high ground at either side.
greatest pressure on the dam is at its ba5e - th e dam so the ground takes some of the
wall is mllch thicker at the bOttO Lll th an at th e top pressure away from th e dam

HOW 15 A TUNNEL BORED?

‘ TUNNELDIGG ING
Each of the six TBMs used to dig
TlIl1 nels a re cut with tunnel borin g mac hine5 (TB Ms), the Anglo-French Channel Tunnel
bllrrowing throu gh the groun d. As their culting blades was pushed forwards on rails wi th
turn , the machines move fo rwa rd at an ave rage rate a fo rce of 420 tonnes. As the
TBM worked. conveyor belts
of about 1. 6 km jh (1 mp h). Engineers line th e tllnnel
following behind carried away
behind th e TBMs with reinforced co ncrete ri ngs to t .000 tonnes of clay and rubble
prevent the roof and walls from coll apsing each hour.
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INDUSTRY
Industry is a general term meaning the businesses and
organizations that provide the goods and services we
need. There are primary industries , such as agriculture
and mining , manufacturing industries , and service
industries , such as tourism and banking.

WHAT ARE PRIMARY INDUSTRIES?

Primary industries suppl y us with Food and with the
Imm‘”’l끼'~lI :m，~，‘:J we need to clothe and house
ourselves, and to make all the other thi ngs we use.
For exam ple, agriculturaJ and fishing industries
produce food . Forestry supplies wood fo r ma k.ing
paper and construction. Oil drilling and mining

識랩톰
extract fu els to supply energy and materials.

WHERE ARE INDUSTRIES LOCATED?

lndustries develop wherever their suppl ies are fo und ‘

Steel- ma k.i ng and shipbuilding, for example, need raw

materials. Steel plants are often built near coal mines,
which supply the fu el they need to produce the stee l.
50 me other industries need lots oF wo rkers, so they Growing tea is an agricultu ral
are often located where labour costs are low. ind ustry. Tea leaves are picked
by hand so it is labour-intensive
- it needs a lot of workers. Many
WHAT 15 A COITAGE INDUSTRY? such jobs in agriculture are now
A coltage industry is run by an individual or done by machi ne
a famil y, often from their home. Befo re the Industri al
Revolution , most industries were cottage industries. MOTOR JNDUSTRY ~
Fami ly names such as Weaver and Potter identified The motor industry is now one
of the biggest industries in the
the fam ily trade. Today, new kinds of cottage industry worJd. Each day, thousands of
ha ve developed where home-based wo rkers use cars roJI off the production li nes
computers and the Internet to supply their customers. of car plants around the world

RAW MATERIALS
Raw materials are the natural sources of
fuel and manufacturing materials used by
industry. For example , oil supplies energy
and a lso chem icals for m ald ng plastics.
Metal ores give us metals such as iron.
Clay makes pottery, and sand makes glass.

HOW ARE RAW MATERIAL5 USED?

Many raw materials have to be processed using force,
heat, or chemica l reactions. Iron ore rock is crushed,
then heated with coke (a form of carbon) in a bl ast
furnace. Chemical reactions with the co k.e and air
reduce the ore to liqu id iron , which f1 0ws from the
botto m of the furnace and hardens a5 it COOI5.

WHAT ARE BY-PRODUCTS?

... OPENCAST MJNJNG
An opencast mine is a gaping
hoJe in the ground where raw
materials are dug. Coal , metal
ores, and stone are all used as
raw materials for ind ustry
A by- product is any useful materia! tha t is left over
fro m an industrial process. The slag (crumbled rock)
left behind when iron is extracted from iron ore can
be used for road-bui lding. Use fuJ amou nts of gold ,
silver, and platinum are left behind as by-products
of copper production.
 Science and Technology I 205

MANUFACTURING
From ankle socks to aircraft , a lmo st everything we use
has been manufactured. Manufacturing is the process
of making products from materials. It may be done by
hand , or by comp uter- contro ll ed l】JI :.I~{I]IlII.I[']~ •• I~I~'

WHERE 00 NEW PROOUCTS COME FROM ? '1' TEXTILE MANUFACTURING

Product development begins with an idea - such as At one time , all textiles (fabrics)
a new design for a tra iner or an electronic game. were spun and woven by hand
lf the idea is accepted , working sa mpl es are made Today, machines do the same job
in a fraction of the time it once
a nd tested. Then the samples are show n to the public took , and produce a vast variety
to get their reaction. lf it seems that enough people of fabrics - from cotton and silk
wou ld buy it, the product is put into production. to nylon string and carpeting

American, 1863-1947
The 50n of a farmcr, I1cnry
Ford founded the Ford Motor
Company in 1903 and
inlroduccd production -line
mClhods to car manu셔cture.
For lhe first time, cars became
generally affordable. Thc first WHAT IS MASS PROOUCTION?
Oφe of car produced in this A product is mass producecl when identical copies of
way wa5 the Model T. Ford it are made in vast numbers by machi nes. Once, all
Ford said his customers could
have any colour for their ca',
books were copiecl by hand . The printing press made
;'50 long as it was black ". it possibl e for books to be printecl quickly and easily,
\--- so books became cheaper ancl more widely ava il abl e

PRODUCTION Ll NE
A production lin e is a system for mass producing
a comp li cated product efficiently. The idea was first
used by Henry Ford as a way of ma k.i ng cars quickl y
and c h eap ly , so more people cou ld buy them .

HOW OOES A PROOUCTION Ll NE WORK?

On a production line , every stage in the making of
a product is a separate workstation. Workers (or
machines) at each station do the sa me task over and
over aga in as partly macle products move along a li ne
frO I1l station to station. This means tha t many 11l 0re
proclucts can be cO l1l pleted each day than if grou ps
of workers l1l acle one cO l1l plete product at a til1l e.

WHAT IS QUA Ll TY CONTROL?

... AUTOMATED PRODUCTION
In a bottling factory, bottles are
sterilized, filled , and capped by
machines. Hu man workers watch
Qver the process in case there is a
problem. People are still better at
soJving problems than rnachines
Th ings ca n go wro ng in a complica ted production
process. Machines break clown, the materials l1l ay
not be ava il able, or they may be the wron g so11. Such
proble l1l s ca n lead to fau lty products, which must not
be allowed to leave the factory or custo l1l ers will be
disa ppoin tecl . Qua lity control checks that every
finished procluct is of a sufficiently high sta nclard

FIND OUT MORE ~ Changing Materials 171 • Materials 170 • Robots 194
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CHEMICAl INDUSTRY
Plastics , l > 7!lct:III.:I :l I'JI[.!'... ., I】】l 잉 :r!，헤 I'lr!l. 톨 IIn.!， ...'1
paints , and detergents a re just a few of the products of
t he chemical industry. Chemicals are manufactured in
huge chemical plants or extracted at l】3'111. 헤:I :n’ 1 :1 헤 1=‘:j

Derrick
sllpports the dri /l
al1 d the dri /l string
(the pipes that lead
down to the drill
head i l1 the sea
bed)

witll the l1l ainland

Rig platform
sllpports the derrick,
as we /l as 0 ffices ,
canteens, recreaUon

WHAT DOES A CHEMICAL PLANT DO? ‘OilOllrefineries

REFINERY
break down crude
rooms, and sleeping
quarters for the
Chemi cals found in nature , such as salt, sulphur, workers
(untreatedl oil into many of the
nitrogen , and natural gas , are the raw materials of the chemical compounds used by
chemical industry. At a chemical plant, these materials the chemical industry. Arefi nery
are mixed, heated , and refìned. The chemical reactions operates around the clock - at
night its ill uminated pipes. tanks ,
that take place transform the raw ma te rials into acids, and towers look like a small city
alkalis , and other val uable chem ical compounds.
DRllllNG FOR Oll ~
HOW ARE ACIDS AND ALKA Ll S USED? Crude oil is extracted from under
Sulphuric acid is made from sulphur, air, and wate r. lt the sea bed by offshore oil rigs
is the biggest single product of the chemical industry These enormous platforms are the
lt is used in batteries , dyes , detergents, fertilizers, and largest sea-based structures in
the world. Anchored to the sea
synthetic lìbres. Other acids make rocket fuel , va rnish, bed , the rig supports the drill and Massive legs
and explosives. Sod ium carbonate is a common alka li all the machi nery needed to run support the
used to make both soap and glass , for exa mple the drilling operation. platforl1l . Th ey
l1l ay stand directly

on the sea bed, or

may be fi /led with
OIL REFINERY 8ir to prov;de a
110ating base
which is anchored
Crude oi l from oil fi e lds a round the wo rld is shipped to refineries. to the sea bed
The thick , b lack crude is not a s ing le s ubsta nce , but a mixture
of many diffe r e nt ca rbon compounds (groups of atoms). At the
refin e ry , the compounds are sep a rate d by fractional distillation.

WHAT IS FRACTIONAL DISTl lLATl ON?
At a refìn ery, crude oil is heated until it boi ls and
turns into a mi.x ture of va pours. Different compounds
in the vapours cool and condense at different levels
inside a tall distill ation tower, all owing them to be
separated ou t. Heavy industrial fuels condense at the
bottom of the tower, lighter petroleum fuel at the top.
WHAT CAN WE MAKE FROM Oll?
Usi ng further treatrnents, lighter compounds can be
turned into important fuels, such as petrol and
kerosene for motor vehicles and aircraft. They can
also make fìbres and plastics , solvents for paints , inks ,
adhesives , cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Heavier
molecul es are used for lubricant oils and bitumen .
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AGROCHEMICALS
Plants need minerals from the soil to grow wel l. But repeated use
of soil drains the minerals from it and fewer crops are produced.
The farming industry uses agrochemicals to
help them improve the quality of the soil ,
and also to fight off the insect pests ,
diseases , and weeds that would
otherwise destroy their cro ps.

WHAT IS ORGANIC FARMING?

Because oF the efFecl oF a rti fi cial sprays
and Fertilizers on the env ironlll ent, orga nic
Farmers choose not to use thelll. Instead ,
tbey use animal manure and COlllpOSt, and
rotate theiJ crops with bea ns and peas to
replace ni trogen in the soil. They also control
pests with natural methods, such as pl anting
onions between carrots to discourage carrot fly

‘FruitCROPtreesSPRAYING
in an orchard are
sprayed with pesticides to control
insects and other pests that
would damage the fruit or the
trees. At the same time , care
must be taken not to kill helpf미
insects, such as bees.
WHAT ARE SELECTl VE WEEDKILLERS?
1n tbe past, Farmers tried to kill weeds with sea sa lt
and other common chemica ls. But these substa nces
killed crops as wel l. Modern herbicides (weedkillers)
are organic chemicals designed to lim it weed growth.
Many are selective, wruch means that they kill the
weeds but do li ttJ e harm to the crop.

PHARMACEUTICALS
A pharmaceutical is 없ly substance used to treat or preve nt
disease. Since ancient times , people have experimented with plants
as medicines , often poisoning tbemselves , but sometimes findin g
suhstances with real benefits - aspirin , for example . Today, the
pharmaceutical industry is based on stricter scientific methods.

HOW ARE NEW DRUGS DEVELOPED?

Now that biochemists understand the chemjcals in
li ving ce Ll s, they can design molecules to combat
iJJ ness. Molecules can be made in a laboratory and
tested on cells in a culture (in 띠tr이. Successful
compounds are then tested on animals (in vivo).

HOW ARE NEW DRUGS TESTED?

Wh en a drug has been tested in a laboratory it is
given to patients in tests called clinical trials. [n these,
some patients are given the new drug while others
receive a placebo (a dummy medjcine). Because the
patients do 1J 0t know whlch drug they have received ,
the test will show if the drug has a genuine effect
‘ TAKING DRUGS
Most types of drug are taken
orally (by mouth) in the form of
tablets or pills , or as powders
Some drugs are swallowed in
liquid form , and some are
injecled using a hypoderrnic
syringe. Some drugs can also be
absorbed through lhe skin
DRUG MANUFACTURE ‘
This mould is used for shaping
tablets (pills). Pills contain the
drugs prescribed for patients by
doctors. Each drug is made into a
pill with a different shape‘ colour,
size. or paltern. This makes it less
likely that the wrong pill will be
taken by mistake
 Scotlis l1, 188 1- 1955
Fleming won the Nobe/ Prize
ror Medicine in 1945 ror lhe
discovery of penicillin. While
searching for compounds that
wou/d kill bacleria withoul
harming the bod.ι he noticed
that bacteria cu/lured {grown}
in a g/a5s dish had died
around 5pol5 of mou /d
The mou/d had b/own in
lhrough a window. F/eming
exlracled lhe antibiotic

FIND OUT MORE ÞÞI Digestion 144-145 • Micro-organisms 85

 El1 g lish, 19 16-
JAME5 WA T5 0N
American , 1928-
In 1953, i l1 spired by scie l1 lisl
Rosalind Franklin, Crick and
Watson buill a DNA double
helix (spiral) model. Th얻Y
Iil1 ked lhe strands of the helix

withA, τ C, and G molecules

FIND OUT MORE ÞÞI Cells 73 • Genetic Engineering 210-211 • Reproduction 148
210 I Science a빼hnology
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering is the manipulation of genes of
liv in g things. Scientists can now insert genes from
one organism into anothe r. They do this to grow
lJJI야미 1:1I1111J • They can also Im. lIlN톨 embryos that
provide C:...'I :lI'j •• :II ..~ to repair damaged body tissue.

WHAT 15 GENETIC VARIATION?

The differences betwee n species and between
individuals are explained by the di ffere nces in
their genes. Sexual reproduction , which randomly
mixes genes from parents in their children, produces
va riation from generation to generation.

HOW CAN WE MANIPULATE GENES?

Wh en dog breeders select puppies with short ta ils to
breed from , they are manipul ating the gene fo r tai l MICROBE CO LONY .l
length. The gene for short tails is passed on , ancl the Genetic engineering is commonly
gene for long tails c1 ies ou t. Now, scientists can select performed on microbes grown in
and move genes between organisms in the labo ratory the laboratory, such as on this
fungus. Genes are inserted into
A gene for disease resistance can be “ snipped out'. microbes to make them produce
from the DNA of one plant and inseπed into another substances to treat disease

GM FOOD
GM seedling
The 터 rst genetically modified (GM) food went on sale in 1994. rolerares
pesticides and
lt was a variety of tomato call ed Flavr Savr. The gene that makes ’
herb cides
the tomato soften had been changed to make it ripen more s low ly ,
so that it wo uld develop more flavour

• GM OR NOT?
GM crops , such as these
tomatoes , look just like
traditional va rieties. The changes
produced by gene manipulation
are subtle. Genetic modification
is more likely to be used to affect
the crop’5 disease resÎstance or
shelf life tha n its appearance

ARE GM CROPS 5AFE? GEN ETl CALLY MODIFIED

Some farmers are not keen to grow GM crops. One PLANT ~
This GM seedling has had genetic
worry is that genes inσoducecl into the crop will material from another species
transfer to other species. An other concern is that inserted into its genetic code
herbicide- ancl pesticicle-resistant crops encourage 5cientists perform genetic
farmers to use too many of these chemicals , which modification on plants to make
might damage wilcllife. them mQre resistant to disease ,
pests, pesticides , and even bad
weather conditions
WHAT WA5 THE GREEN REVOLUTION?
In the 1960s, scientists tried to breed crops suited to
conditions in developing countries. The aim was to
reduce food shortages by introducing productive crops
that we re disease- resistan t. In lnclia , crop production
increased, but in other places, the new crop va rieties
needed fertili zers that farnlers coulcl not affo rcl
 Science and Technology I 211

CLON ES
Clones are d ifferent individ u a ls with the same genes. Clones are
common in nature - a bacterium clones itself by splitting in two ,
producing two identical bacteria. Now scientists have developed
artificial cloning techniques that work with mammals.

HOW ARE ANIMAL CLONES PRODUCED?

The nrst c1 0ne made with DNA from an adu lt anima l
was Dolly the sheep in 1997. DNA was taken from a n
adu lt sheep (Dolly ’ s biological mo ther) and inseπed
into an egg cell (with its own DNA removed) from
another sheep. The cell started to divide, and the
emb ryo was taken and put into the wo mb of a thi 띠
sheep - Dolly ’ 5 surrogate (birth) mothe r. Animal
Leave5 c1 0nes could be used for medical research
de5igned 10
grow usmg
!e55 f눔rtilizer
HOW ARE BANANAS CLONED ?
Many plants propagate (reproduce) vegetatively
DDLLY THE 5HEEP ‘
Dolly's biological rnolher was
(without sex). Each new plant has the same DNA as six yea rs old when her DNAwas
the parent and is therefore a c1 one. On a plantation cloned to produce Dolly. 5heep
can live for 11 to 12 yea rs, but
all the banana plants are c1 0nes of their parents Dolly died when she was six

COULD HUMAN BEINGS BE CLONED?

[11 P 디I1 ci pl e， humans could be c1 0ned in the sa me way
as Dolly, perhaps to help a person unable to have a
ch iJ d in any other way. But, as with other aspects of
genetic engineering , human c1 0ning is controversial,
and has already been banned in many coun tries

... INTRACYTOPLA5MIC5PERM INJECTl ON (IC51)

IC51 is used to help couples who have difficul ty conceiving a ba by
The father’s sperm is injected into an egg fro ll1 the mother. Jn cloning ,
the procedure is different. Instead of injecting sperm , the nucleus of
the egg cell is removed and replaced wi th the nucleus of a mature
cell from the rnother. 5perm is not needed

STEM CELLS
The starter ce lJ s in an embryo are
called stem cells. As t h e embryo grows ,
stem cells change to become the
different cells needed in t h e body,
such as n erve cell s and b lood cells

HOW CAN STEM CELL RESEARCH HELP PEOPLE?

5tem ceU research is investigating the use of stem
cells to repair damaged or diseased tissue. For
ξxamp lζ the body ca nno t repair or repl ace nerve
cells damaged by disease or injury. Transplanted
stem cells could be grown to c1 evelop into new nerve ... 5TEM
cells to treat Parkinson’ s and Alzheimer’ s diseases CELL RE5EARCH
This etectron microscope image
shows stem cells from an ad uJt's
WHY 15 THERE CONCERN ABOUT IT? bone marrow. These are the only
5tem ce lJ research is controversial because the cells type of stemcells that occur in
are taken from human emb ryos that have been an adult' s body. These stemcells
fertili zecl in the labo ratory. To avoicl r인 ectio n of the change to produce different
cells the embryo shoulcl icleally have been c1 0n ecl blood cells, but only embryo cells
can produce all the different cells
using the patient ’ 5 DNA. Many people have concerns that Ill ake up a human being
about using human embryos in this way‘