Cebu Doctors’ University
COLLEGE OF NURSING
HEALTH EDUCATION
1 Dr. P. V. Larrazabal Jr. Avenue, North Reclamation, 6014 Mandaue City, Cebu, Philippines
Tel. No. +63 (32) 238-8746 local 191-192 Website: www.cebudoctorsuniversity.edu E-mail add: cdu-cn@cebudoctorsuniversity.edu
A. MODULE 1 (CONCEPTS OF TEACHING)
OVERVIEW OF EDUCATION ON HEALTHCARE
➢ Teaching is an important aspect on the nurse’s
professional role whether it be educating patients
and their family members, colleagues, or nursing
students.
➢ The currrent trends in health care are making it
essential that patients be prepared to assume
responsibilty for self-care management and that
nurses in the workplace be accountable for the
delivery of safe, high quality care.
➢ According to Fribwerg and colleagues (2012), patient
education is an issue in nursing practice and will
continue to be significant focus in the healthcare
environment.
➢ Nurses in the role of educators must understand the
forces, both historical and present dat, that have
influences and continue to influence their
respondibilities in practice.
HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR PATIENT
EDUCATION IN HEALTH CARE
PRE-HISTORIC TIMES
- The term Patient Education – not specifically used,
considerable efforts by the earliest healers to infomr,
to encourage, and caution patients to follow
appropriate hygienic and therapeutic measures
(Barlett, 1986)
- Mid – 1800s – 20th century – formative period by
Barlett (1986) the 1st phase in the development of
organized health care (Dreeben 2010)
THE IMPACT ON PATIENT EDUCATION (Barlett, 1985,
Dreeben, 2010)
THE IMPACT ON PATIENT EDUCATION (Barlett, 1985,
Dreeben, 2010)
▪ Emergence of nursing and other health
professions
▪ Technological developments
▪ The emphasis on the patient – caregiver
relationship
▪ The spread of tuberculosis and other
communicable diseases
▪ The growing interest in the welfare of mothers
and children
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
➢ Emerged as a resolute advocate of the
educational responsibilities of district public
health nurse
AUTHORED
➢ Health Teacher in Town and Villages which
advocated for school teaching of health rules as
well as health teaching in the home (Monterio,
1985)
2nd Phase – 4 DECADES OF THE 2OTH CENTURY
➢ The development of organized health care
➢ 1908 – The Division of Child Hygiene was
established in New York City in support of
maternal and child health
➢ Public health nurses provided instructions to
mothers of newborns in the Lower East Side on
how to keep their infants healthy (Barlett, 1986)
They are using:
• Diagnostic tools
• Scientific discoveries
• New vaccines
• Antibiotic medications

Education programin sanitation, immunization,
prevention and treatment of infectious diseases and
growth in the U.S. public health system
➢ The National League of Nursing Education (NLNE)
recognized that public health nurses were essential
to the well-being of communities and the teaching
they provided to individuals, families, and groups
was considered “a precursor to modern patient and
health education” (Dreeben, 2010)
3rd phase – THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIZED HEALTH
CARE BEGAN AFTER WORLD WAR II
Late 1940 – the time when patient education continuod
as part of clinical encounters
1950s – The 1st references in the literature to patient
education (Falvo, 2004)
1953 – Veterans Administration (VA) hospitals issued a
technical bulletin – Patient Education and Hospital
Program – nature and scope of patient education and
provided guidance to all hospital services involves in
patient education. (Veterans Administration, 1953)
1960s and 1970s – Patient education began as scientific
task where emphasis was placed on educating individual
patients rather than providing general public health
education
1971 – 2 significant events occurred:
1. A publication from U.S. Department of health
Education and Welfare – The Need of patient education
– a concept of patient education that provided
information about disease and treatment as well as
teaching patients how to stay healthy
2. President Richard Nixon issued a message to Congress
using the term health education (Falvo, 2004) –
recommended that hospitals offer health education to
families of patients (Barlett 1986, Weingartern 1974)
Early 1970s – patient education was significant part of
AHA’s statement in patient Bill of Rights, affirmed in
1972 (AHA, 1973)
1976 - Accreditation Manual for Hospitals by Joint
Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare
organization, now known as the Joint Commission
(Falvo,2004) – broadened the scope of patient
education to include both outpatient and inpatient
services.
1980s and 1990s – National Health and Education
programs focused on disease prevention and health
promotion
1993 – The Joint Commission – established nursing
standards for patient education these standards
required nurses to achieve positive outcomes of patient
care through teaching activities that must be patient
centered and family oriented.
Mid – 1990s – Pew Health Professional Commission
(1995) published a broad set of competencies pertinent
to the scope and training of all health professional
groups including nurses to do the following:
➢ Enhance a personal ethic of social responsibility
and service
➢ Provide evidence-based, clinically competent
care
➢ Incorporate the multiple determinants of health
in clinical care
➢ Rigorously practice preventative health care
➢ Improve access to healthcare for those with
unmet health needs
➢ Practice relationship – centered care with
individuals and families
➢ Provide culturally sensitive care to diverse
society
➢ Use communication and information technology
effectively and appropriately
➢ Continue to learn and help others

Healthy People 2020 is the product of an extensive
evaluation process, 4 goals:
➢ Attaining high-quality and longer lives
➢ Aacheiving health equity and eliminating disparities
➢ Creating social and physical environments that
promote good health for all
➢ Promoting quality of life, healthy development, and
behaviors across the entire life spam
Grueninger (1995) transision toward wellness entails a
progression:
➢ From disease-oriented patient education (DOPE)
➢ From disease-oriented education (POPE)
➢ To ultimately become health-oriented patient
education (HOPE)
THE EVOLUTION OF THE TEACHING ROLES OF
NURSES
1918 – The National League for Nursing (NLN) observed
the importace of health teaching as a function within
the scope of nursing practice.
2006 – NLN developed the first Certified Nurse Educator
(CNE) exam to raise “the visibility and status of the
academic nurse educator role as an advanced
professional practice discipline with defined practice
setting” (Klestzick, 2005, p.1)
PURSPOSES, GOALS AND BENEFITS OF PATIENT
AND NURSING STAFF/STUDENT EDUCATION
➢ The benefits of client education
➢ Increase consumer satisfaction
➢ Improve quality life
➢ Ensure continuity of care
➢ Decrease patient anxiety
➢ Effectively reduce the complications of illness and
the incidence of disease
➢ Promote adherence to treatment plans
➢ Maximize independence in the performance of
activities of daily living
➢ Energize and empower consumer to become
actively involved in the planning of their care
THE EDUCATION PROCESS DEFINED
Education Process
- Is a systematic, sequential, logical, scientifically
based, planned course of action consisting of
two major interdependent operations:
Teaching and Learning
- This process forms continuous cycle that also
involves 2 interdependent players:
- The teacher and the learner
- The education process, like the nursing process
because of the steps of each process.
ASSESSMENT
▪ Nursing Process – appraise physical and
psychosocial needs
▪ Educational Process – Ascertain learning needs,
readiness to learn, and learning styles.
PLANNING
▪ Nursing Process – develop care plan based on
mutual goal setting to meet individual needs
▪ Educational Process – Develop teaching plan
based on mutually predetermined behavioral
outcomes to meet individual needs
IMPLEMENTATION
▪ Nursing Process – Carry out nursing care
interventions using standard procedures
▪ Education Process – Perform the act of teaching
using specific teaching methods and
instructional materials
EVALUATION
▪ Nursing Process – determine physical and
psychosocial outcomes
▪ Educational Process – determine behavior
changes (outcomes) in knowledge, attitudes, and
skills.
Learning – is defines as a change in behavior (knowledge, EFFECTIVE TEACHING IN NURSING
attitudes, and/or skills) that can be observed or
In 1991, Jacabson delineated 6 major categories of
measured and that can occur at any time or in any place
effective teaching:
resulting from exposure to environmental stimuli.
➢ Professional competence
Patient Education – Is a process of assisting people to ➢ Interpersonal relationships with students
learn health-related behaviors that they can ➢ Teaching practices
incorporate into everyday life with the goal of achieving ➢ Personal characteristics
optimal health and independence in self-care ➢ Evaluation practices
➢ Availability to students
Staff Education – Is the process of influencing the
PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
behavior of nurses by producing changes in their
knowledge, attitudes, and skills to help them maintain Includes several aspects:
and improve their competencies for the delivery of
The teacher who aims for excellence develops a
high-quality care to the consumer
thorough knowledge of subject matter and polishes
skills throughout his/her career
THE ASSURE MODEL – Is a useful paradigm
originally developed to assist nurses to organize and Maintains and expands this knowledge through
carry out the education process: reading, research, clinical practice and continuing
➢ Analyze the learner education
➢ State the objectives
INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS
➢ Select the instructional methods and materials
➢ Use the instructional methods and materials An effective teacher is skillful in interpersonal
➢ Require learner performance relationships by:
➢ Evaluate the teaching plan and revise as necessary
➢ Taking a personal interest in learners
➢ Being sensitive to their feelings and problems
HALLMARKS OF GOOD TEACHING STRATEGIES
➢ Conveying respect for them
FOR NRUSE EDUCATORS (SANDRA DEYOUNG)
➢ Alleviating their anxieties
The effective teacher does not become so just by ➢ Being accessible for conferences
imitating former good teachers, although following a ➢ Being fair
good role model can be helpful. ➢ Permitting learners to express differing points
of view
The process also involves: ➢ Creating an atmosphere in which they feel free
➢ Knowledge of educational theory and research to ask questions
Willingness to learn new roles and teaching methods ➢ Conveying a sense of warmth
➢ A good teaching voice
➢ The ability to reflect on one’s own performance
(Helm, 2006) ➢ Self
 SEVEN PRINCIPLES OF GOOD PRACTICE IN
UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS 1. Encourage student-facility contact
Qualities such as: 2. Encourage cooperation among students
➢ Authenticity 3. Encourage active learning
➢ Enthusiasm 4. Give prompt feedback
➢ Cheerfulness 5. Emphasize time on task
➢ Self-control 6. Communicate high expectation
➢ Patience 7. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning
➢ Flexibility
➢ A sense of humor BASIC TEACHING MODEL BY: Robert Glaser
(1962)
➢ A good teaching voice
➢ Selfconfidence ➢ It is psychological teaching model and was
➢ Caring attitude developed by Robert Glaser in 1962
➢ This model explains the relationship between
TEACHING PRACTICES teaching and learning
Jacobson (1996) dedined teaching practices as the ➢ It is basic model based on basic principles of
mechanics, methods, and skills in classroom and clinical psychology
setting ➢ Nelson L. Bossing called the model the
Classroom Meeting Model
Students and colleagues value a teacher who has
Glaser Model consist of 4 elements:
through knowledge of the subject matter and can
present material in an interesting, clear, and organized 1. Instructional Objectives
manner
- These are defined objectives which the students
should achieve at the completion of particular
EVALUATION PRACTICES
instruction.
Valued by students include:
➢ Clearly communicating expectations - These objectives are based on Bloom’s Taxonomy
➢ Providing communicating expectations or behavioral objectives.
➢ Correcting students tactfully
- The objectives may be stated in general, specific or
➢ Being fair in the evaluation process
behavioral terms.
➢ Giving tests that are pertinent to the subject
matter 2. Entry Behavior
Once the objectives have been decided, the teacher
AVAILABILITY TO STUDENTS
tries to access the entry behavior of the learners –
Nursing students those taking clinical courses, expect
their previous knowledge, level of intelligence,
the instructor to be available to them when needed:
motivation state and interests are found out,
➢ In stressful clinicla situations
➢ Physical helping students give nursing care 3. Instructional Procedure
➢ Giving appropriate amounts of supervision
On the basis of objectives and entry behavior of the
➢ Freely answering question
learner, the teacher select the content, teaching
➢ Acting as a resource person during clinical
strategy and proper audio visual aids.
learning experiences
At this step, interaction between students and
teacher takes place.
 BARRIERS TO TEACHING ANF OBSTACLES
TO LEARNING
4. Performance Assessment ➢ Barriers to teaching are defined as those
The teacher tries to evaluate the outcome of factors that impede the nurse’s ability to
teaching. deliver educational services
It can be done with the help of tools and techniques ➢ Obstacles to learning are defined as those
of evaluation. factors that negatively affect the ability of the
This model is flexible in the sense that if a student learner to pay attention to and process
shows low achievement in attaining the desirable information
objective, feedback is provided until he achieves the BARRIERS TO TEACHING:
desired objectives.
➢ Lack of time
EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES ➢ Low priority status of client education
➢ Lack of confidence and competence
1. Interest and explanation ➢ Questionable effectiveness of client education
2. Concern and respect for students and ➢ Documentation difficulties
➢ Absence of third-party reimbursement
student learning
➢ Negative influence of environment
3. Appropriate assessment and feedback
➢ Lack of motivation and skill
4. Clear goals and intellectual challenge
5. Independence, control, and active OBSTACLES TO LEARNING
engagement ➢ Lack of time
6. Learning from students ➢ Stress of illness
➢ Readiness to learn issues
UNDERSTANDINF THE 21ST CENTURY LEARNERS ➢ Complexity, fragmentation and inconvenience
➢ Resiliency of health system
➢ Creativity ➢ Denial of learning needs
➢ Self-confidence ➢ Lack of support from health professionals or
➢ Purposiveness significant others
➢ Understanding ➢ Extent of needs behavior changes
➢ The value of collaboration ➢ Negative influence of environment
➢ The relationship of effort to results ➢ Literacy problem
➢ The need to be continuallygrowing and learning
21st century learner characteristics which are
believed to equip students to enjoy a high
quality of life

MODULE 2
APPLYING LEARNING THEORIES TO
HEALTHCARE
• Learning
- A relatively permanent change in mental processing,
emotional functioning, skill and/ or behavior as a
result of exposure to different experiences.
- It is a lifelong, dynamic process by which individuals
acquire new knowledge or skills and alter their
thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and actions.
- Enables individuals to adapt to the demands snf
changing circumstances for patients and families.
- For students, acquiring the information and skills
necessary to become nurse
- For staff, devising effect approaches to educating and
treating patients.
• Learning theory
- Is a coherent framework of integrated constructs and
principles that describe, explain, or predict how
people learn.
• Pyschological Learning Theory
- Provides alternative theories and perspectives on how
learning occurs and what motivates people to learn
and change
- Are useful in acquiring information and situations
involving human thought, emotions and social
interaction.
• Motor learning
- Evolves as a brance of experimental psychology and
can be differentiated from “verbal” learning
- Is a particular interest to nurses as they try to help
their paents and students acquire or learn skills
PSYCHOLOGICAL LEARNING THEORY
➢ Behaviorist Learning Theory
➢ Cognitive
➢ Social Learning Theory
➢ Psychodynamic
➢ Humanistic Learning Theory
1. BEHAVIORIST LEARNING THOERY
- Focusing mainly on what is directly observable,
behaviorist view learning as the product of the stimulus
Conditions (S) and Responses (R) that follow
o Behaviorist
- closely observe responses to a situation and
manipulate the environment to bring about
intended change. (Kazdin, 2013)
o Respondent conditioning (Aldo termed as
Association learning, Classical conditioning or
Pavlovian conditioning)
- Emphasizes the importance of stimulus conditions
and the associations formed in the learning
process (Omrod, 2014)
A neutral stimulus (NS)
- Stimulus that has no special values or meaning to
the learner – is paired with a naturally occurring
unconditioned or unlearned stimulus (UCS) and
unconditioned response (UCR)
After such parings, the neutral stimulus alone (without
the unconditional stimulus) elicits the same
unconditional response.
Learning Takes place when newly conditions stimulus (CS)
becomes associated with the conditions response (CR)
- A process that may well occur without conscious
though or awareness.
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION
- Is a technique based on respondent conditioning
that is used by psychologists to reduce fear and
anxiety in their clients (Wolpe, 1982)
The assumption is that fear of certain stimulus or
situation is learned; therefore; it is also can be unlearned
or extinguished.
STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
- Is the tendency of initial learning experiences to
be easily applied to other similar stimuli.
DISCRIMINATTION LEARNING
- With more varied experiences, individuals learn to
differentiate among similar stimuli
 2. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
- Is a useful respondent conditioning concept that
needs to be given careful consideration in relapse
prevention programs.
- A response may appear to be extingushed, it mat at
any time reappear when stimulus conditions are
similar to the initial learning experience
OPERANT CONDITIONING
- Developed by B. F. Skinner (1974, 1989)
- Focuses on the behavior of the organism and the
reinforcement that occurs after the response
- A reinforcement is a stimulus or event applies after a
response that strenghtens the probability that the
response will be performed again
OPERANT CONDITIONING MODEL
a. Positive reinforcement application of a pleasant
stimulus
Reward conditioning – a pleasant stimulus is
applies following an organism’s response
b. Negative reinforcement – removal of an aversive of
unpleasant stimulus
Escape conditioning – As an eversive stimulus is
applied, the organism makes a response that
causes the unpleasant stimulus to cease
- As an unpleasant stimulus is being applied, the
individual respods in some ways that causes the
uncomfortable stimulation to cease
Avoidance conditioning – An aversive stimulus is
anticipated by the organism, which makes a
response to avoid the unpleasant event
- The unpleasant stimulusu is anticipated rather than
being applied dierctly.
To decrease or extinguish the probability of a
response:
A. Nonreinforcement:
- An organism’s conditioned response is not followed
by any kind of reinforement (positive, negative, or
punishment)
B. Punishment:
- Following a response, an aversivr stimulus is applied
that the organism cannot escape or avoid.
- Stress the importance of what goes on inside the
learner
- Composed of sub theories and is widely used in
education and counseling
- The key to learning and changing is individual’s
cognitive (perception, thought, memory, and ways
of processing and structuring information.
- It involves perceiving the information, interpreting
it based on what is already known, and then
recognizing the information into new insights or
understanding (Matlin, 2013; Sternberg
&Sternberg, 2017)
Metacognition
- Understanding of her way of learning
- To promote transfer of learning, the learner must
mediate or act on the information in some way.
Cognitive Learning Theory
- Includes several well-known perspectives:
- Gestalt
- Information Processing
- Human development
- Social constructionism
- Social cognition theory
❖ Gestalt Perspective
- One of the oldest psychological theories
- Emphasizes the importance of perception in
learning and lays the groundwork for various other
cognitive perspective
- Refers to the configuration or patterned
organization of cognitive elements, reflecting the
maxim that “the whole is greater than the sum of
its parts”
- Each person perceives, interprets, and responds to
any situation I his or her own way.
- A basic gestalt principle is that psychological
organization is directed toward simplicity,
equilibrium, and regularity
- Another central gestalt principle is that
psychological organization is that perception is
selective

1st – no one can attend to all possible surrounding
stimuli at any given time
2nd – What individuals pay attention to and what they
ignore are influence by a host of factors: past
experiences, needs, personal motives and attitudes,
reference groups, and the actual needs structure of
the stimulus or situation.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Information Processing
- Is a cognitive perspective that emphasizes thinking
process: thought, reasoning, the way information is
encountered and stored, and memory functioning
1st stage – in the memory process involves paying
attention to environmental stimuli; attention, then, is
the key to learning.
2nd stage – The information is processed by the sense.
It becomes important to consider the client’s
preferred mode of sensory processing (visual,
auditory, or motor manipulation and to ascertain
what has any he or she has any sensory deficits)
3rd stage – The information is trandormed and
incorporated (encoded) briefly into short term
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISNM
memory, after which it suffers one of the 2 facets:
- The information is disregarded and forgotten
- It is in ling term memory
4th stage – involves the action of response that the
individual undertakes based on how information was
processed and stored
SOCIAL COGNITION
9 Events and corresponding cognitive processes that
activated effective learning
- Gain the learner’s attention (reception)
- Inform the learner of the objectives and expectation
(Expectancy)
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
- Stimulate the learner’s recall of prior learning
(Retreival)
- Present Information (Selective perception)
- Provide guidance to facilitate the learner’s
understanding (semantic encoding)
- Have the learner demonstrate that
information or skill (responding)
- Give feedback to the learner
(reinforcement)
- Assess the learner’s performance (retrieval)
- Work to enhance retention and transfer
through application and varied practice
(generalization)
- 3rd perspective on learning that focuses on
qualitative changes in perceiving, thinking,
and reasoning as individuals grow and
mature.
- Conditions are based on how external
events are conceptualized, organized, and
represented within each person’s mental
framework or schema which is partially
dependent on individual’s stage of
development in perception, reasoning, and
readiness to learn
- Age and stage of life can affect learning
- Individuals formulate or construct their own
version of reality and that learning and
human development are richly colored by
the social and cultural context in which
people find themselves.
- Reflects on constructivist orientation and
highlights the influence of social factors on
perception, thought, and motivation
- Focuses on the cause0and-effect
relationships and explanations that
individuals formulate to account for their
own and others’ behavior and the way in
which the world operates.

COGNITIVE-EMOTIONAL PERSPECTIVE
- Empathy and the moral emotions (guilt, shame
distress, moral outrage) play significant role in
influencing children’s moral development and in
motivating people’s prosocial behavior, activism and
ethical responses
- Memory retreival, as well as moral decision making,
involve both cognition and emotional brain
processing, especially in response to situations that
directly involve the self and are stressful
Emotional intelligence (EI)
- Entails an individual managing his emotions,
motivating himself, reading the emotions of others,
and working effectively in interpersonal relationships.
Self- regulation
- Includes learners monitoring their own cognitive
processes, emotions, and surroundings to achieve
goals
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
- Is largely based on the work of Albert Bandura (1977,
2001) who mapped out a perspective on learning that
includes condsideration of the personal
characteristics of the learner, behavior patterns, and
the environment.
- Bandura emphasized behaviorist features and the
imitation of role models; later the focus shifted to
cognitive considerations, such as the attributes of the
slef and the internal processing of the learner.
- Then turned to the impact of social factors and the
social context within which learning and behavior
occur.
Role modeling
- Is a central concept of social learning theory
- Armstrong emphasizes that to facilitate learning, role
models need to be enthusiastic, professionally
organized, caring, and self confident, knowledgeable,
skilled and good communicators.
Vicarious reinforcement
- Involves determining whether role models
are perceived as rewarded or punished for
their behavior
4. PSYCHODYNAMIC LEARNING THEORY
- Based on the work of Sigmund Freud and his
followers
- A theory of motivation that stresses emotions
rather than cognition or responses
- The psychodynamic perspective emphasizes
the importance of conscious and unconscious
forces in guiding behavior, personality
conflicts and the enduring effects pf
childhood experiences on adult behavior.
- Negative emotions are important to
recognize and assess in nurse-patient-
physician-family-interactions-psychodynamic
theory can be helpful
- A central principle of the theory is the idea
that behavior may be conscious and
unconscious
- Individuals may or may not be aware of their
motivations and why they feel, think, and act
as they do.
- Most primitive source of motivation comes
from the Id and based on the libidinal energy
(the basic instinct, impulses, and desires
human are born with)
The id has 2 components:
- Eros – the desire for pleasure and sex,
sometimes called the life force
- Thanatos – aggressive and destructive
impulses, or death wish
- The id according to Freud, operates on the
pleasure and avoid pain.
- Superego – encounter id – involves the
internalized societal values and standards, or
the conscience
- Ego – mediating the two opposing forces in
the personality – based on the reality
principle. Rather than insisting on immediate
gratification, people learn to take the long or
dilemmas in the conflict between the id and
the superego.

Ego Defense Mechanisms: Ways of Protecting the
Self from a Perceived Threat:
Denial
- Ignoring or refusing to acknowledge the reality or
threat
Rationalization
- Excusing or explaining way a threat
Displacement
- Taking out hostility and aggresion on other individuals
rather than directing anger at the source of the threat
Repression
- Keeping unacceptable thougts, feelings, or actions
from conscious awareness
Regression
- Returning to an earlier (less mature, more primitive,)
stage of behavior as as way of coping with a threat
Intellectualization
- Minimizing anxiety by responding to a threat in a
detached abstract manner without feeling emotions
Projecting
- Seeing one’s own acceptable characteristics or desires
in other felt
Sublimation
- Converting repressed feelings into socially acceptable
action
Compensation
- Making up for weakanesses by excelling in other areas
The psychodynamic reminds nurses to pay attention
to emotion, unconscios motivations and the
psychological growth and development of those who
are involves in health care.
Psychodynamic theory is well suited to understanding
patient and family noncompliance
- Trauma and loss
- Palliative care and deeply emotional issues of terminal
illness
- The anxieties of working with long-term psychiatric
residents
➢ RESISTANCE
- Is an indicator of underlying emotional
difficulties, which must be dealt with for
them to move ahead emotionally and
behaviorally.
➢ TRANSFERENCE
- Occurs when individuals project their
feelings, conflicts, and reactions –
especially those developed during
childhood with significant others such as
parents – unto authority figures and other
individuals in their lives.
5. HUMANISTIC LEARNING THEORY
The humanistic perspective on learning is the
assumption that every individual is unique and that
all individuals have desire to grow in a positive way
Spontaneity, the importance of emotions and
feelings, the right of individuals to make their own
choices, and human creativity are the cornerstone of
a humanistic approach to learning.
Humanistic theory is compatible with nursing’s focus
on caring and patient centeredness – an orientation
that is being challenged by an emphasis in medicine
and health care on “impersonal” science, technology,
cost efficiency, for profit medicine, bureaucratic
organization and time pressures,
Like the psychodynamic theory, the humanistic
perspective is largely a motivational theory.
From a humanistic perspective, motivation is a
derived from each person’s needs, subjective
feelings about self, and desire to grow.
Abraham Maslow – A major contributor to
humanistic theory.
Hierarchy of needs – plays an important role In
human motivation.
At the bottom of Maslow’s hierarchy are
Psychological needs (food, warmth, sleep); then
come safety needs, then followed by self-esteem.
 At the top of the hierarchy of needs are self-
actualization needs (maximizing one’s potential)
Additional considerations include cognitive needs (the
desire to know and understand) and for some
individuals, aesthetic needs (the desire for beauty).

Besided personal needs, humanist contend that self-

concept, and self- esteem are necessary consideration
in any learning situation.

Carl Rogers argues that what people want is

unconditional positive self-regard (the feeling of being
loved without string attached). Learners – not
educators – choose what is to be learned.
Educators serve as resouces persons to encourage
learners to make wise choices. Humanistic orientation
is referres to as learner-directed apporach.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND LEARNING

Neuropsychology is the scientific study of
psychological behavior based on neurological
assessments of the brain and central nervous system.
- It is not a theory but a body of research that may be
applied to psychological aspects of behavior, including
learning.
- Learning is viewed as involving changes in the rbain
and nervous system that affect responses and
behavior.
Leraning occurs at the cellular level and produces
structural changes in the brian structure, wiring
petterns and chemistry.
- Neuropsychology research has confirmed the validity
of learning theories and constructs, including gestalt
principles, constructivism, Piaget’s notion of
assimilation and accomodation, and Freud’s
conceptualization of cosncious and unconscious
processes.
- In studying the dynamics of brain and central nervous
sytem processing of information, this research has
documented the role of physiological arousal and has
tracked attention, perception, and organization of
experience while learning.
 SOCIOECONOMIC LEVEL

MODULE 3 - The impact of socioeconomic level on learning

(ASSESSMENT OF THE LEARNER) has more to do with being to use information
LEARNER’S CHARACTERISTICS being taught rather than the process of learning.
- There are many factors that influence learning, It takes into account a number of factors
including ability, motivation, and desire to learn. including income, educational level, and
Learner’s characteristic includes: occupation or employment.
o Culture/ethnicity Motivation
o Age
o Socioeconomic status (income, education - From Latin word movere, means to set into
level, and occupation) motion.
- Is defines as ‘an internal state that arouses,
CULTURE directs and sustains human behavior’ and as a
- Is a learned set of norms and practices of particular willingness of the learner to embrace learning,
group that direct thinking, decisions, and actions with readiness as evidence to motivation.
- Culture affects helth behaviors and the teaching- FACILITATING OR BLOCKING FACTORS THAT SHAPE
learning process. MOTIVATION TO LEARN CAN BE CLASSIFIES INTO 3
- Culture influences gender roles, sexual behavior, diet, MAJOR CATEGORIES:
personal hygiene, body image (obesity, slimness, etc)
drug use (alcohol, coffee, tea) exercise, 1. Personal attributes - Consist of physical,
communication, and educational pursuits. developmental, and psychological components
- Culture can affect the way people experience and of the individual learner.
describe illness and will therefore affect educational 2. Environmental influences, which include the
approach. physical and attitudinal climate.
3. Relationship systems, such as those of significant
AGE other, family, community and teacher-learner
- Teaching the older adults presents some challenges. interaction.
They usually need more time to learn, educational MOTIVATIONAL AXIOMS
sessions need to be longer durations r broken down
into more sessions of shorter duration, covering less - Are rules that set the stage for motivations
information. They include:
- Older adults often enjoy learning in a group. This
addresses not only socialization needs, it also provides 1. The state of optimal anxiety
opportunities to address issues of isolation, fear, and 2. Learner readiness
anxiety related to their disease state. 3. Realistic goal setting
4. Learner satisfaction/success
Emotional Status 5. Uncertainty-reducing or uncertainty-
- With all learners, emotional or mental status should maintaining dialogue
be acknowledged and taken into account when
planning an educational intervention. Depression,
stress, denial, fear and anxiety can impact the
effectiveness of teaching.
 MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES
Concept mapping
- One contemporary nursing educational strategy
Assessment of Motivation suggested to promote motivation which enables
Comprehensive Parameters for Motivational Assessment the learner to integrate previous learning with
of the Learner: newly acquired knowledge through diagrammatic
or ‘mapping’.
Cognitive variables - One model developed by Keller (1987) known as
➢ Capacity to learn the (ARCS)
➢ Readiness to learn ➢ Attention introduces opposing, case studies,
➢ Expresses self-determination and variable instructional precautions
➢ Constructive attitude ➢ Relevance capitalizes on the learners’
➢ Expressed desire and curiosity experiences, usefulness, needs, and personal
➢ Willingness to contact for behavioral outcomes choices
➢ Facilitating beliefs ➢ Confidence deals with learning requirements,
level of difficulty, expectations, attribution,
Affective Variables and sense of accomplishments
- Expressions of constructive emotional states ➢ Satisfaction pertains to timely use of a new
- Moderate level of anxiety skill, use of rewards, praise, and self-
evaluation.
Physiological Variables
Motivational Interviewing (MI)
- Capacity to perform required behavior
- Is another motivational strategy the nurse
Experiential Variables educator can use with learners.
- Previous successful experiences - A client-centered, directive counseling method in
which clients’ intrinsic motivation to change is
Environmental Variables enhanced by exploring and resolving their
- Appropriatness of physical environment ambivalence toward behavior change
- Social support systems:
5 General principles of MI READS
➢ Family
➢ Group 1. Roll with resistance
➢ Work 2. Express empathy
- Educator Community resources 3. Avoid argumentation
- Educator-Learner Relationship 4. Develop discrepancy
- Prediction of Positive Relationship 5. Support self-efficacy
Specific strategies that the nurse can use for building
motivation to change in the early phases of treatment and
continuing throughout the treatment
OARS
1. Open-ended questioning
2. Affirmation of the positives
3. Reflective listening
4. Summaries of the interactions

SELECTIVE MODELS AND THEORIES
Health Belief Model – (HBM)
➢ The original HBM devloped in1950s from social
psychology perspective to examine why people
did not participate in health screening programs
➢ The model was modified by Becker et al. (1974)
to address compliance with therapeutic
regimens
➢ GBM explains and predicts health behaviors
based on the patients’ belief about the health
problem and health behavior.
HBM is grounded on the supposition that is possible to
predict health behavior given 3 major interacting factors:
1. Individual perceptions
2. Modifying factors
3. Likelihood of actions
HEALTH PROMOTION MODEL (Revised)
HPM
- originally developed by Plender in 1987 and recvised
in 1996.
- The purpose of the model is to assist nurses to
understand then major determinants of health
behavior as a basis for behavioral counseling to
promotes healthy lifestyle.
➢ Both HBM and HPM descrie the use of factors or
components that influence pereptions that may
lead to positive health outcomes
➢ HBM – engage in preventative health behavior
➢ Revised HPM – Targets the likelihood of
engaging in health promotion activities.
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
➢ Developed from a social-cognitive perspective,
based on a person’s expectations relative to a
specific course of action
➢ It is a predicative theory in a sense that it deals
with the belief that one is competent and
capable of accomplishing a specific behavior.
➢ The belief of competency and capability
relative to certain behavior is a precursor to
expected outcomes.
According to Bandura (1986, 1997), Self-efficacy is
cognitively appraised and processed through 4
principal sources of information:
1. Performance accomplishments – as evidenced
in self-mastery of similar expected behaviors
2. Vicarious experiences, such as observing
successful expected behavior through the
modeling of others
3. Verbal persuasion by others, who present
realistic beliefs that the individual is capable of
the expected behavior
4. Emotional arousal, resulting from self-
judgment of physiological states of distress.
Self-Efficacy has proved useful in predicting the course
of health behavior.
Kaewthummanukul and Brown (2006) concluded that
self-efficacy was the best predictor in an employee
physical activity program and could be used in
occupational health nursing.
The use of self-efficacy theory by the nurse as
educator is particularly relevant in developing
educational programs.
Protection Motivation Theory – explains behavioral
change in terms of threat and coping appraisal
It is beneficial for understanding why individuals
participate in behaviors that are unhealthy
A threat to health is considered a stimulus to
protection motivation.
 The Theory of Planned Behavior
- The TPB added a third element of the TRA
model – the concept of perceived behavioral
STAGES OF CHANGE MODEL control.
- Also known as transtheoretical model (TTM) of - The TRA and TPB are useful theories in
behvaior change predicting behaviors, which is particularly
- Originating from the field of psychology , this model helpful for educators to understand the
was developed around addictive and provblem attitudinal context within which health
behaviors. behaviors likely to change.
- Six distinct time – related stages of change
Therapeutic Alliance Model
1. Precontemplation
2. Contemplation - A therapeutic alliance is formed between the
3. Preparation caregiver and the care receiver in which the
4. Action participants are viewed as having equal power.
5. Maintenance - The shift toward self-determination and control
6. Termination over one’s own life is fundamental to this model
- Concordance- Is “Consultation that allows
Theory of Reasoned Action and Theory of Planned mutual respect for the patient’s and
Behvaior professional’s beliefs, and allows negotiation to
- This theory of reasoned action (TRA) emerged from take place about the best course of action for
research program that began in the 1950s and is the patient.
concerned with predicting and understanding any
The Role of Nurse as Educator in Health Promotion
form of human behavior withing a social context
- It is based on the premise that humans behave in a 1. Facilitator of Change
rational way that is consistent with their beliefs 2. Contractor
- It suggests that a person’s behavior can be predicted 3. Organizer
by examining the individual’s attitude about the 4. Evaluator
behavior as well as the individual’s beliefs about how
others might respond to the behavior.
LITERACY AND READABILITY
The two-prongedlinear approach, specific behavior is
Definition of terms:
determined by:
1. Beliefs, attitude toward the behavior, and o Literacy
intention. - Is generally defines as the ability to read and
2. Motivation to comply with influential persons write and speak English
(known as referents), subjective norm and - Recently, NAP defined literacy as being able to
intention. demonstrate skills in reading, writing, basic
math, interpreting speech and comprehending
information as well as skills in numeracy – which
implies an aptitude with basic probability and
numerical concepts.
o Literate
- Is the ability to write and to read, understand,
and interpret information written at the eighth-
grade level or above
 o Medicalese
- An individual’s functional health literacy is
likely to be significantly worse than his or her
general literacy skills because of the
o Illiterate
complicated language used in the healthcare
- Is defined as being unable tor ead or write at all or
field. (as concluded by the Ad Hoc Commitiiee
having reading and writing skills at the fourth-grade
on Health literacy for the Council on Scientific
level or above.
Affairs of the American Medical Association
o Low literacy
(1999).
- Also termed marginally literate or marginally illiterate,
o Reading, readability and comprehension
refrs to the ability of adults to read and write, and
- Are terms frequently used when determining
comprehend information between the fifth – and
levels of literacy.
eight- grade levels of difficulty.
o Reading
o Functional Illiteracy
- Or word recognition as “the process of
- Means that adults lack fundamental reading, writing,
transforming letters into words and being able
and comprehension skills that are needed to perform
to pronounce them correctly.
ltasks of everyday life.
o Readability
o Health Literacy
- The ease with which written or printed
- Is defined by the Patient Protection and Affordable
information can be read. It is based on a
Care Act 2010
measure of several different elements within a
- As the “degree to which an individual has the
given text of printed material, such as the level
cacpacity to obtain, communicate, process, and
of language being used and the layout and
understand basic health information and services to
design of the page.
make appropriate health decisions.
o Comprehension
- Is the degree to which individuals understand
The CDC (2016) out;ines the following common literacy
what they read
challenges facing many people:
- It is the ability to grasp the meaning of a
1. They are not familiar with medical terms or how
message - to get the gist of it.
their bodies work.
2. They must be able to interpret or risks that could Assessment: Clues to look for patients with Illiteracy
have health and safety consequences or Low Literacy:
3. They are scared and confused when diagnosed
1. Reacting to complex learning situations by
with serious illness
withdrawal, complete avoidance, or being
4. They have health conditions that require high
repeatedly noncompliant.
levels of complicated self-care instructions.
2. Using the excuse that they were too busy, too
5. They are voting on critical local issue affecting the
tired, too sick, or too sedated with medication
community’s health and are relying on unfamiliar
to maintain their attention span when given a
technical information.
booklet or instruction sheet to read.
3. Claiming that they just did not feel like reading,
that they gave the information to their spouse
to take home, or that they lost, forgot, or broke
their glasses.
4. Camouflaging their problem by surrounding
themselves with books, magazines, and
newspaper to give the impression they can
read.

5. Circumventing their ability by insisting on taking the
information home to read or having a family member or
friend with them when written information is presented.
6. Asking opu to read the information for them under the
guise that their eyes are bothersome, they lack interest,
or they do not have the energy to devote to the task of
learning.
7. Showing nervousness because of feeling stressed by
the possibility of getting caught or having to confess to
illiteracy.
8. Acting confused, talking out of context, holding reading
materials upside down or expressing thoughts that may
seem totally irrelevant to the topicc of conversation.
9. Showing a great deal of frustration and restlessness
when attempting to read, often mouthing words aloud
(vocalization) or silently (subvocalization, substituting
words they cannot decipher (decode) with meaningless
words, pointing to words ot phrases on a page, or
exhibiting facial signs of bewilderment or defeat.
10. Standing in a location clearly designated for
authorized personnel only
11. Listening and watching very attentively to observe and
memorize how things work.
12. Demostrtaing difficulty with following instructions
about relatively simple activities such as breathing
exercise or operating the TV, electric bed, call light, and
other simple equipment, even when the operating
instructions are clearly printed on them
13. Failing to ask any questions about the information
14. Turning in registration forms or health questionnaires
that are incomplete, illegible, or not attempted.
15. Revealing a discrepancy between what is understood
by listening and what is understood by reading
16. Missing appointments or failing to follow up with
referrals
17. Not taking medications as prescribed or being
noncompliant
2 tests are often used to measure patient literacy:
- THE REALM (Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in
Medicine
- The WRAT (Wide Range Achievement Test)
Both test measure the basic reading skill of decoding
words (recognizing letters that form words and
pronouncing the words correctly)
THE REALM
- Is a reading test that requires patient to
pronounce common medical and anatomical
words
- The test “contains 66 words arranged in 3
columns in ascending order of number of syllables
and increasing difficulty”
To administer the REALM test, perform the following:
1. Ask the patient to read the words aloud, starting
at the top of the first list and continuing through
all three lists.
2. Allow the patient five seconds to pronounce each
word.
3. If the patient gets stuck on the portion of the list,
ask him or her to look down each list to see if he
or she can pronounce any additional words.
4. Score the test by adding up the total number of
words pronounced correctly.
0 - 18 – third grade and below
19 – 44 – fourth to sixth grades
45 – 60 – seventh to eight grades
61 – 66 – ninth grade and above

Readability of Printed Educational Materials Whether
developing a brochure, a pamphlet, or an instruction
sheet, the guidelines for maintaining a low readdability
level and attractiveness for low-literate person are the
same.
Consider the organization of the information, the
linguistics, and the appearance
Organizational Factors
1. Include a short but descriptive title
2. Use a brief headings and subheadings
3. Incorporate only one idea per paragraph, and be
sure the first sentecne is the topic sentence
4. Divide complex instruction into small steps
5. Consider using a question – answer format
6. Address no more than three or four main points
7. Reinforce main points with a summary at the end.
Linguistic Factors
1. Keep the reading level at grade 5 or 6 to make the
material understandable to most low-literate
persons
2. Use mostly one or two syllables words and short
sentences
3. Use a personal and conversational style. (You
should weigh yourself everyday)
4. Define technical terms if they must be used
5. Use words consistently throughout test
6. (Use consistently the word pill rather than
switching between pill and medicine)
7. Use graphics and language that are culturally and
age relevant for intended audience
8. Use active rather than passive voice, (Take one pill
every morning rather than a pill should be taking
every morning.)
9. Incorporate examples and simple analogies to
illustrate conceots
Appearance Factors
1. Avoid a cluttered appearance by including enough
white space
2. Include simple diagrams or graphics that are well
labeled
3. Use upper and lowercase letters. All capitals are
difficult for everyone to read
4. Use 12 to 14-point type in a plain font
5. Place emphasized words in bold or underline
them, but do not use capitals because they are
difficult to read
6. Use lists when appropriate
7. Try to limit line length to no more than 50 to 60
characters.
Readability Formulas
The formulas that are used most frequently that do not
require any equipment are the
The Flesch Reading Ease formula was developed by
Rudolph Flesch (1948) and can be applied to materials
that fall between the 5th and 12th grade levels.
The Fog Index was developed by Gunning in the 1970s. It
can be used to determine readability from fourth grade
to college, and assumes that 75% of people reading at the
grade level should be able to read the tested material
The Smog formula was developed by Mclaughlin (1969)
to simplify the process of measuring readability
The US National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) in 1992 and
in 2003 conducted literacy test included items that
measured the ability to read pose and formal documents
as well as quantitative skills
The results were classified into 4 levels:
Level 1
- Below basic: Ranges from non-literate in English
to the ability to find simple information in a prose
text. Can perform simple math such as addition
 2. Choose information that will meet the objectives and
pare it down to the minimum amount that is necessary.
Information overload must be avoided when teaching
people with low literacy. Teach limited amounts of
Level 2
material during each session.
- Basic: Understands information in short prose texts
with everyday language. Can use numbers to solve 3. Keep instructions simple by breaking them down into
simple one step arithmetic problems such as smaller units
comparing two prices
4. If possible, use more than one teaching method to
Level 3
reinforce the learning
- Intermediate: Understands and can locate
information in fairly dense prose and documents and 5. In the process of teaching, use examples and
can make simple inferences from them. Can solve analogies with which the person can relate. Use familiar
quantitative problems even the necessary steps are illustrations and pictures that are culturally relevant.
not obvious Use repetition at appropriate times.
Level 4
6. Be creative in the way you evaluate learning. Verbal
- Proficient: Understand complex prose and analyzes
quizzes may not work well with low-literate people.
complex documents. Can solve multistep arithmetic
Instead, ask them to repeat what you have said in their
problems
own words and ask return demonstration. If you give
them PEMs, you may ask them to underline the most
Reading Levels
important information.
Several studies conducted in health care settings have
found that patients often read two or three grade levels
below the last completed years of school.
It is important for health care practitioners to be aware of
this discrepancy between reading level and grade level so
that they do not assume that if a person has a grammar
school education, for example, he or she is reading at the
eighth grade level.
Teaching People with Low-literacy Skills
Assessing reading ability is only the first step in the
rpocess of health education for people with low-literacy
skills.
The second step is planning an approach to teaching that
will best meet the needs of individual in this group.
1. It is important to set objectives that are realistic for the
person’s level of understanding. Objectives should fofcus
on basic essential skills that must be achieved if safety is
to be maintained. The objectives should be shaped by
what theperson already knows about the topic as well as
by what he or she still needs to learn.
 IN ADDITION TO APPEARING IN THE COURSE OUTLINE OR
SYLLABUS, THEY SHOULD BE DISCUSSED IN THE FIRST
CLASS SESSION SO THAT THE LEARERS ARE IMMEDIATELY
CLEAR ABOUT WHAT THEY WILL BE EXPECTED TO LEARN.
MODULE 4
TAXONOMY OF OBJECTIVES
(PLANNING THE LEARNING PROCESS)
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES –
THE PLANNING SEQUENCE: 1956
• DEVELOPING A COURSE OUTLINE OR SYLLABUS BENJAMIN BLOOM, THE ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR OF THE
• FORMULATING OBJECTIVES BOARD OF EXAMINATTION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
• SELECTING CONTENT CHICAGO
• ORGANIZING CONTENT
BLOOM (1984) AND HIS COLLEAGUES IDENTIFIED 3
DEVELOPING A COURSE OUTLINE OR SYLLABUS LEARNNG DOMANS:
• SHOULD INCLUDE THE NAME OF THE COURSE 1. COGNITIVE (KNOWING)
• THE NAME OF THE INSTRUCTOR 2. PSYCHOMOTOR (DOING)
• COURSE DESCRIPTION 3. AFFECTIVES (FEELING, VALUING)
• LIST OF COURSE OBJECTIVES
THE ORIGINAL SUBCATEGORIES OF THE COGNITIVE
• TOPIC OUTLINE
DOMAIN WERE:
• TEACHING METHODS
• TECTBOOK AND OTHER READINGS KNOWLEDGE REMEMBER
• METHODS OF EVALUATION
COMPREHENSION UNDERSTAND
FORMULATING OBJECTIVES
APPLICATION APPLY
VALUE OF OBJECTIVES
ANALYSIS ANALYZE
WHY DO YOU NEED OBJECTIVES?
AYNTHESIS EVALUATE
1. TO GUIDE THE SELECTION AND HANDLING OF
EVALUATION CREATE
COURSE MATERIALS
2. TO DETERMINE WHETHER PEOPLE FROM THE IN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN, YOU CAN MEASURE
CLASS HAVE LEARNED WHAT YOU TIRED TO KNOWLEDGE, COMPREHENSION, APPLICATION,
TEACH ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS, AND EVALUATION BY USING
3. OBJECTIVES ARE AREESSESNTIAL FROM THE WRITTEN AND ORAL TEST.
LEARNERS’ PERSPECTIVES. THEY NEED TO KNOW
IN THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN, YOU CAN OBSERVE
MORE ABOUT A COURSE THAN THEY CSAN GET
WHAT LEARNERS ARE ACTUALLY DOING WHEN THEY
FROM A COURSE DESCRIPTION OR A LIST OF
PERFORM A SKILL. LEARNERS CAN DEMONSTRATE WHAT
COURSE CONTENT
THEY HAVE LEARNED AND YOU CAN RATE THEIR
OBJECTIVES FOR A COURSE ARE NATURALLY BROADER PERFORMANCE.
THAN CLASS OBJECTIVES.
OBJECTIVES IN THE AFFECTIVE DOMAIN ARE NOT SO
THE NUMBER OF COURSE OBJECTIVES USUALLY VARIES EASY TO WRITE AND MEASURE.
FROM 5 TO 15.
MANY EDUCATORS AVOID WRITING OBJECTIVES
RELATED TO BLUFFS, ATTITUDES, AND VALUES.

The reasons given that iut is very difficult to write test
questions that measure the affective domain and that you
cannot readily observe whether students, nurses, or
patients have accepted the beliefs and values inherent in
the health care proffessions, even if you could, the
process is rather subjective.
WRITING OF OBJECTIVES
Course objectives (As supposed to class objectives) may
be fairly broad in order to keep the list of manageable
length.
Some educators with a behaviorist philosophy believe
that an objective is incomplete unless it contains the
intended learner, the behavior to be performed, the
condition which is to be performed and the degree of
attainment of spcific standards (Fergursion, 1998)
For example, consider the objective “Recognizes the
Parameters of effective Hemodialysis”
A detailed objective is, the nurse will list and explain, with
9% accuracy, the parameters by which effective
hemodialysis is measured
Many educators believe that this degree and detail is not
necessary in course objective, but may use detailed
objectives for each class within a course.
SELECTING CONTENT
The general guidleines for course objectives are usually
prescribed by the curriculum of the school or institution
for which the educator works.
ORGANIZING CONTENT
The way which class content is ogranized can make all the
difference between sessions that are enjoyable and
smooth running and those in which students are irritated
and grumbling
LECTURES, ESPECIALLY, NEED TO BE ORGANIZED
Sharing class objectives with the group sets the stage for
an organized lecture.
There are several ways to structure content so that it
follows a logical sequence.
From generalizations to specifics or vice versa
SELECTING TEACHING METHODS
Deciding which teaching methods to use given the wide
assortment available, is not easy.
DACTORS AFFECTING CHOICES OF METHOD
1. The selection of method depends on the
objectives and type of learning you are trying to
achieve
- If you want to present facts and rules, a
lecture with handouts or a computer tutorial
may be appropriate.
- If you want to mold attitudes, case studies,
discussion, or role-playing may work the best
- If your goal is to motivate learners, gaming
would be a good choice
- If you want to encourage creativity and
problem-solving skills, your best approach
might be problem-based learning or individual
projects.
Course content also dictates methodology to same extent
Because nursing is a practice discipline, a lot of the
learning should be active learning; that is the learner
should be an active participant in the learning process.
The teaching methods should be selected should
therefore emphasize student activity: Discussion, case
studies, and simulations, role playing, cooperative
learning, and computer use.
2. Another factor that influences the selection of
teaching methods is the number of people in the
class.
- Teaching individuals or very small groups can be
done best through modules, computer programs,
or handouts with explanations.
- Large groups lend themselves to lectures,
audiovisuals, and case studies.
 Sicola and Chesly (1999) suggest evaluating the
content scope and quality; credibility of authorship;
Format (Table of contents, Index, Organizations,
Length, Graphics); and issues like cost, permanency,
3. An educator’s instructional options are limited to
quality of print.
the resources of the institution.
They developed a valid and reliable tool that can be
Classroom size, furniture, lighting, availability of
used to rate nursing text.
technology, and availability of instructional
equipment and supplies all determine the strategies
that may be used.
EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING METHODS
A great deal of eductational research has been
conducted in which comparisons are made about
effectiveness of twp teaching methods.
The findings depend on the outcome cirterion
(dependednt variable) used in the varios studies.
When the outcome is the acquisition of knowledge,
performance is about the same in all methods.
WHEN THE OUTCOME BEING MEASURED IS
PROBLEM-SOLVING ABILITY, TIME SAVED IN
LEARNING, OR TRANSFER OF LEARNING ABILITIES,
SOME METHODS PROVE TO BE BETTER THAN OTHERS.
CHOOSING A TEXTBOOK
Educators who use a textbook in a course should not
underestimate the importance of either the
teaxtbook or its selection process.
Courses are often built around the content and
approach of a textbook
Text provide a stable and uniform source of
information for students to use in their individual
study, and teachers expect students to use the book.
In some academic settings, individual teachers select
their own courses textbooks, whereas in others the
text must be reviewsd not only by the individual
teachers but by a teaxtbook review committee
Many considerations should guidw you in choosing a
textbook.