Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

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Building and Environment

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Reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions of HVAC system in

airport terminal buildings
O.F. Yildiz a, *, M. Yilmaz b, A. Celik c
a
Chairmanship of Investment Monitoring and Coordination, Sehitkamil, Gaziantep, Turkey
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Inonu University, Malatya, Turkey
c
8th Regional Directorate, General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works, Erzurum, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Airport terminal buildings consume more energy than other buildings in an airport due to their functional and
Airport operational characteristics. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems have been major energy
Terminal building consumers with a significant contribution to the annual total energy consumption in terminal buildings partic­
HVAC
ularly in harsh climates. Therefore, improvement of energy efficiency of the HVAC system is becoming an
Energy consumption
CO2 emission
increasingly important issue to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions of existing terminal buildings. The
aim of this study is to analyze and evaluate the effect of various energy conservation strategies on energy
consumption and CO2 emissions, including a number of modifications that can be applied to the HVAC system of
airport terminal buildings. Erzurum Airport terminal building, located in the coldest climate zone of Turkey, was
chosen as the airport terminal building. In order to achieve this goal, six strategies that can create energy savings
and cost savings and provide environmental benefits were analyzed and evaluated by building energy simulation.
The results indicated that energy consumption could be reduced from 6.3 GWh/year to 2.7 GWh/year and CO2
emissions from 1.9 million kg/year to 0.9 million kg/year by implementing feasible energy conservation stra­
tegies. This means that, by implementing the proposed energy-saving projects, energy consumption and CO2
emissions can be reduced by 57.24% and 48.79%, respectively.

HVAC systems play a significant role in meeting the thermal comfort

requirements of the indoor environment [11] and they are responsible
1. Introduction
for a major share of the energy consumption in airport terminal build­
ings [3,12]. HVAC systems can consume greater than 40% of electrical
Airports are facilities that consume huge amounts of energy and
energy in airport terminal buildings. In addition, nearly all the natural
contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere
gas used in terminal buildings is consumed by HVAC systems, with the
[1,2]. This energy is consumed in both the airside and the landside
exception of small systems such as domestic hot water and cooking [13].
operations of airports [3]. As energy consumers, in an airport airside,
The natural gas consumption for cooking depends on how many res­
there are infrastructures and facilities such as control towers, airfield
taurants are in terminal building [14]. However, HVAC systems in
lighting and radio navigation systems while on the landside there are
existing terminal buildings are not always operating in the most efficient
buildings such as airport terminal building, cargo terminal, adminis­
ways [15]. Therefore, improving the energy efficiency and reducing the
trative buildings, and parking garages [1,4,5].
energy consumption of the existing HVAC systems in terminal buildings
Airport terminal buildings are large buildings with multiple zones
has become an important task for airports.
and dynamic occupancy patterns [6]. They contain many spaces that are
Airports all around the world are increasingly adopting strategies,
different in functions and structure. The operations within these build­
which can be applied to HVAC systems for reducing energy consumption
ings are round-the-clock [7]. Therefore, a large part of the total energy
and improving energy efficiency. The high-energy consumption of
consumed in an airport is consumed by the airport terminal building [1,
HVAC systems indicates that there are many opportunities for signifi­
8,9]. In terminal buildings, energy is utilized in a variety of applications
cant energy efficiency savings through retrofit projects [13]. However,
including heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system,
investments in energy improvements can be costly and often compete
lighting, room electricity and domestic hot water (DHW) [10].

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: farukmakina@hotmail.com (O.F. Yildiz), m.yilmaz@inonu.edu.tr (M. Yilmaz), acelik_25@hotmail.com (A. Celik).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108632
Received 15 July 2021; Received in revised form 23 November 2021; Accepted 24 November 2021
Available online 27 November 2021
0360-1323/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O.F. Yildiz et al.
Nomenclature
Acronyms
AHU Air handling unit
CAV Constant air volume
CIBSE Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
CIP Commercially important passengers
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DHW Domestic hot water
EF Emission factor
EnMS Energy management system
EU Energy use
with other capital improvement projects [16]. Improvements in the ef­
ficiency of HVAC systems could be instrumental in maintaining existing
power-plant generation capacity and avoiding further dependency on
fossil fuels [17].
The literature review shows that energy conservation of HVAC sys­
tems in terminal buildings has been the subject of many studies [7,10,
15,18,19]. The vast majority of these studies focused only on the control
and operational strategies of the HVAC and lighting systems [7,15].
However, there are few studies that comprehensively investigate mul­
tiple strategies which can be applied to HVAC system to reduce energy
consumption and CO2 emissions of airport terminal buildings. Balaras
et al. [18] evaluated different energy conservation strategies for 29
Hellenic airports. In addition, the cost and simple payback period of the
strategies were estimated. Results showed that for the three airports,
potential energy savings range at 15–35%. Babu [8] recommended
passive strategies like daylighting, natural ventilation, and passive
downdraught evaporative cooling system to achieve energy efficiency in
the HVAC and lighting system of the Ahmedabad International Airport
terminal building in India. The study also identified various design re­
sponses that have to be adopted by the building skin to achieve stepped
temperature transitioning for identified zones in the terminal building.
The stepped temperature transitioning is established as a result of
creating specific environments as the passenger traverses from landside
to airside and vice versa with the help of the building envelope, which is
a result of the improved thermal design. It was found that energy savings
of up to 66% can be achieved in the terminal building by applying
passive design strategies and adopting an approach of mixed-modes in
buildings. The study also proved that in a building like an airport ter­
minal, the roof, which is one of the largest elements of the building, can
be put to effective use in ventilation, daylighting and temperature
conditioning. Parker et al. [20] illustrated the role of simulation in
evaluating refurbishment options that reduce the carbon footprint of an
airport terminal building in the United Kingdom. Simulation results
showed that HVAC interventions resulted in a much greater reduction in
CO2 emissions. Mambo et al. [7] investigated the development of HVAC
and lighting control strategies to provide sufficient comfort with opti­
mum energy use in the Manchester Airport terminal building. Perda­
maian et al. [10] proposed and simulated three strategies to reduce the
electricity consumption and CO2 emission of Terminal 3 Soekarno-Hatta
International Airport through an energy simulation software. The results
showed that the strategies reduce electricity consumption and CO2
emission. Akyuz et al. [12] investigated the application of thermal
insulation on the walls and roof of the Hasan Polatkan Airport terminal
building in Eskisehir, Turkey, from energy, environment and cost as­
pects. They determined the optimum insulation thickness and assessed
its effects on environmental performance based on energy flows. Anal­
ysis results showed that applying thermal insulation on the walls and
roof of the terminal building reduces heat loss by 48% and 56%,
respectively. Huang et al. [15] presented a Hybrid Model Predictive
Control (HMPC) scheme which can reduce HVAC energy consumption in
2
Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632
EUI Energy use intensity
EXV Expansion valve
HMPC Hybrid model predictive control
HVAC Heating, ventilating and air conditioning
ILS Instrument landing system
ISO International organization for standardization
IWEC International weather for energy calculation
LED Light emitting diode
MV + LV Medium voltage + Low voltage
VAV Variable air volume
VIP Very important person
VSD Variable speed driver
commercial buildings. The approach was tested at the check-in hall of
the T-1 building of the Adelaide Airport in Australia. The results showed
that the proposed HMPC scheme provides significant savings without
compromising thermal comfort. Malik [9] identified and assessed
possible actions in key energy consuming equipment such as HVAC,
lighting, and major electric motors to reduce energy use and improve
energy performance of three airport terminal buildings namely Raipur,
Aurangabad, and Udaipur in India. The results showed that the HVAC
system is one of the important energy consumers. Akyuz et al. [21]
determined the energy performance indicators at airports using the
method described in ISO 50001 energy management system (EnMS) and
expressed mathematically the effects of these indicators on energy
consumption. ISO 50001 EnMS is an international standard created by
the International Organization for Standardization. This standard pro­
vides a systematic approach to improve the energy performance and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions of an organization [22]. Through
adopting ISO 50001 EnMS, guidelines are established for planning,
implementing, monitoring and controlling the energy performance of an
organization [23]. A study was performed under the ACRP project
09-10, “Benchmarking and Profiling Airport Terminal Energy End Uses”,
sponsored by the Transportation Research Board (TRB), Airport Coop­
erative Research Program (ACRP) [14]. A report entitled “Methodology
to Develop the Airport Terminal Building Energy Use Intensity
(ATB-EUI) Benchmarking Tool” was published. An ATB was sub-divided
into specific Zones: concession (food), concession (retail), office, tran­
sient space, ticketing check-in, departures hold room, departure/border
security, outbound/inbound baggage handling, arrivals/baggage claim,
and service (mech/elec/server). Each of these Zones was assigned an
Energy Use Intensity (EUI) based on the best available published EUIs
that are appropriate for that type of space. Five ATB Systems were
identified and annual EU calculation per ATB system was performed: (i)
people movers, escalators, elevators, (ii) baggage handling systems, (iii)
alternative systems (i.e., electric, heating/cooling), (iv) Airport Ground
Support Equipment (GSE), and (v) external/parking lighting. The utility
bills were used to calculate the (measured) Energy Use (EU) of an in­
dividual Airport Terminal Building (ATB). The utility bills usually con­
sisted of electricity consumption (kWh) and gas consumption (MCF or
therms) data. The site visits resulted in collecting missing information
for the EU/EUI (energy use intensity) benchmarking analysis. Thus, a
methodology was developed to estimate the baseline of the total annual
EU and EUI for the ATB building and an “Airport Terminal Building
Energy Use Intensity (ATB-EUI) Benchmarking Tool” was created.
Moreover, general recommendations were developed on how to achieve
greater energy efficiency, and better manage the energy consumption at
an airport terminal building.
While these investigations are important, there is still a great need
for investigations that comprehensively explore the multiple strategies
that can be applied to the HVAC system to reduce the energy con­
sumption and the resultant CO2 emissions from the electricity and nat­
ural gas use of airport terminal buildings. Therefore, the objective of this
O.F. Yildiz et al.
study is to analyze and evaluate energy saving strategies that include
many different measures/applications that can be applied to the HVAC
system in order to reduce the energy consumption of the HVAC system of
airport terminal buildings. Erzurum Airport terminal building, located
in the coldest climate zone of Turkey, was chosen as the airport terminal
building. Six strategies that can be applied practically were analyzed
and evaluated: (i) change the setpoint temperatures, (ii) night ventila­
tion, (iii) free cooling, (iv) adding heat exchangers, (v) retrofitting of the
air distribution system from CAV (constant air volume) to VAV (variable
air volume), and (vi) replacement of the existing circulating pumps.
Potential energy saving rates and CO2 emission reductions were deter­
mined for each strategy. Initial investment costs and payback periods
were calculated for each strategy.
2. Material and method
2.1. Erzurum Airport
2.1.1. General description
Erzurum Airport, which was located in the northeast of Erzurum city
center was opened as a military airport in 1966. The airport was opened
to international non-scheduled flights in 1993 and started to serve in the
new terminal building in 2005. Its total installed area is 8.1 million m2.
It has 14 aircraft gates. There is an ILS that allows the aircraft to land
more safely and a parking lot for 530 cars, which is open for 24 h. In
addition to the terminal building, there are: garage, technical-
administrative block, VIP building, accident-fire building, central
heating plant, customs building and police buildings at the Erzurum
Airport. Fig. 1 shows the view of Erzurum Airport and Fig. 2 shows the
terminal building. The total floor area of the terminal building is 12.9
thousand m2. The airport serves as a domestic and international
terminal.
Erzurum Airport terminal building consists of two floors, the ground
floor and the mezzanine floor. In the terminal building, there are apron
office, check-in hall, domestic-international baggage reception area,
domestic-international incoming baggage area, domestic-international
arriving passenger, domestic-international departing passenger and
welcome halls, offices, CIP lounge, cafeteria, restaurant, staff kitchen,
WC, etc. The plan view of the ground floor and plan view of the
mezzanine floor are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, respectively.
Erzurum Airport received the title ‘Green Enterprise’ in 2015 as it
Fig. 1. The view of Erzurum Airport from Google Earth [24].
3
Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632
fulfilled the required conditions within the scope of the ‘Green Airport
Project’ initiated by the General Directorate of Civil Aviation of Turkey.
Erzurum Airport got this title by providing criteria in the TS EN ISO
14001 Environmental Management System Certification together with
the Greenhouse Gas Criteria Document and Green Airport Project Sec­
toral Criteria Document [25]. These criteria include: management of
waste water, management of environmental problems that may arise
from de-ice/anti-icing activities, waste management, air pollution
management (use of electric vehicles instead of fossil fueled vehicles in
indoor environments, annual maintenance of combustion plants, etc.),
environmental noise management, management of rainwater, preven­
tion of soil pollution (measures such as the use of water-oil separator, the
requirement that de-ice/anti-icing solvents be environmentally
friendly), and prevention of fuel leaks and intervention [2]. However,
there were no efficiency measures currently in place to reduce the en­
ergy consumption, reduce energy costs and increase energy efficiency of
the HVAC system.
2.1.2. Climatic conditions
The city of Erzurum, with an altitude of 1850 m, is located in the
Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey (39◦ 55′ N and 41◦ 16′ E). It is far
from the effect of the nearby ocean and therefore has an inland climate.
Meteorological observations have been carried out in the city since
1929. The first established meteorological station was surrounded by the
urban area and a second station was established in the airport in 1988
[26]. The historical highest and lowest average temperatures for Erzu­
rum are 19.5 ◦ C and − 9.2 ◦ C (according to meteorological measure­
ments between 1929 and 2020) [27]. The precipitation in winter is
mostly snow, the number of snow days is 50, and the average duration of
snow cover is 114 days. The rainiest season is spring and summer [28].
2.1.3. Definition of the HVAC system
Heating and cooling are performed by HVAC systems at the terminal
building of Erzurum Airport. The cooling is performed in June, July and
August whereas the heating is performed in other months of the year.
The HVAC equipment in the terminal building is shown in Table 1.
Table 2 shows the heating/cooling setpoint temperatures of the HVAC
equipment in the terminal building. The heating of the terminal building
is provided by natural gas-fired central hot water boilers, mixed air-
handling units, fan-coil units and unit heaters. Mixed air-handling
units can mix the fresh air with the desired amount of exhaust air to
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 2. Erzurum Airport terminal building.

Fig. 3. Plan view of the ground floor.

Fig. 4. Plan view of the mezzanine floor.

obtain the desired supply temperature. It can be designed with different
configurations depending on the mixture ratio. The domestic hot water
requirement of the terminal building is provided by a plate heat
exchanger with 128 kW capacity which transfers heat from the hot water
in the boiler circuit flow to mains domestic water. In addition to the
terminal building, other buildings at the airport are also heated by the
central heating plant.
The cooling of the terminal building is provided by air-cooled
chillers, mixed air-handling units and fan-coil units. A single-duct
constant air volume system is used in mixed air-handling units. The fan-
coils are of two types, namely the floor standing type and the concealed
ceiling type. In addition to the terminal building, the VIP building is also
cooled by the chiller and 100% fresh air-handling unit. Terminal
building cooling load is 1409 kW while the VIP building cooling load is
78 kW. Therefore, the share of the terminal building in the total cooling
load is approximately 95%.

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O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Table 1 Table 4
HVAC equipment in the terminal building. Existing condition of the building envelope.
No Equipment Capacity Number Roof Aluminum Granite Clad Windows
Panel Clad External Wall
1 Hot water boiler 1745 kW 3
External Wall
2 Air-cooled chiller 1087 kW 2
3 Unit heater 6 kW 9 Outermost Aluminum Aluminum Granite Clad: Tempered
4 Air handling unit (mixed air) Supply fan: 2500–12778 l/s 8 layer Sheet: 4 Clad: 20 Glass: 6
Exhaust fan: 1944–8333 l/s (mm) 2.5
Heating coil: 75–395 kW Layer 2 Rock Wall: Air Barrier Air Barrier Air:
Cooling coil: 52–233 kW (mm) 120 (Kraft Paper): (Kraft Paper): 14
5 Air handling unit (100% fresh air) Supply fan: 1528–2500 l/s 2 0.6 0.6
Exhaust fan: 1528–2500 l/s Layer 3 Polyethylene XPS: XPS: Laminated
Heating coil: 93–145 kW (mm) Moisture 100 100 Glass:
Cooling coil: 47–76 kW Barrier: 0.5 6
6 Exhaust air fan 167–2778 l/s, 150–340 Pa 15 Layer 4 Glass Wool: Polyethylene Polyethylene –
7 Fresh air fan 833–1389 l/s, 150 Pa 2 (mm) 30 Vapor Barrier: Vapor Barrier:
8 Fan-coil 1–7 kW, 0.07–0.33 l/s 126 0.5 0.5
Innermost Steel Sheet: Gypsum Wall Gypsum Wall –
layer 0.5 Board: Board:
(mm) 12.5 12.5
Table 2 Calculated U 0.22 0.313 0.312 1.761
The heating/cooling setpoint temperatures of the HVAC equipment used in the Value (W/
terminal building. m2K)
U Value 0.25 0.4 0.4 2.4
No Zone Name HVAC Heating setpoint Cooling setpoint specified
Equipment temperature temperature in TS 825
(oC) (oC) (W/m2K)
1 Offices Fan-coil, CAV, 22 23
Exhaust Air
Fan the values specified in the standard.
2 Check-In Hall CAV, Exhaust 22 23
Air Fan
3 Passenger and CAV, Exhaust 22 23 2.2. Method
baggage halls Air Fan
4 Incoming Unit Heater 15 – Terminal buildings are seen to have the largest share when consid­
baggage and ering the total energy consumption at the airport in general terms. On
baggage
reception areas
the other hand, the system with the largest share of the energy consumed
5 Kitchen, CAV, Exhaust 22 23 in the terminal buildings has been found to be the HVAC system. Per­
cafeteria and Air Fan, Fresh damaian et al. [10] determined that 86.59% of the total electricity
restaurant Air Fan consumption of the Terminal 3 Soekarno-Hatta International Airport
was consumed by the HVAC system, 9.33% by the lighting system,
2.41% by the electrical equipment, and 1.76% by the transportation
2.1.4. System pumps and fans
system. According to Alba [1], approximately 70% of the energy
In the terminal building, there are 16 pumps in various capacities
consumed in airport terminal buildings is used for heating, cooling and
used to circulate hot water, chilled water and domestic hot water
air conditioning purposes; this rate is higher in countries with cold cli­
(Table 3). Eight of these pumps provide hot or chilled water to the air-
mates. In the study published by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences
handling units. Four pumps are used for the fan-coil systems. The
[14], a method, which are based on individual parameters of each sys­
remaining four pumps provide the heated water to the heat exchanger
tem and its particular annual energy use estimation, for determining the
that produces domestic hot water. All of the circulation pumps are single
annual energy use per system of an airport terminal building was
speed or three speed.
developed. With the developed method, the total annual energy use of
escalator systems, people movers (moving walkways) systems, baggage
2.1.5. Building envelope
handling systems and elevators was calculated as 69,806 kBtu/yr, 115,
Table 4 shows the elements that make up the building envelope and
895 kBtu/yr, 22,288 kBtu/yr, 24,646 kBtu/yr, for a single unit,
their material thicknesses. The building envelope consists of an
respectively. In addition, the process of calculating and formulas of the
aluminum roof, aluminum panel clad external wall, granite clad external
total annual energy use of alternative systems, ground support equip­
wall and tempered glass windows. According to the “TS 825 Thermal
ment and external lighting and parking lighting systems were illus­
Insulation Requirements for Buildings” standard [29], Erzurum is
trated. The total energy consumption of the Erzurum Airport terminal
located in the fourth (coldest) degree day zone in Turkey. The overall
building is 6.301 GWh per year, with 69.99% of that is consumed by
heat transfer coefficients (U-Value) for Erzurum specified in this stan­
heating system, 11.90% used by lighting system, 8.89% consumed by
dard and the overall heat transfer coefficients (U-Value) were calculated
pumps and fans, 4.29% used by domestic hot water, 2.54% consumed by
considering the thermal conductivity of the building elements given in
cooling system, 2.38% used by electricity equipment, and 0.02% used by
Table 4. As seen in the table, the calculated overall heat transfer co­
exterior lighting [2]. These results reveal that approximately 81% of the
efficients (U-Value) of the building envelope are an improvement over
energy consumed in Erzurum airport terminal building is used for HVAC
purposes. All these results show that improvements to be made in HVAC
systems in airport terminal buildings will have significant energy saving
Table 3
potential.
System pumps in the terminal building.
In order to reduce the energy consumption and CO2 emissions of the
No Circulation Pumps Range of Max Flow Range of Head Max Number
terminal building, a number of modifications can be made in the HVAC
1 Heating system 3–14 l/s 4.5–7 m 6 system with an acceptable level of investment. Therefore, there is a need
2 Cooling system 14–32.5 l/s 8.5–10 m 6 to provide accurate and reliable energy simulation models to study
3 DHW system 0.5–2 l/s 4–4.5 m 4
feasibility of these modifications that could lead to energy savings [30].

5
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Energy simulations, to be performed after modeling, are important to Table 6

determine and evaluate potential effectiveness of the proposed strate­ The activity (usage) of the zones.
gies on energy consumption, energy cost and the environment. No Zone Name Activity Density Metabolic DHW
As a first step, the existing terminal building was modeled using Template (people/ Activity Cons.
Software A (2016) [31]. Information on the architecture, construction, m2) Rate (l/
m2-day)
lighting, electricity and HVAC system required for the modeling of the
terminal building was obtained from the building energy manager at the 1 Offices Generic 0.05 Light office 0.16
airport. The existing terminal building will be referred to as the "refer­ Office Area work/
Standing/
ence building" in the following sections. Walking
The reference building was simulated by Software B (2016) [32] 2 Check-In Hall Generic 0.03 Standing/ 0.59
integrated within Software A (2016) [31] to understand the current Check-in Walking
energy consumption of the terminal building and make a preliminary Areas
3 Passenger and Circulation 0.05 Standing/ 0
assessment for the energy conservation potential. The simulation soft­
baggage halls area Walking
ware, used to perform simulations in this study, uses IWEC (Interna­ 4 Incoming Circulation 0.05 Standing/ 0
tional Weather for Energy Calculations) data files. The IWEC data files baggage and area Walking
are ’typical’ weather files suitable for use with building energy simu­ baggage
lation programs for 227 locations outside the USA and Canada. The files reception areas
5 Kitchen and Food 0.04 Light manual 0.43
are derived from up to 18 years (1982–1999 for most stations) of cafeteria Preparation work
DATSAV3 hourly weather data originally archived at the U. S. National Area
Climatic Data Center. The DATSAV3 Surface Database is composed of 6 Restaurant Eating/ 0.1 Eating/ 7.41
worldwide surface weather observations from about 10,000 stations Drinking Drinking
Area
(stations were active at the time of addition), collected and stored from
sources such as the Automated Weather Network and the Global Tele­
communications System [33]. IWEC data files are available at no cost for and 7). Information on passenger loads was obtained based on actual
three cities in Turkey (Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir). The IWEC data file flight schedules to accurately model the operating schedules of HVAC
for Erzurum was purchased as specified in Software B (2016) [32] systems, and it was seen that these operating schedules overlap with the
website. The total energy consumption (natural gas and electricity) and actual operating schedules. In other words, the timing model of the
CO2 emissions of the terminal building were obtained on an annual, zones for heating, cooling, natural ventilation and DHW operation is the
monthly, daily and hourly basis, by using Software B (2016) (see also same with the timing actual. The HVAC tab, that is a modeling header
Table 5 for CO2 emissions factor) [32]. While energy is transported and inside Software A, allows detailed modeling of the heating, cooling and
distributed from the generation site to the demand site, losses appear mechanical ventilation system based on the functions and type of the
due to both technical and non-technical factors. Therefore, when HVAC system. Selected HVAC data used in modeling the reference
calculating any energy efficiency savings, the electricity savings and the building are given in Table 7. The air change rates were: 1.0 (ACH) in the
natural gas savings were multiplied by 1.07 and by 1.02, respectively. check-in hall and passenger-baggage halls; whereas it is 2.3 in the
Thus, the energy consuming components analyzed and the energy kitchen and restaurant. Heating of the incoming baggage and baggage
saving potential of the building was determined. reception areas was provided by unit heaters. Therefore, the seasonal
CO2 emissions were calculated by multiplying fuel consumption by g COP of the heating system is lower than other zones (i.e., check-in hall,
CO2 per MJ emission factor for that fuel [31,34]: offices, restaurant). The number of heating/cooling days is 7 days/week
CO2 = Eelectricity [MJ] × EFelectricity [g / MJ] + Enatural gas [MJ] × EFnatural gas [g / MJ] in all zones except the offices.
Another important factor in the energy consumption of the airport
(1)
terminal buildings is lighting. The lighting analysis includes modeling of
CO2 emissions factors for electricity and natural gas by some coun­ the general lighting, task lighting, lighting controls, and exterior lighting
tries and regions are given in Table 5. The CO2 emission factor values of the zones. To accomplish this the lighting type, luminaire type,
given in Table 5 are from Software A (2016) [31]. mounting type, and power density were provided for the reference
The activity (usage) of the zones in the airport terminal buildings building and used as input to the lighting model. The lighting modeling
play an important role in energy consumption. The activity of the zones inputs of the terminal building are presented in Table 8. Fluorescent and
depends on parameters such as activity levels, occupancy, environ­ metal halide lighting luminaires are used in the building. These lumi­
mental conditions, domestic hot water consumption. Table 6 shows naires are recessed, suspended and surface mount types. The lighting
certain model data entered in the activity tab that defines the activity control, which is made according to the availability of natural daylight,
(usage) of zones. As can be seen from the table, the activity template of is not used in any zone. Lighting modeling is of great importance as the
passenger-baggage halls and baggage areas is defined as circulation heat emitted by lighting affect the internal heat gains calculated during
area. thermal simulations. In this study, no measures were suggested to
When modeling the building, the HVAC system sizing was obtained improve the lighting efficiency. The lighting data were used in modeling
from the actual equipment specification (see Table 1, Table 2, Tables 3 the reference building.
Six strategies including a number of modifications that can applied to
the HVAC system and change of HVAC system parameters (such as
Table 5 setpoint temperatures) were considered in order to reduce the energy
CO2 emission factors [31]. consumption and CO2 emissions of the terminal building. These strate­
Country/Region EF for Electricity (g/MJ) EF for Natural Gas (g/MJ) gies are: (i) change of the setpoint temperatures, (ii) night ventilation,
(iii) free cooling, (iv) adding heat exchanger, (v) retrofitting of the air
France 168.33 52.10
United Kingdom 144.17 60 distribution system from CAV to VAV, (vi) replacement of the existing
Canada 168.33 52.10 circulation pumps with variable speed circulation pumps. Potential en­
USA/Colorado 242.67 52.10 ergy saving rates and CO2 emission reduction rates were determined for
USA/Florida 175.64 52.10 each strategy. Initial investment costs, energy costs and payback periods
USA/New York 108.11 52.10
were calculated for each strategy. Thus, the gains of each strategy were
Turkey 168.33 52.10

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O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Table 7
Inputs for the HVAC modeling.
No Zone Name Outside Air Heating/Cooling Heating/Cooling System Heating/Cooling (days/ Air Temperature
(ac/h) Fuel Seasonal COP week) Distribution

1 Offices 2.2 Natural Gas/ 0.85/1.8 5/5 Mixed

Electricity
2 Check-In Hall 1 Natural Gas/ 0.85/1.19 7/7 Mixed
Electricity
3 Passenger and baggage halls 1 Natural Gas/ 0.85/1.19 7/7 Mixed
Electricity
4 Incoming baggage and baggage – Natural Gas/ 0.65/- 7/- Mixed
reception areas Electricity
5 Kitchen and cafeteria 2.3 Natural Gas/ 0.85/1.19 7/7 Mixed
Electricity
6 Restaurant 2.3 Natural Gas/ 0.85/1.19 7/7 Mixed
Electricity

Table 8
Inputs for the Lighting modeling.
No Zone Name Template Normalized Power Density (W/m2-100 lux) Luminaire Type Radiant Fraction Visible Fraction

1 Offices Fluorescent 1.66 Recessed 0.37 0.18

2 Check-In Hall Metal Halide 1.15 Suspended 0.42 0.18
3 Passenger and baggage halls Metal Halide 1.15 Suspended 0.42 0.18
4 Incoming baggage and baggage reception areas Fluorescent 1.66 Surface Mount 0.72 0.18
5 Kitchen and cafeteria Fluorescent 1.66 Recessed 0.37 0.18
6 Restaurant Metal Halide 1.15 Suspended 0.42 0.18

determined. The savings were estimated by adding the gains from each
strategy that is feasible in terms of energy, cost and environmental to the Table 9
The proposed strategies and their characteristics.
next.
In addition, the costs and simple payback periods of the strategies No Strategy Characteristics References
were estimated in order to evaluate the economic benefit of the strate­ 1 Change of the setpoint The total energy consumption [19,
gies proposed in this study. When calculating the payback period, the temperatures could be reduced by decreasing/ 35–38]
natural gas tariff and electricity tariff were assumed to be 0.023 $/kWh increasing heating/cooling
setpoint temperatures of the
and 0.088 $/kWh, respectively. Electric demand costs and all taxes are zones to the temperature ranges
included in the electricity tariff. Simple payback period is calculated recommended by CIBSE.
using the following equation: 2 Night ventilation The total electrical energy [39–41]
consumption could be reduced by
Initial investment cost of modification [$] supplying the outdoor air, which
Payback Period = (2)
Annual energy cost saving [$/year] has a lower temperature than the
indoor temperature, to the indoor
during nighttime hours.
3. Energy conservation strategies for the HVAC system 3 Free cooling A considerable energy savings [42,43]
could be achieved by using a
A very large amount of the annual total energy consumed in Erzurum water-side economizer when the
outdoor air temperature is low
Airport terminal building is consumed by the HVAC system. Analysis of
enough.
the simulation results revealed that the HVAC system had significant 4 Adding heat exchanger The total energy consumption [44–46]
savings potential [2]. Therefore, it is very important to identify possible could be reduced by adding air-to-
strategies that can be implemented in the HVAC system in order to air heat exchangers into the
existing AHUs.
reduce the energy consumption and CO2 emissions of the terminal
5 Retrofitting of the air The total energy consumption [30,47]
building. In this study, six different energy saving strategies were pro­ distribution system from could be reduced by retrofitting
posed, including modifications to the HVAC system and changing the CAV to VAV the existing air distribution
setpoints of the HVAC system operating parameters, in order to reduce system from CAV to VAV.
energy consumption, reduce the energy costs of operating the HVAC 6 Replacement of the The total electrical energy [48,49]
existing circulation consumption could be reduced by
system and increase energy efficiency in the Erzurum Airport terminal
pumps replacing the existing single/
building. These strategies are: (i) change of the setpoint temperatures, three speed hot water and chilled
(ii) night ventilation, (iii) free cooling, (iv) adding a heat exchanger, (v) water circulation pumps with
retrofitting of the air distribution system from CAV to VAV, (vi) variable speed circulation pumps.
replacement of the existing circulation pumps with variable speed cir­
culation pumps. Table 9 identifies the proposed strategies and their
CO2 emission of the building.
characteristics.
3.1.1. Heating setpoint temperature
3.1. Change of the setpoint temperature Heating setpoint temperature is one of the thermostat strategies used
in the HVAC systems and has a significant role in the space heating
This section aimed to identify the effect of changing the heating and energy demand of a building. A considerable energy savings can be
cooling setpoint temperatures, which is the one of the most significant achieved in a building that is in a cold climate region by decreasing the
thermostat strategies [35], on the total energy consumption and total heating setpoint temperature in the winter [35,37,38]. The Chartered

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O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE) recommends comfort Table 11

criteria for specific areas in an airport terminal building and for general Recommended comfort criteria for general areas in a building [50].
building areas [50]. In this study, the operative temperatures recom­ Winter Summer Winter Summer Activity
mended by CIBSE were considered the optimum thermal comfort tem­ (met)
Operative Clothing (Clo)
perature condition. The current heating setpoint temperatures of the Temperature (oC)
zones in the terminal building are presented in Table 2. The operative
Office 21–23 22–24 0.85 0.7 1.2
temperatures for winter recommended by CIBSE are shown in Table 10 Small Shops 19–21 21–23 1.0 0.65 1.4
and Table 11. Comparison of Table 2 with Tables 10 and 11 reveals that Department
a warmer thermal environment than the recommended by CIBSE have Storesa
been preferred in the terminal building. The heating setpoint tempera­ Toilets 19–21 21–23 1.0 0.65 1.4
Kitchen 15–18 18–21 1.0 0.65 1.8
tures of the zones in the terminal building can be changed with the
(Commercial)
temperatures recommended by CIBSE. Restaurant 21–23 24–25 1.0 0.65 1.1
a
Based on comfort requirements of staff.
3.1.2. Cooling setpoint temperature
Each zone within Erzurum Airport terminal building has a separate
comfort need during heating and cooling seasons. In general, the cooling
system in the terminal building is operated during the cooling season
and the chillers consume electrical energy. The current cooling setpoint
temperatures of the cooled zones (passenger and baggage halls, offices,
etc.) are presented in Table 2 and cooling setpoint temperatures have
high impact on cooling energy consumption. The operative tempera­
tures recommended by CIBSE for summer are shown in Tables 10 and
11. From a comparison of Table 2 with Tables 10 and 11, it is seen that
the current cooling setpoint temperatures are lower than the operative
temperatures recommended by CIBSE for summer. Unfortunately, the
lower the cooling setpoint, the higher the cooling energy use [51].
Therefore, increasing the cooling setpoint temperatures can be consid­
ered as a different strategy to reduce the total energy consumption of the
terminal building.
Fig. 5. Daytime and nighttime operating modes of AHUs of the offices in cases
that use night ventilation in office areas.

3.2. Night ventilation

provides the areas with cool air throughout the night. Thus, the offices
Night ventilation is an active or passive cooling strategy [39] applied require less mechanical cooling during daylight hours and the cooling
for especially large volume buildings when located where nighttime energy consumption can be reduced. On the other hand, night ventila­
ambient temperature is suitable. Nighttime ventilation is a promising tion may lead to an increase in total electricity consumption of the
approach to reduce the energy needed for cooling buildings without terminal building because of the operation of the fans in the AHUs even
reducing thermal comfort [40]. The basic concept is to utilize the rela­ though it can reduce the cooling loads for the next day and save energy.
tively low-temperature, low-humidity ambient air during the nighttime Therefore, when night ventilation is used, the total energy consumption
by the natural or mechanical ventilation systems to cool down the in­ of the building must be carefully monitored and compared to baseline
door air as well as the building construction components to provide a conditions without nighttime ventilation [52].
heat sink for the following day [41]. All areas in the terminal building,
that are cooled, except the office areas, are used and cooled for 24 h. For 3.3. Free cooling
this reason, night ventilation can be activated only for the office areas
during the hours when the offices are closed. Fig. 5 shows daytime and Free cooling another opportunity for significant energy savings in
nighttime operating modes of the air-handling units for office zones in HVAC systems and is used when the outdoor air temperatures are low
case of using night ventilation in office areas. Night ventilation for the enough. There are two types of economizers, which provide free cooling
office areas was designed to start at 1:00 a.m., continue all night and for the air conditioning system. Those include: a water-side economizer
switched off at 8:00 a.m. for weekdays during the summer period of and an air-side economizer [42,43]. In this strategy, the use of the
June to August. During these hours, ambient air is supplied to the office water-side economizer, which is added in series to the condenser coil in
areas by mechanical ventilation. Night ventilation in the office areas the chiller, was proposed and analyzed to reduce cooling energy con­
sumption. The air-cooled chillers have been used to provide the cooling
Table 10 of the terminal building. The chilled water at 7 ◦ C that is produced by
Recommended comfort criteria for some specific areas in airport terminal the chillers is transmitted from the chillers to the AHUs through chilled
building [50]. water circulation pumps during the cooling season. Water-side econo­
Wintera Summera Activity (met) mizers operate in three different operating modes: i) hybrid mode, ii)
Operative Temperature (oC)
water-side economizer only mode, iii) mechanical cooling only mode. In
the hybrid mode, some of the cooling load is rejected whereas in a
Baggage Reclaim 12-19b 21-25b 1.8
water-side economizer only mode all the load is rejected by the
Check-In Areasc 18–20 21–23 1.4
Concourse (no seats) 19-24b 21-25b 1.8 water-side economizer. Fig. 6 shows the schematic of air-cooled chiller
Customs Area 18–20 21-23b 1.4 with a water-side economizer operating in the hybrid mode. When the
Departure Lounge 19–21 22–24 1.3 outside air temperature is lower than the return water temperature
a
Clothing insulation is 1.15 clo for winter conditions and is 0.65 clo for (11 ◦ C), the return chilled water (dark blue line) is directed to the
summer conditions. water-side economizer, since the economizer will be enabled, some of
b
Based on PMV of ±0.5. At other cases based PMV ±0.25. the load is rejected by the economizer coils and both mechanical and
c
Based on comfort requirements for check-in staff. free cooling are engaged. Thus, some of the required cooling is provided

8
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 6. Schematic of air-cooled chiller with water-side economizer operating in hybrid mode [53].

from water-side economizer. The compressor operates in partial load

(hybrid mode) or eliminates mechanical cooling (water-side economizer
only mode) thereby free cooling is provided.

3.4. Adding heat exchanger

Energy recovery is a suitable technique to reduce high-energy con­

sumption in a building [45]. To reduce heating or cooling energy de­
mand of a building an air-to-air heat exchanger is often implemented in
AHUs [54,55]. In this study the existing AHUs in the terminal building
were divided into two categories according to their operating modes.
Those are a 100% fresh air-handling unit and a mixed air-handling unit.
The 100% fresh air-handling units use 100% of outdoor air to meet the
minimum ventilation requirement whereas the mixed air-handling units
use 28% or 33% of return air as the supply air and 72% or 67% of
outdoor air to meet the minimum ventilation requirement [15]. In the
base case, eight of the ten AHUs in the terminal building have been
recovering waste heat of the exhaust air. This has been achieved by
using mixing air damper which mixes return air and outdoor air in
certain proportions in mixing box. In addition, an air-to-air rotary heat
exchanger, which are widely used in AHUs to reduce the hea­
ting/cooling load, can be added into the existing AHUs. The general
layout of the existing AHUs in the terminal building are shown in Fig. 7a
and Fig. 7b, and the general layout of the AHUs with heat exchanger
proposed and analyzed in this strategy are shown in Fig. 7c and d.
An air-to-air rotary heat exchanger operates on the principle of
recovering the waste heat of the exhaust air and improves the efficiency
of the AHU system. In such a system the exhaust air and the fresh air flow
parallel to each other but in the opposite directions. In the heat
exchanger, the exhaust air cools the warm fresh air in the summer and
warms the cold fresh air in the winter. Thus, fresh air is pre-cooled/pre-
heated. The rotary heat exchanger can be integrated upstream of the
outside air mixing box. In this case, the outdoor air controller will
determine the modulation based on the conditions at the inlet node of
the outside air mixing box instead of outdoor air. It is also important that
the controller account for the rotary heat wheel that may modify the
condition of outdoor air before it reaches the mixer [31].
3.5. Retrofitting of the existing CAV system to VAV system
In general, the air-side equipment of the HVAC systems is divided
into two categories, namely, a CAV system and a VAV system [17]. The
Fig. 7. General layout of: a) existing the 100% fresh air-handling unit, b)
existing mixed air-handling unit, c) proposed 100% fresh air-handling unit with
rotary type heat exchanger, d) proposed the mixed air-handling unit with rotary
type heat exchanger.
VAV systems accurately measure and control the conditioned airflow
depend on the heating load or cooling load whereas the CAV systems
supply a constant volume of conditioned air, even with small tempera­
ture changes. Airport terminal buildings have different activity levels
and variable occupancy rates. Therefore, the heating, cooling and
ventilation requirements vary over the day depending on the actual
flight schedules and passenger loads, which are nonlinear [18]. Hence,
CAV systems lead to over ventilation and, as a result, more energy
consumption during periods with low or no occupancy. As a result,
retrofitting of the existing CAV system to VAV system can achieve
improvement in energy efficiency [17,56]. The basic motivation of this
strategy, which is an important factor for reducing the energy con­
sumption of the terminal building, is to retrofit the existing CAV system
to become a VAV system. As seen in Fig. 8, this retrofitting includes
sizing and installing a new VAV terminal box, adding a variable speed
driver to both supply and return fans for variable airflow control and
updating the control systems of the AHUs to utilize VAV control [30,47].
Thus, the conditioned airflow can be considerably reduced and signifi­
cant savings can be achieved in heating, cooling, fans and pumps energy

9
O.F. Yildiz et al.
Fig. 8. Schematic of: a) the existing CAV system, b) the proposed VAV system.
consumption.
3.6. Replacement of existing circulating pumps
One of the most significant energy consumers in a terminal building
are the chilled water and hot water circulating pumps, which are
commonly used in heating and cooling applications. As can be seen in
Table 3, there are total 16 single/three speed hot water and chilled water
circulation pumps (4 of these pumps are single speed) in the terminal
building with different capacities and pressure used in the heating and
cooling systems. Unfortunately, the circulating pumps operate at
maximum flow rate and pressure which can be significantly higher than
required. This often results inefficient operation of the pumping systems.
However, variable speed circulation pumps adjust the motor speed ac­
cording to the requested flow rate and pressure. This is important
because even small reductions in motor speed results large power re­
ductions. Thus, significant improvements in energy efficiency and cost
savings can be achieved [49].
In this study, various strategies were reviewed and analyzed in order
to achieve energy and cost savings and environmental gains in airport
terminal buildings. It has been determined that some of these strategies
will reduce the heating and cooling load of the terminal building. Due to
this reduction in heating and cooling loads, the hot water and chilled
water circulation pumps used in the system should be resized according
to their new load capacities. Therefore, the existing circulation pumps
can be replaced with variable speed circulation pumps that are resized
according to the reduced heating and cooling loads.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Results for the reference building
Performing an energy analysis on an existing airport terminal
10
Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632
building (the reference building) was the first step in the process of
determining the energy consumption pattern of an airport terminal
building and suggesting practices/measures to reduce it. Therefore, the
Erzurum Airport terminal building was modeled and an energy simu­
lation was performed. The simulation results (energy and environ­
mental) were evaluated only at the building level. Fig. 9 shows the
monthly changes in total energy consumption of the terminal building.
The two main energy sources of the terminal building are natural gas
and electricity. The actual annual natural gas consumption of the ter­
minal building was 4,677,042 kWh (16,837 GJ), electricity consumption
is 1,614,464 kWh and annual total energy consumption is 6,291,506
kWh. The annual energy intensity of the terminal building was 485.83
kWh/m2. The highest energy consumption was in January (908,526
kWh) due to the lower outdoor temperatures in January versus other
months while the lowest energy consumption was in July (249,568
kWh). Although the electricity consumption of the terminal building
increases in the summer months due to the need for cooling, the total
energy consumption of the building decreases as there is no need for
heating during these months. Detailed information on the energy char­
acteristics of Erzurum Airport terminal building can be found in Refs. [2,
57].
Fig. 10 shows a comparison of actual and simulated energy con­
sumption of the Erzurum Airport terminal building. The annual actual
energy consumption in 2014 and 2015 was taken as basis for the actual
energy consumption of the Erzurum Airport terminal building. As seen
in the figure, the actual energy consumption of the terminal building is
7,015,081 kWh and the simulated energy consumption is 6,291,507
kWh. The difference between actual and simulated energy consumption
is 11% [2].
Fig. 11 illustrates the energy consumption pattern of the terminal
building. In cold climate regions like Erzurum, space heating is a major
share of the annual total energy consumption. Space heating is followed
by lighting (including exterior lighting), pumps and fans, domestic hot
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 9. Monthly changes in total simulated energy consumption of the Erzurum Airport terminal building.

Fig. 10. Monthly changes in total actual and simulated energy consumption of the Erzurum Airport terminal building [2].

water, cooling, and room electricity, respectively. The total energy

consumption of the HVAC system is almost 5.13 GWh and its share in
total energy consumption of the building is about 81.6%.
Fig. 12 shows the daily CO2 emissions of the terminal building. CO2
emission increases in the winter days when the need for heating is higher
and decrease in the summer days. However, there is a slight increase in
July and August months (due to the increase in cooling requirement),
when the electricity consumption in total energy consumption increases.
The annual total CO2 emissions of the terminal building is 1,855,589 kg,
which are calculated using the conversion values from Table 5 [31].

4.2. Results for the strategies

This study focused on the analysis of strategies proposed for the

reduction of energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of HVAC
system energy use of the Erzurum Airport terminal building. Unfortu­
nately, the reduction in energy consumption of any single HVAC
component may lead to an increase or decrease of the energy con­
Fig. 11. Simulated consumption of the Erzurum Airport terminal building.
sumption of another HVAC component in the terminal building.
Therefore, in this study, the effect of each strategy on energy

11
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 12. Daily simulated CO2 emission of the Erzurum Airport terminal building.

consumption and displaced CO2 emission was examined only at the
whole building level. This allowed the strategies to be evaluated accu­
rately and reasonably using simulation. The proposed strategies were
described and identified in Section 3.
4.2.1. Strategy 1: change of the setpoint temperature
The first simulated energy conservation strategy was decreasing/
increasing indoor air setpoint temperatures. The recommended comfort
criteria for specific areas in airport terminal building are presented in
Table 10, and the comfort criteria for the general areas in the building
using CIBSE recommendations are shown in Table 11. Fig. 13 shows the
effect of reducing the heating setpoint temperatures to the temperatures
recommended by CIBSE on the monthly energy consumption and dis­
placed CO2 emissions of the terminal building. As seen in Fig. 13, the
simulated energy consumption decreased in all months when the heat­
ing setpoint temperatures are lowered to the temperatures

Fig. 13. The effect of reducing the heating setpoint temperatures on the monthly energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal building.

12
O.F. Yildiz et al.
recommended by CIBSE. On the other hand, the displaced CO2 emissions
decreased in all months due to the decrease in energy consumption.
Examination of the figure shows that although energy consumption in­
creases in September compared to August, displaced CO2 emissions
decreased. This is due to the increase in the share of electricity con­
sumption in the total energy consumption and the fact that the estimated
emission factor of electricity kg.CO2/kWh is larger than the natural gas
emission factor.
Table 12 provides a summary of the simulated effect of reducing the
heating setpoint temperatures on energy consumption and energy costs.
A significant reduction of the annual total energy consumption is ach­
ieved by reducing the heating setpoint temperatures. Natural gas and
electricity consumption are reduced by approximately 20% and 2%,
respectively. The annual energy intensity decreased from 485.83 kWh/
m2 to 410.12 kWh/m2. The annual energy intensity reduction rate is
approximately 16%. Reducing the heating set point temperatures of the
spaces in the terminal building not only reduces the space heating en­
ergy consumption, but also the energy consumption of the system pumps
and fans.
Recommended comfort criteria for some specific areas in airport
terminal building are presented in Table 10, recommended comfort
criteria for general areas in a building by CIBSE in Table 11. Fig. 14
shows the effect of changing the cooling setpoint temperatures to the
temperatures recommended by CIBSE on the monthly energy con­
sumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal building. When
the cooling setpoint temperatures are changed to the temperatures
recommended by CIBSE, the total energy consumption and the total
displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal building do not change during
the months when cooling system is not in operation (during the heating
season). Total energy consumption decreases during the cooling season
in which the cooling system is operated. For example, the decrease in
total energy consumption in August is around 4%. Total displaced CO2
emissions remain constant during the months when the cooling system is
not operating. In the months when the cooling system is operating, the
total displaced CO2 emissions are reduced due to the reduction in energy
consumption. In June, the building’s total displaced CO2 emission rea­
ches its lowest value with 94,757 kg.
Table 13 presents the effect of increasing the cooling setpoint tem­
peratures on energy consumption and energy cost. When the cooling
setpoint temperatures are increased the total energy consumption of the
terminal building reduce by almost 0.5%. There is generally a limited
need for cooling in Erzurum Airport terminal building since it is located
in a cold climate region. Therefore, the cooling energy saving rate is very
low. Warm climates benefit more from increased cooling setpoint tem­
peratures, while colder climates benefit more from decreased heating
setpoint temperatures [36].
4.2.2. Strategy 2: night ventilation
Table 14 shows a summary of the effect of night ventilation for the
office areas on energy consumption and energy cost of the terminal
building. The use of night ventilation for the office areas reduces the
cooling energy consumption of the terminal building. However, night
ventilation requires operating the supply and exhaust fans mounted in
the AHUs of the offices. This leads to an increase in total electricity
consumption of the terminal building, since the base case simulation has
the AHUs turned-off. Therefore, it was concluded that night ventilation
for the office areas is not economically viable.
Table 12
The effect of reducing the heating setpoint temperatures on energy consumption and energy cost.
Natural Gas Consumption (kWh) Electricity Consumption (kWh)
Reference Building 4,677,042 1,614,464
CIBSE Criteria (for Winter) 3,726,932 1,584,140
Energy Savings* and Cost Savings 969,112 32,447
13
Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632
4.2.3. Strategy 3: free cooling
Another strategy analyzed and evaluated the reduced energy con­
sumption of the terminal building from the use of a water-side econo­
mizer. Analysis of the simulation results reveals that there is no need for
cooling in any part of the terminal building when the outside air tem­
perature is lower than the return water temperature (11 ◦ C). However,
the indoor air temperature of some areas may momentarily exceed the
cooling setpoint temperature due to internal heat gains. This tempera­
ture rise results in a barely noticeable increase (2.9 kW) in the energy
consumed for cooling. As a result, there has been no improvement in the
energy efficiency of the HVAC system due to the use of this strategy.
Therefore, it is not recommended to use free cooling to reduce the en­
ergy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal building.
4.2.4. Strategy 4: adding heat exchanger
Fig. 15 shows the effect of adding a rotary heat exchanger to existing
AHUs on the monthly energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions
of the terminal building. The use of rotary heat exchanger reduces en­
ergy consumption in all months. The decrease in energy consumption is
much higher in winter than in other months. For example, while the
energy consumption is 802,520 kWh in January, with the use of the
rotary heat exchanger, the energy consumption decreases by 49%–
410,685 kWh. Due to the reduction in energy consumption, total dis­
placed CO2 emissions are also reduced.
The effect of adding rotary heat exchangers into the AHUs on energy
consumption and energy cost of the terminal building is given in
Table 15. When the table is examined, it is seen that the annual total
energy consumption has decreased by approximately 48% although
additional fan energy is required due to the increased pressure drop
across the rotary heat exchanger. This reduction leads to savings of
$87,079 in annual energy cost. The fact that the addition of a rotary heat
exchanger to existing AHUs provides such high energy savings is due to
the fact that the large spaces in the terminal building are heated by
AHUs, and the energy demand for heating is very high since the airport
is located in the cold climate region.
The initial investment cost of adding rotary heat exchangers to AHUs
is given in Table 16. Examination of Tables 15 and 16 shows that the
payback period for this modification is less than one year. Therefore, it
can be stated that it would be economically viable to add rotary heat
exchangers to AHUs.
4.2.5. Strategy 5: retrofitting of the air distribution system from CAV to
VAV
The effect of retrofitting of the existing air distribution system from
CAV to VAV on natural gas consumption, electricity consumption and
energy cost is summarized in Table 17. It is seen that this modification
has little effect on natural gas consumption and electricity consumption.
There is an annual decrease of 2.3% in natural gas consumption, and a
decrease of 0.7% in electricity consumption annually. The low effect of
retrofitting the existing CAV system to a VAV system on energy con­
sumption indicates that a high supply air flow rate is generally needed in
the terminal building to keep the space temperature at a comfort level.
Retrofitting of the existing air distribution system from CAV to VAV
resulted saves $1561 in the annual energy cost of the building. The
initial investment cost of the retrofitting is shown in Table 18. The
payback period of this modification is approximately 12 years due to low
energy savings and high initial investment costs. Considering that the
lifetime of the existing CAV system is 20 years and the current system
Natural Gas Cost ($) Electricity Cost ($) Total Energy Cost ($)
107,572 142,073 249,645
85,719 139,404 225,123
21,853 2669 24,522
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 14. The effect of increasing the cooling setpoint temperatures on the monthly energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal building.

Table 13
The effect of increasing the cooling setpoint temperatures on energy consumption and energy cost.
Natural Gas Consumption Electricity Consumption Natural Gas Cost ($) Electricity Cost ($) Total Energy Cost ($)
(kWh) (kWh)

CIBSE Criteria (for Winter) 3,726,932 1,584,140 85,719 139,404 225,123

CIBSE Criteria (for Winter and 3,723,871 1,563,535 85,649 137,591 223,240
Summer)
Energy Savings* and Cost Savings 3122 22,047 70 1813 1883

Table 14
The effect of night ventilation for the office areas on energy consumption and energy cost of the terminal building.
Natural Gas Consumption (kWh) Electricity Consumption (kWh) Natural Gas Cost ($) Electricity Cost ($) Total Energy Cost ($)

No Night Ventilation 3,723,871 1,563,535 85,649 137,591 223,240

Night Ventilation 3,723,871 1,569,722 85,649 138,135 223,784
Energy Savings* and Cost Savings – − 6620 – − 544 − 544

has been used for about 16 years, this modification would not be feasible
in terms of technical and economic considerations.
4.2.6. Strategy 6: replacement of the existing circulation pumps
Fig. 16 shows the effect of replacement of single/three speed circu­
lation pumps with variable speed circulation pumps on the monthly
energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal
building. The energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the
terminal building reduce in all months. The energy consumption of the
terminal building reaches its lowest value of 119,246 kWh in June,
whereas its displaced CO2 emission reaches its lowest value of 59,162 kg
in September. As a result of the use of variable speed circulation pumps,
the annual total displaced CO2 emissions are reduced by almost 3.6%.
The effect of replacement of single/three speed circulation pumps
with variable speed circulation pumps on energy consumption and en­
ergy cost of the terminal building is given in Table 19. As can be seen
from the table, replacement of the existing circulation pumps is reduced
the annual total electricity consumption, whereas the annual total nat­
ural gas consumption remains unaffected. It has been determined that
the use of variable speed circulation pumps will save $5031 per year.
The initial investment cost of using variable speed circulation pumps
in the HVAC system has been calculated and given in Table 20.

14
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 15. The effect of adding the rotary heat exchangers into existing AHUs on the monthly energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the termi­
nal building.

Table 15
A summary of the effect of adding the rotary heat exchangers into the AHUs on energy consumption and energy cost.
Natural Gas Consumption (kWh) Electricity Consumption (kWh) Natural Gas Cost ($) Electricity Cost ($) Total Energy Cost ($)

AHU Without Heat Exchanger 3,723,871 1,563,535 85,649 137,591 223,240

AHU With Heat Exchanger 1,624,569 1,122,682 37,365 98,796 136,161
Energy Savings* and Cost Savings 2,141,288 471,713 48,284 38,795 87,079

Considering the operating cost in Table 19 and the initial investment

Table 16
cost in Table 20, the payback period for using variable speed circulation
The initial investment cost of adding of rotary heat exchangers into the AHUs.
pumps in the HVAC system is found to be about 4.4 years. This short
Unit Price ($) Number Cost ($) payback period indicates that this modification is cost-effective and a
Rotary Heat Exchanger 1389-2083 l/s 2573 1 2573 good investment. These findings are consistent with the literature.
Rotary Heat Exchanger 2084-2778 l/s 3309 2 6618
Rotary Heat Exchanger 4167-5555 l/s 5479 3 16437
Rotary Heat Exchanger 5556-8333 l/s 6806 2 13612 Table 18
Rotary Heat Exchanger 11111-13889 l/s 11894 2 23788 The initial investment cost of retrofitting of the CAV system to VAV system.
TOTAL 63028
Unit Price ($) Numbers Cost ($)

VAV Terminal Box 325 10 3250

Variable Speed Driver 775 20 15500
TOTAL 18750

Table 17
The effect of retrofitting of the existing CAV system to VAV system on energy consumption and energy cost.
Natural Gas Consumption (kWh) Electricity Consumption (kWh) Natural Gas Cost ($) Electricity Cost ($) Total Energy Cost ($)

CAV 1,624,569 1,122,682 37,365 98,796 136,161

VAV 1,587,290 1,114,678 36,508 98,092 134,600
Energy Savings* and Cost Savings 38,025 8564 857 704 1561

15
O.F. Yildiz et al. Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632

Fig. 16. The effect of replacing existing circulation pumps with variable speed circulation pumps on the monthly energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of
the terminal building.

Table 19
The effect of replacing existing circulation pumps with variable speed circulation pumps on energy consumption and energy cost.
Natural Gas Consumption (kWh) Electricity Consumption Natural Gas Cost ($) Electricity Cost ($) Total Energy Cost ($)
(kWh)

Single/Three Speed Circulation 1,624,569 1,122,682 37,365 98,796 136,161

Pumps
Variable Speed Circulation Pumps 1,624,569 1,065,516 37,365 93,765 131,130
Energy Savings* and Cost Savings – 61,168 – 5031 5031

4.3. Comparative evaluation of strategies

Table 20
The initial investment cost of replacing existing circulation pumps with variable
Table 21 shows the feasibility of the suggested strategies collectively.
speed circulation pumps.
Decreasing the setpoint temperatures could save 15.58% in annual en­
Sizes (Max Flow, Head Max) Unit Price ($) Number Cost ($) ergy consumption and could reduce annual displaced CO2 emissions by
1 l/s, 4.5 m 1183 2 2366 10.59%. By using all four strategies shown in the table, 57.24% savings
2 l/s, 4.5 m 1183 2 2366 are achieved in annual energy consumption and annual displaced CO2
0.5 l/s, 4 m 1183 2 2366
emissions are reduced by 48.79%.
5 l/s, 7 m 1400 2 2800
5.5 l/s, 8.5 m 1400 2 2800 The findings obtained in this study reveal that HVAC systems have a
11 l/s, 10 m 1693 4 6772 very important share in the energy consumption and displaced CO2
5.5 l/s, 7 m 1400 2 2800 emissions of airport terminal buildings, and that energy consumption
Total 16 22270 and displaced CO2 emissions can be significantly reduced by realizing
the proposed strategies in HVAC systems.
Uzuner [58] reported that the 18 circulation pumps at Atatürk Airport
were replaced with variable speed circulation pumps with an investment 5. Conclusions
of $19,410 and the payback period was 1.07 years by providing $18,173
electricity savings (37%) per year. This study presents the different energy conservation strategies that
can be applied to the HVAC system to reduce the energy consumption
and displaced CO2 emissions of the Erzurum Airport terminal building.

16
O.F. Yildiz et al.
Table 21
The feasible ones among the suggested strategies.
Strategy Energy Consumed (kWh/ Energy Saving
year) (%)
Reference building 6,291,506 – 1,855,589
Decreasing heating setpoint 5,311,072 15.58%
temperature
Increasing cooling setpoint 5,287,406 0.44%
temperature
Adding heat exchanger 2,747,251 48.04%
Replacement of the existing 2,690,085 2.08%
circulation pumps
To achieve this purpose, six strategies were analyzed and evaluated: (i)
change of the setpoint temperatures, (ii) night ventilation, (iii) free
cooling, (iv) adding heat exchanger, (v) retrofitting of the air distribu­
tion system from CAV to VAV, (vi) replacement of the existing circula­
tion pumps with variable speed circulation pumps. The main
conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) An energy analysis of the airport terminal building has been made
and it has been determined that the HVAC system is the largest
energy consumer compared to other systems in the terminal
building. The energy consumed by the HVAC system constitutes
approximately 81.6% of the total energy consumption of the
terminal building. HVAC system is followed by lighting
(including exterior lighting), pumps and fans, domestic hot
water, cooling, and room electricity, respectively.
(2) Improving the energy efficiency of the HVAC system, which has a
high energy consumption, is of great importance to reduce the
energy consumption and displaced CO2 emissions of the terminal
building.
(3) Strategies that changed the setpoint temperatures, adding heat
exchanger and replacement of existing circulation pumps with
variable speed circulation pumps are found to be feasible in terms
of energy, cost and environment. On the other hand, the strate­
gies of night ventilation, free cooling and retrofitting of the air
distribution system from CAV to VAV are found to be not
economically viable.
(4) By implementing feasible strategies, considerable energy and
energy costs can be saved and displaced CO2 emissions reduced
for the electricity and natural gas that were saved. While the
potential energy saving range of the strategies is between 0.44%
and 48.04%, the potential displaced CO2 emission reduction
range of the strategies is between 0.79% and 40.08%.
(5) Energy savings for the strategies of decreasing heating setpoint
temperature, increasing cooling setpoint temperature, adding
heat exchanger, and replacement of existing circulation pumps
with variable speed circulation pumps is 15.58%, 0.44%,
48.04%, and 2.08%, respectively. As can be seen, the positive
effect of adding rotary heat exchangers to AHUs is better than
other strategies.
(6) Displaced CO2 reduction for the strategies of decreasing heating
setpoint temperature, increasing cooling setpoint temperature,
adding heat exchanger, and replacement of existing circulation
pumps with variable speed circulation pumps is 10.59%, 0.79%,
40.08%, and 3.65%, respectively.
(7) Additional energy conservation strategies in the lighting system
and the building envelope (such as improvement external wall
and roof thermal insulation, replacing the existing lighting fix­
tures with LED, installation of lighting control system, exploit day
lighting etc.) should be investigated in the future studies
considering their payback period. These strategies can reduce the
electricity consumption of the terminal building. However, the
electricity saved in the winter will lead to reduced heat gain that
17
Building and Environment 208 (2022) 108632
CO2 CO2 Reduction Initial Investment Cost Payback Period
Emission (kg/ (%) ($) (years)
year)
– – –
1,659,012 10.59% – –
1,645,951 0.79% – –
986,261 40.08% 63,028 0.7
950,284 3.65% 22,270 4.4
will require more natural gas use. Therefore, when examining
these strategies, the total energy consumption of the terminal
building must be carefully analyzed and evaluated.
(8) Airports are suitable settlements for the installation of renewable
energy systems as they have vast and free of shade areas. Through
further research, the renewable energy systems which have the
best benefit/cost ratio for the airport can be determined. Thus,
the net energy consumption of the terminal building can be
reduced.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
O.F. Yildiz: Formal analysis, Data curation, Investigation, Method­
ology, Writing – original draft, Software. M. Yilmaz: Writing – review &
editing, Supervision, Conceptualization. A. Celik: Validation,
Visualization.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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