06/07/2020

PNOĒ
CERTIFICATION
PROGRAM
Lessons 5/6 –System
Interactions MODULE 1

FUNDAMENTALS IN
EXERCISE
PHYSIOLOGY

SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

You have learned about each system in isolation. Now it’s time to see how they
work together and affect each other. The individual systems are complex…their
interactions are even more so. And we are not even including the endocrine
system…

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DELIVERY VS. UTILIZATION

Delivery • One of more of these systems can limit

performance
• Cardiovascular
• A limitation in one, affects the other
• Respiratory
through various mechanisms
Utilization
• Metabolic (muscle)

Loading O2 from the lung onto

haemoglobin for delivery to the
muscle

SUPPLY VS. UTILIZATION

Supply (loading the truck)

• Respiratory system - lung supplies O2 to
haemoglobin Unloading and utilizing O2 from the
• Cardiovascular - hemoglobin (Hb) delivers oxygen haemoglobin at the muscle
to the working muscles via the heart and vessels
Utilization (unloading the truck)
• Metabolic system unloads and utilizes O2 at the
muscle

Your performance is either limited by supply or

utilization!

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DELIVERY VS. UTILIZATION

LIMITER VS.
COMPENSATOR
CONCEPT

• Without testing and with

inaccurate training, you can
train a compensator – not the
limiter
• Testing can isolate the limiter
• Appropriate limitation specific
training based upon testing can
minimize or eliminate the
limitation
• Train your limiter – not the
compensator

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MODELS OF
FATIGUE
• Three models of fatigue
• Biological (we will concentrate
on this one)
• Psychological
• Social and Environmental
CENTRAL The central governor model
GOVERNOR (protection of the vital organs
over performance) is a proposed
MODEL (CGM) process (Tim Noakes) in the brain
that regulates exercise regarding a
neurally calculated safe exertion
by the body. In particular, physical
activity is controlled so that its
intensity cannot threaten the
body’s homeostasis by
causing anoxic damage to
the heart muscle.
06/07/2020
The central governor limits
exercise by reducing the neural
recruitment of muscle fibres. This
reduced recruitment causes the
sensation of fatigue. The existence
of a central governor was
suggested to explain fatigue after
prolonged strenuous exercise in
long-distance running and other
endurance sports, but its ideas
could also apply to other causes of
exertion-induced fatigue.
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CENTRAL GOVERNOR MODEL

Muscle contraction during exercise is responsible for producing changes, including biochemical ones (e.g.
decrease in pH due to H+ ions and/or an increase in organic phosphates etc, as well as changes to the
cardiovascular system, energy system (e.g. glycogen is depleted and blood glucose falls), and
thermoregulatory (body temperature rises).
Represented in the next diagram by the mitochondria at the muscle, the liver for energy supply, the
heart, and body temperature.
These changes DIRECTLY inhibit exercise, either by:
• Causing the muscle to lose its force generating ability. This is the theory for H+, phosphates, oxygen
supply (the “anaerobic” limit to exercise) and calcium ions; or
• By acting on the brain to force the muscle activation levels down. This is the case with high body
temperatures.

CENTRAL GOVERNOR - PHYSIOLOGICAL

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WHAT SYSTEM
IS NOT
MENTIONED…

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RESPIRATORY

A “overload” of the
respiratory system will signal
a feedback loop to the brain.
The metaboreflex will kick in,
initiating vasoconstriction of
the circulation to the
locomotor muscles.
This will ensure the vital
organs receive the O2
required.
ECGM (Noakes)

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METABOREFLEX VIDEO

• https://youtu.be/UC52iygNfBs

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TAKE HOME

• Respiratory muscle fatigue – or

lack of effective breathing in
relation to exercise effort – can
lead to decreased performance
through effects on the
cardiovascular system through
neural signaling to the brain
based upon biochemical
changes
• All systems involved
• WARNING….not just
inspiratory!

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HYPERVENTILATION

• Breathe or cause to breathe at

an abnormally rapid rate, so
increasing the rate of loss of
carbon dioxide.

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Low carbon dioxide (hypocapnia) levels, leads to a

centrally mediated constriction of the arteries, which
results in decreased delivery of oxygenated blood to
the muscle

Hypocapnia leads to a centrally mediated dilation of the

veins, which results in decreased return of blood to the
heart and therefore decreased cardiac output
(decreased pre-load)
SYSTEMIC EFFECTS
OF
HYPERVENTILATION Hypocapnia at the muscle also lead to increased
adherence of O2 to the Hb due to change in the
concentration gradient, therefore decreasing the ability
to unload O2 at the muscle

Hypocapnia at the brain results in effects on cognition

and decision making

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Decrease
return of
blood to
heart Decrease in O2
delivery

Affects
mental
ability

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T H E BO H R E FFE CT
A ND
H Y P E R V E N T I LA T I O N

• The Bohr effect increases the efficiency

of oxygen transportation through the
blood.
• Hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is
inversely related to both the acidity and
to concentrations of CO2
• An increase in blood CO2
concentration leads to a decrease blood
pH which results in haemoglobin
proteins releasing their load of O2
• Conversely, a decrease in CO2 results in
an increase in pH which results in an
increased affinity of O2 on the
haemoglobin which negatively effects the
ability for O2 to offload at the muscle

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BOHR VS. HALDANE EFFECT

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EFFECTS OF
HYPERVENTILATION
AT THE BRAIN

• A lack of CO2 at the brain

leads to vasoconstriction
thereby affecting oxygen levels
in the brain
• This leads to decreased
cognitive ability

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Muscle fatigue

Cramping

Decreased coordination
EFFECTS OF
HYPOC APNIA IN
ATHLETES INCLUDE Decreased reaction time

Loss of focus

Anxiety

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TAKE HOME

• CO2 and O2 concentrations are vital to the ability of O2 to off load at the muscle (Bohr)
and off load CO2 at the lung (Haldane)
• Hyperventilation leads to decreases in CO2 concentrations at the muscle (hypocapnia)
• This leads to an increased affinity of O2 to the haemoglobin
• This leads to a decreased ability to deliver O2 at the muscle
• Negatively effects performance

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THE
BAROREFLEX

• Method to maintain blood

pressure
• Baroreceptors are inhibited
(decreased pressure)
• Leads to vasoconstriction and
increased stroke volume and HR
• This leads to increased CO
• Leads to homeostasis being
restored
• Used during exercise

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BARORECEPTOR VIDEO

• https://youtu.be/4lebh7BY1Oc

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BARORECEPTOR VIDEO

• https://youtu.be/ajLgwCygHsc

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ROLE OF BARORECEPTOR ON EXERCISE

PERFORMANCE

Exercise lowers blood pressure by reducing blood vessel stiffness so blood can flow
more easily. The effects of exercise are most noticeable during and immediately after
a workout. Lowered blood pressure can be most significant right after you work out.
In brief, from early ideas that the baroreflex was “shut off” during exercise, our
understanding has progressed to the realization that not only is baroreflex function
preserved during exercise, but also the operating point of the baroreflexes is actually
“reset” to higher operating pressures in proportion to work intensity, and there is
evidence that both central command and peripheral feedback from muscle can reset
the baroreflex
Much of the recent work on this topic has focused on the influence of steady-state
dynamic exercise on overall baroreflex control of arterial pressure.

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BAROREFLEX

Overall, our current understanding of the

mechanisms for baroreflex resetting during
exercise is that the feedforward mechanism
of central command is probably the primary
regulator of baroreflex resetting, while the
negative feedback mechanism of the
exercise pressor reflex is more of a
modulator of resetting.

Raven PB, Fadel PJ, and Ogoh S. Arterial

baroreflex resetting during exercise: a
current perspective. Exp Physiol 91: 37–
49, 2006.

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TAKE HOME

• Anything affecting blood pressure OR neural control over blood pressure can effect performance
• Poor cardiovascular fitness can limit your hearts ability to increase SV
• Medications can effect HR and blood pressure
• Respiratory limitations (e.g. metaboreflex) can effect venous return and thereby interfere with this process
by effecting SV
• Hyperventilation can lead to decreased CO2 levels and thereby affect offloading of O2 at the cardiac
muscles
• A lack of mitochondria in the cardiac muscles can effect O2 utilization thereby effecting CO
• Decreased vascularity (capillaries) in the cardiac muscles can effect O2 delivery

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SYSTEM INTERACTIONS

• You must understand the control mechanisms of all three

systems
• The interaction of the three systems are complex
• You must be able to test every system in order to truly identify
the limiting system
• Look at delivery and then utilization
• If delivery is normal, then it must be utilization
• Rule out complicating factors (e.g. genetics/medications)
• Limitation specific training can positively effect all these
systems, but you must be able to identify the limiting system
first
• Metabolic testing is the best method to measure these three
systems and therefore identify the true limiter(s)

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