Bio 1 Module 3 4 PDF

The Plant Tissues/Basic
Structure of the Leaf
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson the students should

be able to:
LO1. Identify the functions of plant tissues.
LO2. Identify what external or internal parts of the leaf is matched
with its structure or function.
A. Plant Organs Have Tissues
Main Idea: Plants have specialized cells and tissues that form organs for
maintaining proper bodily function.
Like animals, plants are made up of different organs. Organs that allow the
plant to live and grow are called vegetative organs. These include the roots, stem,
and leaves. The flower, fruit, and seeds are reproductive organs. The root anchors
the plant to the soil for support and absorbs water and minerals from the soil. The
stem is the main axis of the plant together with its branches. It functions to support
and to transport water and nutrients absorbed by the roots to the leaves. It also
transports the products of photosynthesis in the opposite direction. The leaves are
responsible for the manufacture of food by photosynthesis. Flowers, fruits, and
seeds are involved in reproduction. All these plant organs are made up of groups of
similar cells with a common function - the plant tissues.
Compared to animals, plants have fewer types of tissues. There are two main
types of tissues in plants: meristematic and permanent tissues. Permanent tissues
are further divided into surface (dermal), fundamental (ground), and vascular tissues
(figure 1-2). These plant tissues are either made up of one type of cells or two or
more different cell types with a common function. Table 1-1 summarizes the tissues
and cell types of flowering plants.
FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1

TABLE 1 – 1 | PERMANENT TISSUES AND CELL TYPES OF FLOWERING PLANTS
Permanent Tissue Tissue Cell Types
System
Dermal Epidermis (primary growth) Parenchyma cells
Guard cells
Trichomes
Sclerenchyma cells
Periderm (secondary Parenchyma cells

growth) Sclerenchyma cells
Ground Parenchyma cells

Parenchyma Collenchyma cells
Collenchyma Fibers
Sclerenchyma Sclereids
Vascular Tracheids
Xylem Vessel members
Sclerenchyma cells
Parenchyma cells
Sieve tube members

Phloem Companion cells
Parenchyma cells
Sclerenchyma cells
Meristematic Tissue Allows Growth

A plant grows because it has meristems.
Meristems are made up of embryonic tissues
called meristematic tissues. Meristems are found
in parts of the plant where growth is fastest. Apical
meristems are found at the tip of the stems or
roots that allow these organs to grow longer.
Lateral meristems (also called secondary
meristems) are responsible for the increase in girth
of the stem, roots, or branches. Axillary buds or
lateral buds are found on the nodes of stems and
are involved in the formation of branches. The
cambium is a ring of meristematic tissues found
inside a mature stem, which allows growth in
diameter or increase in the thickness of stems or
roots. A tissues, whereas a cork cambium
produces new layers of surface tissue called cork.
The cells found in meristematic tissues are usually
small, thin-walled, and with no central vacuole and
specialized features.

Their main function is cell division
(mitosis). The cells produced by meristematic
tissues grow, mature, and differentiate into either
a dermal, ground, or vascular tissue.
Surface or Dermal Tissue Protects
Surface or dermal tissue covers and

protects the surface of the different plant
organs. The cells that make up surface tissues
are usually flattened with their top and bottom
surfaces parallel. The epidermis of the leaf is an
example of surface tissue (figure 1 - 4). The
outer cell wall of the epidermis is covered with a
layer of cuticle, which is made up of a substance
called cutin. Cutin is a waxy substance that
prevents water loss. The cuticle also protects
against bacteria and other organisms that may
cause harm to the plant. Epidermis is also found
in the outer layer of green stems, roots, flowers,
and even seeds. Root hairs are slender root
cross projections found in the epidermal cells of roots, which enable the cells to
increase the surface area of the root for absorption. Guard cells are modified
epidermal cells found on leaves that function to open or close the stomata (singular:
stoma), the leaf opening for gas exchange. During
daytime, carbon dioxide diffuses in and oxygen diffuses
out.
Cork is another example of surface tissue that

covers the outer surface of the bark of woody stems
and roots. The cork is made up of dead cork cells that
may be sloughed off. As mentioned, cork cells are
produced by the cork cambium. The cork protects the
plant from mechanical injury.

Fundamental Tissue Fills
Fundamental or ground tissues form the main bulk of plants. They fill most of
the spaces in any plant organ (figure 1 - 5). The cells that form the fundamental
tissues are involved in the production and storage of food as well as support for the
plant. Fundamental tissues are made up of three types of cells: parenchyma,
collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells (figure 1-6).
Parenchyma cells best represent a typical plant cell. They are large, thin-
walled, and usually have a large central vacuole. They are found in leaves, stems,
roots, flowers, and fruits. Parenchyma cells usually contain plastids. In areas
exposed to light, such as green leaves, chloroplastids are found where
photosynthesis takes place. In areas not exposed to light, such as stems, fruits, and
roots, colorless plastids predominate. Food storage is the main function of these
areas. Parenchyma cells are capable of cell division and could give rise to more
specialized cells, such as when roots develop from stem cuttings placed in water.
Collenchyma cells function mainly for support. They are similar in structure to
parenchyma cells except that they have a thicker cell wall, which explains their
function for support. The thickness of the cell is usually uneven and usually occurs
on the corners of the cell. They are in the stem as part of vascular bundles just
beneath the epidermis. They can be found in areas that are growing rapidly and
need to be strengthened. The leaf stalk or petiole is usually reinforced with
collenchyma cells.
Sclerenchyma cells have a thick secondary cell wall in addition to the primary
cell wall. The secondary cell wall is impregnated with lignin, an organic substance
that makes the cell wall tough and hard. Most sclerenchyma cells are nonliving and
function mainly to support the mature parts of the plant. There are two types of
sclerenchyma cells: fibers and sclereids. Fibers are long and slender, whereas
sclereids are irregular in shape. Abaca and pineapple fibers that are used to make
cloth are examples of fibers. Sclereids are responsible for the tough seed coats and
nutshells.
Vascular Tissue Transports

Vascular tissues are complex conducting tissues extending from the roots to
the leaves of plants. There are two types of vascular tissues: xylem and phloem. The
xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves via the stem. On the other
hand, the phloem transports organic nutrients in both directions along the length of
the plant. The phloem is usually located outside the xylem (figure1 - 7).
There are two types of conducting cells

found in the xylem: tracheids and vessel elements
(figure 1-8). Tracheids are elongated, hollow, and
nonliving cells with tapered ends. Water and
minerals can pass between tracheids through the
pits or depressions found in its end walls. Vessel
elements are also hollow and nonliving, but are
larger and without end walls. Vessel elements form
a continuous pipeline of water and minerals from
the roots to the leaves. In addition, the xylem also
contains parenchyma cells that store substances.
The phloem contains living conducting cells called sieve tube cells, each of
which has a companion cell. The sieve tube cells are elongated cells with few
organelles and no nucleus. The end walls of the sieve tube cells called sieve plates
are perforated, allowing cytoplasmic connections between vertically stacked cells. As
a result, the products of photosynthesis such as sugars and amino acids are
transported through sieve tube cells from the site where they are manufactured (e.g.,
leaves) to the sites where they are consumed or stored (e.g., fruits, flowers tubers,
corms, roots, leaves, and growing tips of stems.) Companion cells are believed to
control the transport activities of the sieve tube cells (figure 1 - 9).

1 – 10 Leaves
The main role of the leaves as sites for food

making in plants have been discussed in Unit 2. The
leaves are essential to the life of a plant. Without
leaves, plants will not be able to produce food and
rid themselves of excess water. The succeeding
discussion focuses this time on the structure and
morphology of leaves.
Leaves are useful for plant identification. A
leaf’s venation, blade type, arrangements, and
margins can be important identifying characteristics.
External Structure of Leaves
Leaves vary in size and shape. The slender petiole or leaf stalk is present in
the leaves of most flowering plants. It is a continuation of the stem to the rest of the
leaf. Leaves without a petiole are called sessile. The blade is the flattened, expanded
portion of the leaf. It is usually green. Some leaf blades are needle – like, as in pines,
or scale – like, as in cypresses.
Some leaves have small, leaflike stipules
as outgrowths at the base of the petiole.
Running through the center of the blade is the
midrib, which is the continuation of the petiole.
The midrib is the main structure that acts as the
backbone of the leaf and as a passage tube for
liquids between the petiole and the veins. The
veins act as the framework of the leaf and as
passage tubes for liquids between the midrib
and the blade. The veins also distinguish a
monocot leaf from a dicot leaf.
Internal Structure of Leaves
Make a thin cross section of a

gumamela leaf. Put it on a slide and examine it
under a microscope. You will see the
epidermis, the mesophyll or chlorenchyma
tissue, and the vascular tissue.
The epidermis is waterproof because of
the cuticle present on the surface of the cells.
Cutin, a fatty material, is secreted by the
epidermal cells and forms this rather

impermeable layer. Waxes are also found in the cuticle. Some epidermal cells are
kidney-shaped and called guard cells. They are situated in between pores or
openings called stomata (singular, stoma).
Recall that in your study of photosynthesis, you learned that plant cells
combine carbon dioxide and water to yield sugar. Recall, too, that like all living things
plants use oxygen for respiration. This gas enters the · plant cells through the
stomata. Aside from allowing air to get in, the stomata also allow water to exit from
the leaf.
What could happen if too much water leaves the plant? Too much evaporation
will cause the plant to wilt. To prevent this, the opening and closing of the stomata
are regulated by the guard cells. They are widely open during the day and partly or
completely closed at night.
Types of Leaves
Leaves may be simple or compound. Simple leaves have a single expanded
portion attached to a petiole, the stack that attaches the blade to the stem.
In compound leaves, the leaf blade may be subdivided into several separate
expanded parts, or leaflets. Each leaflet is attached to the rachis, which is a
continuation of the petiole. Leaves may be pinnately compound or palmately
compound (figure 1 - 14).
Leaf Venation
Leaf venation, the arrangement of veins in a
leaf, may be parallel or netted. Parallel venation is a
characteristic of most monocotyledonous plants, such
as corn, onion, and common grasses. In such plants,
numerous veins of approximately equal size extend
side by side from the base to the tip of the blade and
are interconnected by small and inconspicuous veins.
See figure 1-15 (a). Netted venation is found in
dicotyledonous plants such as santol, gumamela, rose,
mango, and others. In these plants, one or more veins
are prominent, and the smaller veins form a
conspicuous network. If a leaf has one main vein from
which the others branch off, it is termed pinnately net-veined [figure 1-15(b)].If a leaf
has several main veins extending from the base, then it is palmately net-veined
[figure 1-15(c)].

Leaf Arrangement and Phyllotaxy
The leaves on a stem are usually produced in a definite pattern. Phyllotaxy is
the system of leaf arrangement. Depending upon the species of a plant, leaves may
be arranged as follows:
1. Opposite - Leaves are arranged in pairs on each node of a stem.

Guava leaves are arranged this way.
2. Alternate or spiral - Leaves are arranged around the stem, one on each node.
Santol, atis, and star apple leaves are examples.
3. Whorled - Several leaves are arranged at a node around the stem, as in the
adelfa.
Leaf Margins
There are various types of leaf margins. The most

common, however, are the toothed or serrated, smooth, and
lobed. Can you identify some plants around you with such
types of margins?
Modified Functions of Leaves
Normally, the function of a leaf is to make food. Some leaves may be

specialized to perform other functions. Take the poinsettia as an example. When you
look at its red coloring, you will think of it as the flower structure of the plant. These
leaves are naturally colored to attract insects. Within these leaves, tiny,
inconspicuous flowers can be observed. In other plants, leaves are also modified to
store food or water, provide support for climbing modified leaves, enable pines to
plants, or even capture insects.
When you eat celery, you actually eat the petioles of the leaves. These
petioles serve to store food. Other leaves also serve as food sources for animals and
humans. Lettuce and cabbage are good examples. For grazing animals, grass
leaves provide food.

Leaves are sometimes adapted for special functions.
The bulb leaves of the onion are thickly adapted to store
food. The leaves of pine trees or conifers are modified into a
needlelike structure, which enables the plants to withstand
freezing or very cold temperatures.
Have you seen the leaves of ampalaya, cadena de

amor, or squash? If there is a grapevine farm in your area,
observe the similar structures among these plants. Their leaves are modified into
tendrils—long slender structures that curl and wrap around branches or other
objects. They support the plants as they climb (figure 1-17).
Some leaves are modified into sharp structures

called spines. If you grasp a cactus or a bougainvillea,
you will note that the presence of spines prevents you
from touching them easily. These structures protect the
plants. What other plants have spines?
Examine a hairy leaf. At times, when you touch it,

your skin gets irritated. The hairs have tiny vessels at
their tips. An is-is leaf (figure 1-18), for example, has a
hairy surface. The coarseness of the leaf makes it ideal
for cleaning pots and pans. Sometimes leaves store food
or water in their blades or petioles. Plants with these
kinds of leaves are called succulents. Like the cactus
(figure1-19),
they have
fleshy tissues that conserve water. In what
areas do you often see these types of
leaves? Why have they adapted these
structures?
Some leaves secrete certain

chemicals when insects feed on them.
The chemicals they release are poisonous
and can kill the insects. Examples of these
leaves are those of poison ivy, the
tobacco plant, and mint.

Assessment: Quiz
Matching Type: Match Column A with Column B, Column C with Column D.

Write the letter of your choice.
Column A Column B
________ 1. parenchyma A. protection
________ 2. Collenchyma B. support
________ 3. Scelerenchyma C. growth
________ 4. epidermis D. storage
________ 5. cork E. conduction
________ 6. xylem
________ 7. phloem
________ 8. meristematic
________ 9. tracheids
________ 10. sieve tubes
Column C Column D
________ 1. stipules A. flat and expanded
________ 2. leaf blade portion
________ 3. midrib B. outgrowths at the base
________ 4. apex of petiole
________ 5. veins C. tip of the leaf
________ 6. stomata D. allows gas to enter and
________ 7. chloroplast water to exit
________ 8. palisade layer E. main structure which
________ 9. spongy layer acts as backbone of
________ 10. cutin the leaf
F. passage tubes for
liquids between the
midrib and blade
G. tiny food factories of
the living world
H. region where
elongated compact
cells are found
I. fatty material secreted
by epidermis for
protection
J. regulated the opening
and closing of stomata
K. region where loosely
arranged cells are
found

The Stem

be able to:
LO1. Identify the functions of the stem.
LO2. Describe the external and internal structure of a monocot
and dicot stem.
LO3. Identify different kinds of specialized stems.
A. External Structure of a Stem
Plants differ greatly in the size and structure of stems. Trees have a tall and
thick trunk and numerous branches. Shrubs have many stems arising from the
ground. Herbs usually have soft and juicy stems. Vines have stems that cannot
maintain an upright position; they lean on something for support. Some vines have
soft stems, while some are woody. A woody vine is called a liana. Some vines climb,
while others creep.
How does a climbing vine differ from a creeping vine? Confer with the other
students in your class regarding Activity 8-9. Among all the plants observed, which
were most numerous: trees, shrubs, herbs or vines?
Figure 2 - 1 shows the external parts of a stem. It has nodes to which leaves
are attached. The region between two successive nodes is called internode. Refer to
the Figure 2-2. The upper angle formed between the leaf stalk and the stem from
which it grows is called axil. A bud usually grown at the axil. A bud is a mass of
tissue which develops into leaves or a flower.

Some stems, especially the young stems, are green and perform
photosynthesis. How is this possible? For as long as the cells near the surface of the
stem are alive and have chlorophyll, they are capable of performing photosynthesis.
Just as leaves have stomata, woody stems have lenticels. These are tiny spots
along the surface or the stem where the cells are loosely arranged. See Figure 2-3.
The interchange of gases along the woody stem takes place in the lenticels.
Internal Structure of the Stem
The outermost layer of cells is the epidermis. Like the epidermis of the leaf, it
is made up of a single layer of cells. The cells are flat and closely packed together.
They are colorless, except for the green guard cells. The guard cells are cutinized.
(8) Can you infer the functions of the epidermis from this description?
As the stem grows older, the stomata are replaced by lenticels. The loose
arrangement of the cells which make up the lenticels provides for an easy exchange
of gases between the stem and the atmosphere. In older dicot stems, particularly
trees, the epidermal cells are replaced by cork cells. The thick walls of cork cells
contain a waxy material called suberin. Thus, the thin epidermis of a young dicot
stem becomes replaced by a thick corky bark as it matures.
The region next to the epidermis of a young dicot stem is called cortex. It is
made up of thin-walled parenchyma cells which contain chloroplasts and are
therefore capable of manufacturing food. As the stem grows older, the cortex
disappears.

Underneath the cortex is the central region called stele. At the center of the
stele are large parenchyma cells which function as storage tissue; this area is called
pith. Around the pith are fibrovascular bundles. In the young dicot stems, the
vascular bundles are arranged in the form of a broken ring. Each vascular bundle
consists of xylem tissue toward the center and phloem tissue toward the outside.
The vascular bundle of a dicot stem has a single layer of cells, called cambium layer,
between the xylem and phloem. By repeated cell divisions, the cambium layer forms
either phloem or xylem cells. In Figure 2-5, the cambium layer is represented by the
thin line which separates the xylem and phloem.
The epidermis of the monocot stem is similar in structure and function to that
of the dicot stem. Beneath the epidermis is a very thin cortex; it is hardly noticeable.
It is made up of thick-walled sclerenchyma cells.
Covering almost the entire diameter of the stem are large, thin-walled
parenchyma cells which store water or manufactured food. The fibrovascular
bundles are scattered throughout the area. As in the dicot stem, a vascular bundle
consists of xylem and phloem tissues. However, unlike in the dicot stem, there is no
cambium layer between the xylem and phloem. Thus, no new xylem and phloem
cells are formed in mature monocot stems.
Refer to Figure 2-4. We used this diagram in chapter 4 to show the
distribution of fibrovascular bundles in stems of dicots and monocots. We are using it
in this chapter to show the internal structures of dicot and monocot stems.
The young dicot stem in diagram A has a
thin epidermis. It has fibrovascular bundles, which
consist of phloem cells, and xylem vessels. As
mentioned in section 8-1, these are the tissues
through which substances travel in the plant body.
The rest of the cross section is composed of
relatively large and thin-walled cells.
The structure of the monocot stem in
diagram B looks similar to that in diagram A, except
for the distribution of fibrovascular bundles. In the
monocot stem, these are scattered throughout the
cross section. On the other hand, they are arranged
in a circular pattern in the dicot stem.
Figure 2-4, A is the diagram of a very young
dicot stem. As the stem matures, many changes
happen. These are illustrated in Figure 2-5 A. They
include the following.
a. The vascular bundles become joined
together
b. The pith becomes smaller and may
eventually disappear.
c. The thin epidermis soon becomes
replaced by a corky bark in large dicot
plants.

Cork cells are formed by repeated divisions of the cork cambium which is
found beneath the epidermis. The main regions of the cross section of a dicot stem
are outlined below.
REGIONS OF A DICOT STEM
I. EPIDERMIS, which becomes replaced by a BARK in large woody plants

II. CORTEX
III. STELE, which consists of a. Phloem tissue
b. Xylem tissue
c. Pith
In dicot trees, the entire region inside the cambium is referred to as "wood",
while that found outside is the “bark”. Usually, more xylem cells are formed than
phloem cells. That is why a tree has greater wood than bark.
Refer again to Figure 2-4. Diagram B shows the following characteristics of a

monocot stem which make it different from a dicot stem.
a. The fibrovascular bundles are scattered throughout the pith.

b. The fibrovascular bundles remain separate from one another.
c. There is no cambium between the xylem and phloem.
d. There is no clear distinction between the cortex and the pith.
The pith of monocot stems usually persists. It may be laden with juice, as in
sugarcane. It may also disappear altogether, as in bamboo.
Functions of the Stem
The stem provides the means of attachment for the leaves. The arrangement
of leaves on the stem is an adaptation for maximum exposure to light and air. The
stem also supports flowers and fruits.

Xylem Tissue
Besides mechanical support, a very important function of the stem is

conduction of substances. Water travels from the roots and up the stem and leaves
through xylem vessels. How is this possible? How does the structure of xylem tissue
permit it to perform its functions of support and conduction?
Xylem tissue includes several types of cells, such as the following:
a. Tracheids
b. Wood fibers
c. Vessels
Refer to Figure 2-7. Diagram A shows a tracheid. Notice that it is elongated;

its walls are thick and have thin areas called pits, through which water can diffuse in
and out. The thick cell wall provides rigidity to the stem. The pits allow the movement
of water to neighboring cells. Thus, tracheids are useful to plants for mechanical
support and conduction of water and dissolved minerals.
Look at Figure 2-7, B; it is a wood fiber. Like a tracheid, a wood fiber has thick
walls; in fact, its walls are thicker. It is mainly for support. As mentioned in section 8-
1, fibers have many economic uses to man.
Look at Figure 2-7, C. It shows two kinds of xylem vessels. In one, the
thickening of the wall is in the form of rings; in in diameter, the wall becomes thicker.
The the other, it is in the form of a spiral. The rest of the wall is thin and allows
diffusion of water to neighboring cells. Vessels are mostly for conduction. They are
actually very fine tubes that extend from the roots, up the stem, and then the leaf
veins. How are such long tubes formed?

Movement of Water Through the Stem
Water generally enters the plant through the roots. Water from the soil
diffuses into the epidermal cells of the roots, then the cells of the cortex, until it
reaches the xylem vessels of the root. The movement of water up to this point is by
cell – to – cell diffusion.
What happens next once the water is inside the xylem vessels? There is
attraction between the molecules of water and the molecules along the wall of the
xylem vessel. We use the term adhesion for the attraction between the molecules of
two different substances. Because of adhesion, the water rises to the sides of the
fine tube. There is also attraction among the molecules of water. We use the term
cohesion for the attraction among the molecules of a substance. Because of
cohesion, the molecules of water at the center of the tube are pulled up by the
molecules of water clinging to the wall of the tube. Thus, adhesion and cohesion
explain how water rises through a very fine tube such as a xylem vessel. The whole
process is known as capillary action, or capillarity.
However, capillary action is not sufficient to bring the water from the roots all
the way up the stem. In the preceding demonstration of capillary action, up to what
height in the finest glass tubing did the water rise? What was the diameter of the
glass tubing? The height of the column of water depends upon the diameter of the
tube. Did you notice in the demonstration that the finer the tube, the higher was the
column of water? But the water in a tube does not rise very high; this is because of
the weight of the air which pushes down on the surface of the column of water. The
same thing is true inside the xylem vessels. Another factor is responsible for bringing
up the water all the way to the leaves. This factor is transpiration. As water escapes
from the leaves, the water below replaces it. Hence, there is a continuous column of
water inside xylem vessel, as long as there is a constant supply of water from the
roots. The general direction of the flow of water in the plant is, therefore, upward.
Phloem Tissue
A phloem tissue may contain the following cells:
a. Sieve tube
b. Companion cell
c. Phloem fiber d. Parenchyma
A sieve tube is an unusual plant cell. It has a cytoplasm, but it does not have
a nucleus when mature. The nucleus disintegrates as the cell matures. The end wall
between two sieve tubes has very tiny holes, so that the two cells are connected by
thin threads of cytoplasm. This is where dissolved food diffuses from one cell to the
next.
A companion cell has both cytoplasm and nucleus. Phloem fibers are thick-
walled cells which protect and support the thin-walled sieve tubes. Companion cells

and phloem fibers are not found in all plants. They are usually present in higher
seed-bearing plants.
Movement of Food through the Stem
The principle of diffusion. The molecules of a substance spreads through a

container from a place where they are many to where they are few or absent. This is
essentially what happens with the food manufactured by the cells of the leaf or the
young stem. The dissolved food diffuses from the thin-walled cells of the leaf to
adjacent cells until it reaches the veins.
What happens next once the food is inside the sieve tubes? The dissolved
food diffuses from one cell to the next through) the fine threads of cytoplasm
connecting the column of sieve tubes. Usually, the direction of flow is from the leaf
cells where the food is manufactured downward to the stem and roots. In the roots,
the dissolved food may be converted by enzymes into starch, which is insoluble in
water, and stored for future use. This is what happens in plants which we call root
crops, such as sweet potato (kamote) and radish (labanos). When the plant fails to
manufacture food later, such as when there is insufficient sunlight or water, the plant
makes use of the food stored in the roots. The starch is acted upon by enzymes and
converted back to sugar; the latter is soluble in water. The dissolved food is again
transported through the sieve tubes back to the upper parts of the plant.
The discussion above cites the following differences between the movement of water
through xylem vessels and that of dissolved food through phloem tissue.
a. A xylem vessel is filled with a column of water that actually moves in a
continuous upward flow. On the other hand, in the phloem, the
cytoplasm remains inside the sieve tubes. Only the molecules of food
diffuse from one cell to the next.
b. The general direction of the movement of water is upward from the
roots to the leaves. On the other hand, that of dissolved food is
downward from the leaves to the roots. Furthermore, dissolved food
travels in either direction, downward or upward, depending on which of
two succeeding sieve tubes has fewer molecules of dissolved food

Specialized Stems
Look at Figure 2-9. It shows stems

that look different from our usual idea of a
stem. Their modified structure permits them
to perform some functions other than or in
addition to conduction of substances and
mechanical support.
As pointed out in section 8-1, tendrils
and thorns may be specialized stems or
leaves depending on their origin. When a
tendril or a thorn arises from the axil of a leaf,
it is a modified stem. Refer to Figure 8-23 for
the meaning of leaf axil. Thus, the tendrils of
squash, bitter gourd (ampalaya, or
Momordica charantia), and grapes are
specialized stems. Tendrils support soft
stems. The thorns of pomelo (suha, or Citrus
grandis) are specialized stems. (10) What
special function do thorns perform for the
plant?
Compare the potato, taro (gabi, or
Colocasia esculenta) and ginger. These
three have thick stems which store food.
How do we know they are stems? All of them
have nodes. The "eyes", of potato are nodes;
buds grow there,
Ginger exemplifies the type of modified stem known as rhizome; this is a thick
stem which grows horizontally beneath the ground and which stores food. Taro
exemplifies the type of modified stem known as corn; this is a short and thick stem
which grows upright beneath the ground; it has dry and scaly leaves at the nodes.
Potato exemplifies the type of modified stem known as tuber; this is a short and thick
stem which grows beneath the ground and is held by a slender rhizome, Rhizomes,
corms and tubers store food.
Look at the stem of Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) in Figure 8-33. How is
it similar to the rhizome of ginger? Note that both of them grow horizontally.
However, the rhizome grows beneath the ground, while the stem of the grass grows
above the ground. The stem of the grass exemplifies the type known as runner, or
stolon; this is a stem which grows horizontally on the surface of the ground and
produces new plants by growing roots and buds at the nodes.
The cactus has a versatile stem which performs many functions. The cells
near surface manufacture food. Those toward the center of the stem store food and
water.

(11) Summarize our discussion of specialized stems by completing the table
below.
Plant Specialized Stem Function

Squash tendril support
Pomelo thorn protection
Ginger rhizome stored food
Τaro corn storage food
Potato tuber store food
Bermuda grass stolon reproduction
Cactus (green and fleshy) photosynthesis, storage
Assessment: Quiz
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your choice on the space provided before the
number
_________ 1. What happens to a young dicot stem when it grows old?

a. vascular bundles become joined together
b. pith becomes smaller and may eventually disappear
c. epidermis becomes replaced by a corky bark
d. all of the above
_________ 2. Which of the following is NOT a function of the stem?

a. conduction of substance
b. anchorage and absorption
c. supports flowers and fruits
d. provide means for attachment of leaves
_________ 3. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE in Monocot stems?

a. presence of epidermis and cortex
b. presence of vascular bundles
c. presence of pith
d. presence of cambium layer
_________ 4. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE in Dicot stems?

a. vascular bundles are arranged in the form of a broken ring
b. presence of cambium layer between the xylem and phloem
c. the cortex disappears as the stem grows old

d. vascular bundles are scattered throughout the pith
_________ 5. This commonly circular marks determines the age of the tree.
a. cambium layer b. annual rings c. summer wood d. spring
wood
_________ 6. These have tall and thick trunks and numerous branches.
a. Trees b. shrubs c. Herbs d. vines
_________ 7. The upper angle formed between the leaf stalk and the stem.
a. axil b. node c. internode d. bud
_________ 8. The interchange of gases along the woody stems takes place in the
_______?
a. lenticels b. stomata c. guard cells d. nodes
_________ 9. The following are parts of xylem tissue EXCEPT:

a. tracheids b. sieve tube c. wood fiber d. vessels
_________ 10. The region between two successive nodes is called_________?

a. nodes b. internodes c. axil d. bud
_________ 11. Potato stores food. It is a specialized stem called_______?

a. tuber b. rhizome c. corn d. tendril
_________ 12. Ampalaya and squash have outgrowths on their axils for support.
They have specialized stems called_________?
a. tuber b. tendrils c. stolon d. rhizome
_________ 13. Strawberry and bermuda grasses have extended plantlet outgrowths
on their stems called__________?
a. tendrils b. runners c. thorn d. rhizome
_________ 14. Thorns of pomelo functions for__________?

a. protection b. storage of food c. support d. reproduction
_________ 15. The general direction of movement of water is from the roots
to the leaves.
a. upward b. downward c. transverse d. cell to cell diffusion

_________ 16. This layer of the dicot stem is responsible in the increase in the
diameter of the stem.
a. cambium layer b. vascular bundle c. cortex d. pith
The Roots

be able to:
LO1. Identify the primary function of the roots.
LO2. Identify the internal parts of the roots and correlate their
functions.
LO3. Identify the regions of the root and its functions.
A. Roots and Root Systems
Try to uproot a wild grass. Notice how firmly it is

attached to the ground. Note also the tremendous fibers of
roots at the base of the stem. Do you remember any plant
with the same type of root structure? If you do not,
observe other plants with a similar root structure, such as
corn or squash. The root system of a single squash plant
was measured and the total length of all its roots put
together was about 26 kilometers. Other plants have even
larger root systems, reaching up to over 600 kilometers
long!
This may be hard to believe if your idea of a plant's
roots is limited to the large roots of a tree that are partly
visible above the ground. Try to imagine how the roots
under the ground spread out to form a circular area as
wide as the circular area of the branches above the
ground.

Types of Root System
The roots of grass or any weed at the base of its stem constitute a fibrous root
system. See figure 3-2(a). Some fibrous root systems do not penetrate deeply into
the soil but extend to a distance outward from the base of the plant. Other fibrous
systems have greater depths, the cluster of roots forming a rather uniform mass as
they penetrate the soil. See figure 3-2(b). Examples of plants with fibrous roots are
grass, corn, rice, and beans.
In some plants, the primary root becomes large, long, and slender, with short
lateral rootlets. This is a taproot system (figure 3-2(c)]. Taproots usually grow deep
into the ground [figure 3-2(d)]. An example is alfalfa. Some taproots become very
large and fleshy. They serve as the storage of food for some plants. Examples are
beets and carrots. They are called fleshy taproots. A plant may have a taproot that is
about 4 meters or more in length.
Other Kinds of Roots
Roots that grow from stems or leaves are called adventitious roots. See figure
3-3(a). Examples are the roots of katakataka, pandan, corn, and rubber tree.
Brace or prop roots grow from the nodes of the corn plant. They grow in
circles and help support the plant. See figure 30-3(b). Sugarcane also has brace
roots.
Vines have climbing roots found along the stems that cling to the walls and
other means of support. See figure 3-3(c). They also have ordinary ground roots.
Examples are ampalaya, squash, upo, and cadena de amor.
Propagation roots are found in plants where roots develop on the stem when
placed in the soil or water, and new plants grow. See figure 3-3(d). Examples of
these are begonias, San Francisco, and climbing trees.

Functions of Roots
Anchorage
When you pulled the weeds from your garden, you

must have felt how easy it was to pull them out compared
to bigger plants. Roots anchor the plant to the ground.
Taproots also grow deep into the ground and serve the
same purpose-anchorage.
Absorption
Roots absorb water and minerals salts from the soil

through diffusion or active transport. The complex system
of branching roots and root hairs makes possible the
efficient absorption of these substances. Most of the water
and dissolved minerals enter the plant through the root
hairs. See figure 3-5. However, the cells of the root hairs
cannot get enough mineral ions from the soil by diffusion alone that is why active
transport must occur. Specific carrier proteins in the plasma membrane attract and
carry minerals into the cell.
Nitrogen Fixation
Plants need nitrogen, sulfur, and

phosphorous to build protein.
Although nitrogen is readily available in
the air, plants are unable to utilize them directly.
Some roots have nodules that contain bacteria
that convert atmospheric nitrogen into a form that
they can use. This is true of the makahiya and
other leguminous plants (see figure 3-6). What
other leguminous plants do you know?

Storage
All roots have a small amount of food stored temporarily
in them. This food is usually stored as insoluble starch.
Can you name some native plants that have greatly
enlarged storage roots?
Conduction
Roots conduct water, mineral salts, and, sometimes, stored food to the stems
and leaves.
Structure of Roots
Longitudinal Section-Growth in Length
If you cut a root by slicing across the length of the specimen you have a
longitudinal section. See figure 3-8. If you examine a longitudinal section of the root
tip under a microscope you will see the following areas (from the bottom to the top):
the root cap, the meristematic region, the region of elongation, and the maturation
region.
The root cap performs the following functions:
1. It covers and protects the delicate growing tip of the roots from injury
and damage.
2. It continuously shed cells that facilitate the growth of the root through
the soil.
3. It gives off carbon dioxide to the soil. Carbon dioxide mixes with water,
forming carbonic acid, which dissolves minerals in the soil. It corrodes
rocks, thus helping the young roots to force their way through the soil.

In the meristematic region, cells divide actively. They add
new cells to the root cap and to the region of elongation.
Rapid growth in root length is largely the result of the
elongation of cells. The zone of elongation is located 1 to 3
millimeters above the meristem. In this zone, cells stop dividing,
but the cell walls expand and vacuoles increase in size, making
the cells longer. This growth increases the capacity of the root to
push deeper into the soil. It is also responsible for the increase in
the length of the root.
The zone of maturation, just above the zone of elongation,
has cells that are almost uniform in structure. These cells begin
to differentiate and develop into many tissues. The outermost
tissue becomes the epidermis. Projecting from the epidermis and
into the soil are tiny, fingerlike fuzzy growths called root hairs.
(Refer to figures 3-5, 3-8, and 3-10.) One root hair grows from
the epidermal cell. Millions of root hairs in a single plant increase
the surface area of its root system.
Cross Section of Primary Root Tissues

Cut a root crosswise at its region of maturation. Refer to figure 3-11 and study
the structure of a primary root.
The outermost tissue from which the root hairs extend
is the epidermis. This tissue is for protection and absorption.
Inside this outer covering is the cortex. It consists of a wide
area of loosely packed parenchyma cells and functions mainly
for storage of food. It also serves to diffuse water and minerals
to the vascular cylinder.
The innermost layer of cells in the cortex forms a

circular area called the endodermis. It serves as a boundary
layer, separating the cortex from the vascular cylinder. It also
controls the movement of substances between the cortex and
the interior tissues of the root. This function is made possible

by the presence of a Casparian strip, or cells with a waxy substance in their walls.
Between the endodermis and the vascular cylinder is the pericycle. It is
composed of parenchyma cells. This area serves as the origin of secondary growth,
like the branch roots. The vascular tissues xylem and phloem are located within the
pericycle.
Secondary Growth in Roots

You have probably eaten roots like carrots, radishes, turnips, sweet potatoes,
and beet? Make a cross-sectional cut by slicing across the width of either a carrot or
a raddish. Observe its structure.
Observe the inner edge of the phloem tissue. Locate a ring of dark-colored
tissue. This is the cambium, otherwise known as growth tissue. It divides rapidly and
increases the diameter of the root. It produces a vast area of phloem tissue toward
the outside, and xylem tissue toward the inside.
The roots of a tree, unlike a carrot root, have more xylem (or wood) than
phloem tissue.
A tree also develops a barklike, corky layer on the outside of its older roots.
The widening in diameter of a root is called secondary growth. In trees like the
acacia, or shrubs like the gumamela, the root cells are formed by secondary growth.
Secondary growth is initiated when the older portions of the plants have stopped
elongating. The end result of which is an increased amount of vascular tissue. When
a plant grows taller and larger, more vascular tissue is needed for water conduction
and transport of nutrients.
Assessment: Quiz
number.
__________ 1. Which of the following describes the roots?
a. Spread far from the plants to take in large amounts of water.
b. Transport water and solutes from the leaves to roots.
c. Receive sunlight for photosynthesis.
d. Attracts pollinators.
__________ 2. Which of the following is the primary function of the roots?

a. Anchorage and absorption
b. Nitrogen fixation
c. Storage
d. Conduction
__________ 3. What kind of roots system extend to a distance outward from the
base of the plant but not necessarily penetrate deep into the soil?
a. fleshy taproot b. fibrous root c. long taproot d. climbing root
__________ 4. What kind of root system where primary roots becomes large and
long penetrates deep into the ground?
a. fleshy taproot b. fibrous root c. long taproot d. prop roots
__________ 5. What region of the root covers and protects the delicate growing tip
of the roots from injury and damage?
a.Meristematic region b. root cap c. elongation region d. maturation
region
__________ 6. What region of the root cells divide actively?
a. Meristematic region b. root cap c. elongation region d. maturation
region
__________ 7. What region of the root cells begin to differentiate and develop into
many tissued?
a.Meristematic region b. root cap c. elongation region d. maturation
region
__________ 8. Which part of the maturation region are extensions of epidermal cells
which absorbs more water effectively from the soil?
a.Root cap b. root hairs c. meristematic cells d. elongated cells
__________ 9. Part of the root which controls the movement of substances between
the cortex and the interior tissues of the roots.
a.cortex b. endodermis c. pericycle d. epidermis
__________ 10. What layer of cells have waxy substance in their walls which control
the movement of the substances between the cortex and interior
tissues?
a.Casparian strip b. endodermis c. pericycle d. epidermis
__________ 11. This area serves as the origin of secondary growth and where
xylem and phloem are located.
a.Endodermis b. pericycle c. epidermis d. cortex
__________ 12. Composed of loosely packed parenchyma cells and functions
mainly for food storage.
a.Epidermis b. cortex c. epidermis d. pericycle
__________ 13. Responsible for the increase in diameter of the root.
a.Cambium layer b. casparian strip c. bark d. wood
__________ 14. The widening in diameter of a root is called?
a.primary growth
b. secondary growth
c. vascular cambium growth
d. internal growth
__________ 15. Roots of katakataka, pandan, corn are called?
e. climbing roots

f. adventitious roots
g. propagation roots
h. buttress roots
The Flower

be able to:
LO1. Identify the primary function of the flower
LO2. Describe variations in Flower structure.
LO3. Describe Pollen tube Growth, Fertilization and Seed

Development

A. Flower Structure and Activities
A flower is not a single organ, but is a branch bearing leaflike and stemlike parts
on a short axis. The onset of flowering is determined by heredity, photoperiods, food
reserves, and often critical temperatures. Before the onset of flowering, a plant is
thought to synthesize a flower-initiating hormone which has been called florigen even
though the presence of this hormone has never been proved.
Flowers, like other types of twigs, develop from buds. Flowers develop from
flower-buds (e.g., in morning-glories, roses) or from mixed buds (e.g., in buckeye).
Floral organs develop as protuberances from the growing tip of a bud in basipetal
order, i.e., from the apex downward. The tip of a floral twig does not elongate as
much as the tip of a vegetative twig. As a result, the floral organs are crowded at the
apex of the twig, and not distributed along the twig as leaves are.
A. THE PARTS OF A COMPLETE FLOWER
A complete flower bears four kinds of floral organs (Fig. 15/1). The tip of the floral
twig to which these organs are attached is the receptacle. The four organs are
sepals, petals, stamens, and pistil.

Sepals. This outermost circle of leaves, known collectively as the calyx, is usually
green in color, or is sometimes the same color as the petals. Sepals protect the inner
parts of the flower in the bud.
Petals. This circle of organs lies inside the sepals, and is called collectively the
corolla. They are frequently brightly colored, and often secrete aromatic substances
and nectar (concentrated sugar solution). Petals attract insects, which are necessary
for pollination of many flowers. The numbers of sepals and of petals are usually the
same in the same species.
Stamens. These floral organs are situated inside the petals. A stamen consists of
a stalk (filament), with a pollen-bearing anther at its apex.
Pistil. A structure in the center of the flower, the pistil is composed of one organ
(simple pistil) or of several fused organs (compound pistil). An ovule-bearing organ is
a carpel. A pistil has a base (ovary), with a stalk (style) arising from the ovary, and a
slight enlargement (stigma) at the top of the style. Within the ovary the undeveloped
seeds (ovules) are produced. The ovules are attached to placentae inside the ovary,
The sepals and petals are known as accessory parts, since they are not directly
concerned with reproduction. The stamens and pistil (s) are the essential parts of a
flower.
B. VARIATIONS IN FLOWER STRUCTURE
Flowers differ from one another in many ways. From comparative studies of
living and fossil types, and from consideration of varying complexities, botanists have
tentatively concluded that floral variations offer evidence of the degree of
advancement of a species, and tell something of its evolutionary relationships with
other species. In the following list of variations, the more primitive (or ancient)
condition is given first, followed by the more advanced (or modern, or derived)
condition. Generally, but not necessarily, the more primitive condition is structurally
simpler than the modern condition. Evolution has generally been toward complexity;
but when & simpler condition (as in imperfect flowers) is usually accompanied by a
high degree of complexity, then the structurally simpler condition may be considered
advanced. The most obvious variations-size, shape, color--are thought to be
relatively unimportant in evolutionary schemes.
1. A complete flower (e.g., rose) has four kinds of flower parts. An
incomplete flower lacks one or more of these kinds of parts (e.g., elm,
wheat).
2. A perfect flower has both stamens and pistil (e.g., rose). An imperfect
flower has stamens or pistil, but not both (e.g., willow, corn). A
monoecious plant has stamen-bearing and pistil-bearing flowers on the
same plant (e.g., corn). A dioecious plant has staminate flowers on one
plant, pistillate on another (e.g., willow).
3. The numbers of flower parts vary. Dicots have their flower parts in
fives, fours, or twos, less frequently in threes. Monocots usually have
their flower parts in threes or in multiples of three.

4. Flower parts may be completely separate, or they may be fused in
varying degree. Floral organs of the same kind may be fused together
(connation), or to the floral organs of another type (adnation).
5. F
l
o
w
e
r
s
w
i
t
h
r
a
d
i
al symmetry, called regular flowers (e.g. roses and tulips), are built on
a wheel-like basis. Flowers with bilateral symmetry, called irregular
flowers (e.g., snapdragons and orchids), can be divided along a single
plane to produce two halves which are mirror images of each other.
6. In hypogynous flowers (e.g., tulip), the sepals, petals, and stamens are
attached to the receptacle under the ovary, which is said to be
superior. In perigynous flowers (e.g., cherry), the pistil is in the bottom
of a concave receptacle to the edges of which the sepals, stamens,
and petals are attached; in such a flower, the ovary may be superior or
half-inferior (Fig.
7. 4/2). In epigynous flowers (e.g., honeysuckle), the pistil is sunken into
the receptacle, with sepals, petals, and stamens attached above the
ovary, which is termed inferior.
8. The parts of a flower may be produced on the receptacles in spirals,
(as in tulip poplars and magnolias); or they may be produced in circles
or whorls (as in apples).
9. Flowers may be borne singly (tulips. magnolias) or in clusters
(inflorescences), as in snapdragons or composites. In composites (e.g.,
sunflowers) the individual flowers are minute and are borne in large
numbers on a flattened disc; the central flowers (disc-flowers) of the
disc have small radial corollas, the marginal flowers (ray-flowers) have
large, bilateral corollas. Such an inflorescence comprising numerous
small flowers is called a head and is found also in daisies, asters,
chrysanthemums, etc. The stalk of an inflorescence, from which the
pedicels of individual flowers branch, is the peduncle. In solitary
flowers, the stalk is the peduncle.
C. POLLINATION

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a stamen to a stigma. It is brought about
by wind, water, and by animals--insects, birds, bats, etc. Most important agents are
wind and insects. Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the stamen to the
stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on the same plant.
Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma on another plant.
Insect and wind pollinated flowers differ structurally. Insect pollinated flowers
have conspicuous petals, usually produce odors or nectar or both, have small or
moderate-sized stigmas, and moderate amounts of pollen, which is often sticky; wind
pollinated flowers lack conspicuous petals, are usually odorless and nectarless, have
large, flat, or hairy stigmas, and large amounts of light, dry pollen (willows, grasses).
Many kinds of plants have various devices to ensure cross-pollination. Some of
these devices are:
1. Imperfect flowers.
2. Difference in time of maturation of stamens and stigma of the same flower.
3. Chemical incompatibility between stigma and pollen. Pollen grains will not
germinate on stigmas on the same plant, or the pollen tube cannot grow to
reach the ovule, or the young embryo fails to develop.
4. Specialized structural devices-spring arrangements (e.g., Salvia), peculiarities
of style and stamen structure (e.g., primrose, etc.)
D. THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN GRAINS AND OVULES
Pollen Grains. An anther usually contains four

masses of sporogenous tissue, each mass being the
forerunner of an anther sac. The diploid cells of the
sporogenous tissue are the microspore mother cells. They
undergo meiosis (Chap. 12), with the result that a quartet
or tetrad of cells is produced, each being a microspore.
The microspores separate from one another, each one
forms a thick wall around itself, and its haploid nucleus
undergoes a mitotic division. The final product is a pollen
grain with two nuclei. One nucleus, the tube nucleus,
serves no known function and is presumably a remnant of
earlier times in the evolution of flowering plants. The
second nucleus, the generative nucleus, is destined to
undergo another mitotic division later to produce two
sperm nuclei (Fig. 4/3).
Pollen grains are variously colored (orange, yellow,
red, brown, purple) and variously sculptured with pores,
spines, streaks, and indentations. The morphology of
pollen is so distinctive for each kind of plant that fossilized
pollen from ancient forests can be identified, and the old
flora (and consequently the old climates) from the
geological past can be reconstructed.

Ovules. An ovary may be simple (composed of one element or carpel, as in peas
and beans) or compound (composed of more than one carpel, as in oranges).
Cavities in the ovary (locules) contain protruding masses of tissue (the ovules),
which will develop into seeds. Each ovule is attached by a stalk (funiculus) to the
ovary at a region called the placenta (Fig. 15/4).
In each ovule, one cell is conspicuously different from the surrounding cells,
usually much larger. This cell is the megaspore mother cell. It undergoes meiosis,
producing four haploid megaspores in a row. Three of these megaspores usually
abort, while the fourth megaspore enlarges greatly and then undergoes three mitotic
divisions to yield eight haploid nuclei in 3 fluid-filled embryo sac.
An ovule is covered by two layers of cells; the integuments, except at one place,
usually near the connection of the funiculus. The gap in the integuments is the
micropyle through which the pollen tube enters the embryo sac. The integuments
later become the seed coats. The eight nuclei in an embryo sac are usually disposed
as follows: (1) three are near the micropyle, one being the egg nucleus or female
gamete, the other two (the synergids) disintegrate; (2), three nuclei (the antipodals)
at the end opposite the micropyle also disintegrate; (3) the remaining two (the polar
nuclei) combine to make a diploid nucleus. As with most biological sequences, this
one is subject to great variation, but it is essentially constant in the following
features: reduction division in the megaspore mother cell, formation of a haploid egg
nucleus, and production of a second nucleus (diploid or otherwise). (Fig. 4/5.)

E. POLLEN TUBE GROWTH, FERTILIZATION AND SEED DEVELOPMENT
Following the landing of a pollen grain on a stigma, which is often covered by a

sticky fluid, hairs, or roughened protuberances which hold the pollen grains, the
following incidents occur in order:
1. The pollen grain swells and germinates, and forms a pollen tube which,
growing down through the style by digesting some of the stylar cells or by
growth through a stylar canal, enters the ovary. The growth of the pollen tube
may be controlled by the tube nucleus. (Figs. 4/3, 4/5.)
2. A pollen tube enters the micropyle of an ovule in the ovary and discharges
into the embryo sac two sperm nuclei, which develop from the division of the
generative nucleus.
3. One haploid sperm nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus, thus forming
a diploid zygote, or "fertilized egg."
4. The second sperm nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid
endosperm nucleus, the result of triple fusion. This behavior of both sperms is
known as double fertilization.
5. The tube nucleus, synergids, and antipodals disintegrate.
6. The zygote, by numerous cell divisions, develops into the embryo of the seed.
7. The endosperm nucleus develops by numerous cell divisions into the
endosperm (food storage) tissue of the seed.
8. The integuments become the seed coats of the seed.
9. Following fertilization, the ovary and its ovules increase in size. In a few
plants, fruits develop without fertilization (e.g., navel orange, banana,
pineapple), a condition known as parthenocarpy.
10. Development of fruit is dependent on the presence of auxin, supplied
naturally by pollen or artificially by spray.

Assessment: Quiz
Test I. Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your choice on the space provided before
the number.
________ 1. The primary function of flowers is __________?

a. pollination c. fertilization
b. reproduction d. seed development
________ 2. A flower which has all the parts accessory or essential parts are
present is said to be __________.
a. complete c. imperfect
b. incomplete d. perfect
________ 3. A flower which lacks any of those parts whether essential or accessory
is said to be ____________.
a. Complete c. imperfect
b. Incomplete d. perfect
________ 4. A flower which has both stamen and pistil.
a. perfect c. complete
b. imperfect d. incomplete
________ 5. When the lacking part happens to be an essential part, the flower is
said to be __________.
a. complete c. imperfect
b. incomplete d. perfect
________ 6. Outermost circle of leaves usually green in color and protect inner parts
of the flower.
a. petals c. pistil
b. sepals d. stamen
________ 7. Frequently brightly colored and often secrete aromatic substances and
nectar.
a. petals c. pistil
b. sepals d. stamen

________ 8. The male reproductive part consists of filament with a pollen-bearing
anther.
a. petals c. pistil
b. sepals d. stamen
________ 9. The female reproductive part consists of stigma, style and ovary.
a. petals c. pistil
b. sepals d. stamen
________ 10. In hypogynous flowers, the sepals, petals and stamens are attached
to the receptacle under the ovary which is said to be __________.
a. superior c. half - superior
b. inferior d. half – inferior
________ 11. In epigynous flowers, the pistil is sunken into the receptacle with
sepals, petals and stamens attached above the ovary is said to be
__________.
a. superior c. half - superior
b. inferior d. half – inferior
________ 12. Flowers with radial symmetry which are built on a wheel – like basis
like roses are called ________ flowers.
a. irregular c. incomplete
b. regular d. complete
________ 13. Flowers with bilateral symmetry like orchids can be divided along a
single plane to produce two halves which are mirror images of each
other is said to be ____________.
a. irregular c. incomplete
b. regular d. complete
________ 14. The transfer of pollen from the stamen to the stigma of the same
flower.
a. Self – pollination c. pollination
b. Cross - pollination d. pollen tube
________ 15. The transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma on another plant.
a. Self – pollination c. pollination
b. Cross – pollination d. pollen tube
TEST II. (For 10 pts.) Describe Pollen Tube Growth, Fertilization and Seed
Development

The Fruits and Seeds

be able to:
LO1. Identify the different kinds of fruits.
LO2. Describe the parts of the seed and its functions.
LO3. Identify external and internal conditions affecting seed

germination.

Figure 5 – 1 – DIFFERENT KINDS OF FRUITS
A. Fruits and Seeds

A fruit is a matured ovary; & seed is a matured ovule. Often fruits have adhering
to them other floral parts. Such fruits are called accessory fruits.
A. FRUITS
The cavities of a fruit, within which the seeds are produced, are locules. The wall
of a ripened ovary is the pericarp. The pericarp consists of three layers of tissue
which are not always distinguishable: the outermost wall, or exocarp, is usually only
one cell thick, the mesocarp, or middle wall, is thicker than the exocarp and contains
the conducting tissues; the endocarp, or innermost tissue, surrounds the locules.
(Fig. 5 - 1.)
Fruits are classified as follows:

Simple Fruits. A simple fruit develops from a single ovary of a single flower.
Fleshy Fruits. These simple fruits are soft and pulpy at maturity.
Berry. The entire pericarp becomes soft and fleshy (e.g., grape, tomato, banana,
watermelon, orange).
Drupe. The exocarp and mesocarp are soft and fleshy, the endocarp becomes
hard and stony (pit). Inside the pit is usually one seed (sometimes two or three),
(e.g., peach, cherry).
Dry Fruits. These are dry and hard or papery at maturity.
Dry fruits are of two kinds-dehiscent and indehiscent.

Dehiscent Fruits. Split open along one or more definite seams (sutures). (1)
Capsule. A dry fruit formed from a compound ovary (composed of more than
one fused carpels), (e.g., poppy, snapdragon). (2) Legume. Develops from a
single carpel, splits along two seams (e.g., pea, bean). (3) Follicle. Develops
from a single carpel, splits along one seam (e.g., larkspur, columbine). (4)
Silique. Develops from two carpels, which separate at maturity, leaving a
partition wall (e.g., mustard).
Indehiscent Fruits. Do not split by definite seams or pores at maturity. (1)

Achene. One seed attached to inside of ovary at one point, ovary wall and seed coat
separable (e.g., sunflower, buttercup). (2) Caryopsis (grain). One seed, coat of which
is fused with ovary wall and pot separable from it (e.g., corn, wheat). (3) Samara.
One or two seeds. Pericarp has wing-like outgrowths (e.g., ash, maple). (4) Nut.
Hard, one-seeded fruit developed from a compound ovary (e.g., acorn, hazelnut). (5)
Schizocarp. Carpels usually two, separating at maturity. Each carpel has one seed
(e.g., carrot, parsnip).
Aggregate Fruits. A fruit which develops from separate simple ovaries of a

single flower (e.g., blackberries, raspberries).

Multiple Fruits. A fruit which develops from the ovaries of several flowers
borne close together on a common axis (e.g., Osage orange, pineapple, mulberry).
Accessory Fruits. A fruit in which the major portion consists of tissue other
than ovary tissue. Common types are:
1. Apples and pears, in which the true fruits are the walls and locules of
the core, and the fleshy portion is the swollen receptacle and calyx
surrounding the core. Such a fruit is called a pome.
2. Strawberries, in which the true fruits are tiny achenes on the surface of
a much enlarged, sweet, fleshy receptacle.
I. SIMPLE FRUITS
A simple fruit consists of one matured ovary.
A. FLESHY FRUITS
1. Berry – one in which the pericarp is mostly fleshy.
Example: watermelon
2. Drupe -- one in which the outer part of the ovary wall is thin; the middle part
is thick and fleshy: the inner part is hard and encloses a seed.
Example: mango
B. DRY FRUITS
Dehiscent Fruits — These are dry fruits which split open along definite seams
when mature.
1. Legume - a dry fruit which splits open along two seams.
Example: beans
Indehiscent Fruits - These are dry fruits which do not split open when mature.
2. Grain – a dry fruit which has only one seed; the seed coat is fused with the
inner surface of the pericarp.
Example: corn
3. Nut — a dry fruit which has only one seed; the pericarp is thick and hard.
Example: pili nut
II. AGGREGATE FRUITS

An aggregate fruit consists of several matured ovaries produced by one flower
and held by one receptacle.
Example: atis
III. MULTIPLE FRUITS

A multiple fruit consists of several matured ovaries produced by several
flowers in an inflorescence.
Example: pineapple
IV. ACCESSORY FRUITS

An accessory fruit consists of one or more matured ovaries with other parts of
the flower, such as the receptacle.
Example: cashew (the fleshy portion of which is the receptacle).
B. SEED STRUCTURE
A seed consists of a seed coat, which develops from the integuments of the
ovule; an embryo, which develops from a fertilized egg or zygote; and an
endosperm, & food-storage tissue, which develops from the endosperm nucleus of
the embryo sec. In most cases, the embryo of a seed begins to digest and utilize the
food stored in the endosperm when the seed is planted. In other seeds (beans,
peas) the embryo digests and absorbs the endosperm before the seed leaves its
parent plant: in such seeds no endosperm is present at maturity. (Fig. 5/2.)
Seed Coat. This part of the seed is usually tough and is partly impervious to
water. It prevents excessive evaporation of water from inner parts of seed and often
prevents entry of parasites. Hard seed coats may prevent mechanical injury. Various
structures may be visible on the surface of a seed cost:

HILUM. A scar left by the breaking of the seed from its stalk.
MICROPYLE. A small pore near the hilum.
RAPHE. Å ridge on the seed, caused by the bending of the seed against the seed
stalk.
Endosperm. Cells of the endosperm have 3x chromosome number, since they
develop from the endosperm nucleus, which is formed by the fusion of three
nuclei-two polar nuclei and a sperm nucleus. The endosperm stores food-
starch, proteins, oils, etc. Some seeds store chiefly starch (wheat), others
store proteins (beans, peas), others oils (coconut, lily). The seeds of legumes
(bears, peas, clover) have no endosperm at maturity.
Embryo. The embryo, or miniature plant of the seed, consists of the cotyledon,
epicotyl, and hypocotyl.
COTYLEDON (s). Cotyledons are seed leaves. Seeds of monocotyledons have one,
seeds of dicotyledons have two cotyledons. Cotyledons digest and absorb
food from the endosperm, or store food.
EPICOTYL. This is the part of the embryo axis above the point of attachment of the
cotyledons. The epicotyl contains meristematic cells which grow into the shoot
when the seed sprouts (germinates). The growing tip of the epicotyl is often
called the plumule.
HYPOCOTYL. This part of the embryo axis is below the point of attachment of the
cotyledons. The meristematic cells of the hypocotyl develop into the primary
root when the seed sprouts. The growing tip of the hypocotyl is the radicle.
Seeds vary in structure in different kinds of plants. Three common types are
the following:
BEAN. A mature bean seed has two large, fleshy cotyledons, no endosperm,
and a small embryo axis, with a pair of tiny leaves at the apex of the epicotyl.
CASTOR BEAN. A mature seed has two fist, thin cotyledons, a short epicotyl
and hypocotyl. The embryo is embedded in a large, oily endosperm. A large spongy
structure called the caruncle lies at one end of the seed.
GRAIN (e.g., corn). A mature "seed" (caryopsis, or one-seeded fruit) has a
large, horny or mealy endosperm (sometimes both), moderate-sized embryo that
consists of a shield-shaped cotyledon, an epicotyl covered by a sheath (coleoptile),
and a hypocotyl covered by a sheath (coleorhiza). The seed coat and pericarp are
fused.
C. SEED GERMINATION

In seed germination, a seed takes up water and swells, food is digested,
respiration increases, and cell division occurs, following which the embryo grows and
the seed cost is ruptured. The hypocotyl is usually the first part of the embryo to
emerge from the seed coat; this is advantageous, for the young root can immediately
begin to absorb the water and minerals necessary for growth. The epicotyl emerges
next. Å sprouted embryo is a seedling.
Germination Patterns. The pattern of germination varies in different species,
as shown by:
BEAN. The lower part of the hypocotyl becomes the root. The upper part is
crook-shaped and pulls the cotyledons and epicotyl above the soil surface. The
crook in the hypocotyl forces an opening through the soil and pulls the cotyledons
and epicotyl up through this opening Cotyledons become temporarily photosynthetic,
then dry and fall after giving up their food.
CASTOR BEAN. Similar to bean in that cotyledons and part of hypocotyl rise
above soil. Cotyledons are flat and leaf-like, become green, persist longer than those
of bean. Some of the endosperm is carried above ground with the cotyledons.
PEAS. Upper part of hypocotyl does not grow above ground; thus, cotyledons
remain below soil.
GRAIN (corn). Cotyledon remains in soil. Primary root system soon dies.
Adventitious roots develop and form permanent root system.
Conditions affecting Germination. Seed germination is influenced by
various external and internal conditions.
EXTERNAL CONDITIONS
Moisture. Seeds must have abundant moisture to germinate. Excessive
moisture may cause rotting if oxygen is excluded. Water causes swelling of seed,
and is necessary for digestion, translocation, and growth.
Oxygen. Seeds must respire to germinate and must have oxygen for aerobic
respiration. Lack of oxygen causes growth of anaerobic bacteria which cause rotting.
Temperature. Most seeds will not germinate if the temperature falls close to
freezing or rises above 115°F. Most favorable temperatures are 70-85°F.
Food supply. Some small seeds (orchids) germinate only if an external food
supply is available in the environment. In nature, fungi provide this nourishment.
Other external factors. Light, soil acidity, carbon dioxide, etc. also influence
seed germination.
INTERNAL CONDITIONS
Auxins. The presence of auxins (growth regulators) influences germination.
FOOD. Stored food must be sufficient.
COMPLETION OF DORMANCY. Dormancy is a period of relative rest
required by most seeds before they can germinate. Dormancy may be due to:
undeveloped embryos; thick seed coats which render absorption of oxygen or water
difficult or which resist swelling and growth in embryo; necessity of "after-ripening,"

or gradual chemical changes in embryo. Dormancy is a means of carrying sees
through a period unfavorable to active growth.
Since seeds have low water content, they are resistant to many environmental
factors which would be injurious to actively growing tissues.
Seed Viability. Most seeds remain visible, i.e., they possess the ability to
sprout, for not more than five or six years. Some remain viable for only a few weeks
(orchid). Others may retain viability for three or four hundred years (Indian lotus).
Dry, cool storage conditions favor prolonged viability. Loss of viability seems to be
due mainly to the coagulation of protoplasm.
D. SEED AND FRUIT DISPERSAL
Dispersal is the spread of seeds or fruits. Dispersal through various means is

brought about by the following parts or types of seeds or fruits:
WINGS. Dispersed by wind. Elm, maple fruits; catalpa seeds.
PLUMES. Dispersed by wind. Dandelion fruits, mikweed seeds.
SPINES AND BARBS. Dispersed by animals and man, to whose fur or clothing
they stick. Cocklebur fruits.
AIR SPACES OR CORKY FLOATS. Dispersed by water. Coconut.
MINUTE SEEDS. Blown by wind. Orchids.
FLESHY FRUITS. Eaten by animals, seeds scattered with faces.
NUTS. Buried in ground by squirrels, etc.
EXPLOSIVE FRUITS burst and scatter seeds. Touch-me-not oxalis.

Assessment: Quiz
number.
_________ 1. A fruit is a matured_________?

a. ovary c. seed
b. ovule d. pericarp
_________ 2. A seed is a matured_________?
a. ovary c. seed
b. ovule d. pericarp
_________ 3. A berry which is watermelon is an example of fruits.
a. fleshy c. aggregate
b. dry d. multiple
_________ 4. Beans which are legumes are examples of fruits.
a. indehiscent c. aggregate
b. dehiscent d. multiple
_________ 5. Pineapple comes from several matured ovaries therefore it is a
__________fruit.
a. aggregate c. multiple
b. accessory d. fleshy
_________ 6. Corn is a grain, it is an example of fruit.
a. indehiscent c. fleshy
_________ 7. Pili nut is a nut it is an example of fruit.
a. indehiscent c. fleshy
_________ 8. Apples consist of one or more matured ovaries therefore it is a
_________ fruit.
a. aggregate c. accessory
b. multiple d. fleshy

_________ 9. Usually tough and prevents excessive evaporation of water from inner
parts and prevents mechanical injury.
a. embryo c. seed coat
b. cotyledon d. endosperm
_________ 10. This part digest and absorb food from endosperm or store food
usually called seed leaves.
a. cotyledons c. seed coat
b. embryo d. endosperm
_________ 11. This part stores food – starch, proteins and oils.
_________ 12. The miniature plant of the seed, consists of cotyledon, epicotyl and
hypocotyl.
For items no. 13 – 20. Indicate whether the conditions affecting germination of the
seed is either external or internal.
________ 1. moisture a. external
________ 2. oxygen b. internal
________ 3. auxins (growth regulators)
________ 4. food
________ 5. Temperature
________ 6. completion of dormancy
________ 7. seed viability

________ 8. soil acidity
Taxonomy

be able to:
LO1. Identify the contributions of Aristotle and Linnaeus to the
taxonomic system.
LO2. Categorize the organisms or statements of words into the

five – kingdom classification system.
A. The Science of Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the science that deals with the study of identifying, grouping, and
naming organisms according to their established natural relationships. Scientists in
this field are called taxonomists.
In this lesson, you will learn the old and the new ways by which organisms are
identified, grouped, and named. You will also come across the work of Carolus
Linnaeus, also known as Carl Von Linne, the Father of Modern Taxonomy.
Classification by Aristotle
Do you know how organisms were grouped and named in ancient times? The
famous Greek philosopher Aristotle, who is the Father of Biology, first classified
organisms as either plants or animals some 2000 years ago. He developed a very
crude system of classification.
Plants were then grouped as herbs, those with soft stems; shrubs, those with
stems harder than those of herbs; or trees, plants taller than shrubs but with the
same woody type of trunk. Aristotle classified animals as land, water, and air
dwellers.

The Problem with Common Names
Many plants and animals did not fit into Aristotle's system of grouping. Later,
scientists devised other classification systems that also proved unworkable. These
early systems gave common names to organisms, based on their similarities in
appearance and attributes. For example, the starfish got its name from its shape, the
flower yellow bell from its color and shape, and the sea horse from its likeness to the
horse in appearance.
The common names given to organisms confused many people and proved to
be misleading. For example, the jellyfish and the starfish are two marine organisms,
but neither of them is a true fish. They are structurally different, and they are not
even closely related to one another.
Linnaean System of Classification

The science of taxonomy began with the work of Carolus Linnaeus (1707-
1778), a Swedish naturalist, during the eighteenth century. Linnaeus developed a
system of grouping organisms into hierarchical categories.
He divided the organisms into kingdoms. A kingdom is the broadest group to
which a living thing may belong. The animal kingdom was divided into phyla
(singular, phylum)-groups of closely related classes of organisms. (In plants and
fungi, such a group is called a division.) Every phylum consists of many classes, and
each class consists of several orders. An order is composed of several families, and
a family contains a number of genera (singular, genus). Finally, a genus is
composed of several related species. How are these levels of grouping significant?
Have you ever wondered how a letter from abroad reaches your place amidst
the millions of houses and hundreds of countries around you? Obviously, the only
way by which the letter can reach you is through the address written on the
envelope. See figure 6-1.
From the sender's end, the postal employees classify each letter so that all
letters with the same country of destination are put together. That is, letters are
sorted by country. Thus, letters headed for the Philippines are separately packed.
Upon reaching the Philippines, mail is further sorted by province and city, where
further sorting will take place.
As you can see from the table below, the levels of classification designed to
help the postman find you easily correspond to the hierarchical level devised by
Linnaeus.
Postal System Linnean System

Philippines Kingdom
Metro Manila Phylum
Malabon Class
Bonifacio Street Order
888 Family
Marfil Genus
Carla Species
The same principle applies to the classification of living things. There are over
a million species of animals and over 325 000 species of plants known and
identified. An orderly system of classification is a must.
Table 6-2 shows us the application of the Linnaean system of grouping to
three organisms.
TABLE 6 – 2
APPLICATION OF LINNAEAN SYSTEM
Category Bacterium Housefly Man

Kingdom Monera Animalia Animalia
Division/Phylum Schizophyta Arthropoda Chordata
Class Scotobacteria Insecta Mammalia
Order Spirochaetales Diptera Primata
Family Spirochaetales Muscidae Hominidae
Genus Cristispira Musca Homo
Species petinis domestica sapiens
Latin and the Linnaean System

Why did Linnaeus use Latin in his classification scheme? There were several
reasons. It was the common language used and understood by scientists at that
time. It prevented confusion, especially in the use of common names. Latin was and
still is an unchanging language. Many modern languages have words of Latin origin.
Moreover, Latin words are usually descriptive and are ideally suited to identify the
characteristics of an organism.
Binomial Nomenclature
Instead of using the seven-category system in naming an organism, Linnaeus
chose to use a two-word naming system. He adopted the binomial nomenclature
scheme, using only the genus and the species. For example, since humans belong
to genus Homo and species sapiens, he classified them as Homo sapiens. Note that
the first name begins with a capital letter and the second with a small letter.

If you consider a name like Jose Cruz, the surname Cruz is the genus while
the given name Jose is the species. The binomial system of naming has produced
such scientific names as Felis domestica (cat), Felis leo (African lion), Rana pipiens
(frog), Canis familiaris (dog), Musca domestica (housefly), and many more.
Scientific names provide a universal standard name for any organism. For
example, the common name dog is understood only by English speaking people.
The French call the dog chien; Spaniards call it perro; Filipinos, aso; and the
Chinese, kuo. Imagine the confusion if, without a universal standard, scientists from
different countries were to meet and talk about the dog.
The Kingdoms of Life
Originally, as proposed by Aristotle, there were only two big groups of living
things—plants and animals. Years later, Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) proposed there
were three kingdoms-Plantae Animalia and Kingdom Protista, which includes
organisms having both plant-like and animal-like characteristics. Protozoans and
bacteria were classified under the third kingdom.
Scientific classification is an ongoing process and taxonomy is bombarded by
controversies and surprises. While the five-kingdom scheme is very popular or
generally accepted, Carl Woese and colleagues presented a three domain-six
kingdom model of classifying organisms. The three domains divided organisms into:
1. Archaea consist of bacteria, which live in extreme environment such as
salt lakes or hot, acidic springs. The kingdom Archaea belongs to this
domain.
2. Eubacteria consist of more typical bacteria found in everyday life. They
have cell walls made of peptidoglycan.
3. Eukarya (Eukaryotes) encompass most of the world's visible living
things where kingdom Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia belong.
In 1969, Robert Whittaker suggested a five-kingdom system of classifying

organisms, a scheme that is being used by modern taxonomists. This scheme
separated fungi under a different kingdom. The five kingdoms under this system are:
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Animalia, and Plantae.
Table 6-3 presents the five-kingdom classification system with subgroups and
examples.
TABLE 6-3
THE FIVE-KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Kingdom Monera
Unicellular prokaryotic organisms lacking distinct nuclei and membrane-bound
organelles; nutrition principally by absorption but sometimes photosynthetic or
chemosynthetic
Division Cyanophyta blue-green algae
Division Schizophyta bacteria
Kingdom Protista

Unicellular or colonial eukaryotic organisms with distinct nuclei and
organelles; nutrition by photosynthesis, absorption, or ingestion
Phylum Chrysophyta golden algae
Phylum Pyrrophyta dinoflagellates
Phylum Xanthophyta yellow-green algae
Phylum Protozoa protozoans (Trypanosoma)
Kingdom Plantae
Multicellular eukaryotic organisms with rigid cell walls and chlorophyll;
nutrition principally by photosynthesis
Phylum Cholorophyta green algae (Spirogyra, Volvox)
Phylum Rhodophyta red algae (predominantly marine;
seaweeds)
Phylum Phaeophyta brown algae (almost entirely marine; kelp)
Phylum Bryophyta liverworts, hornworts, mosses
Phylum Tracheophyta vascular plants
Phylum Lycopsida club mosses
Phylum Sphenopsida horsetails
Phylum Pteropsida ferns
Subphylum Spermopsida seed plants
Class Gymnospermae conifers, cycads, ginkoes
Class Angiospermae flowering plants
Subclass
Dicotyledoneae grasses, lilies, and orchids
Subclass
Monocotyledoneae shrubs and trees
Kingdom Fungi
Multinucleate plantlike organisms lacking photosynthetic pigments; nutrition by
absorption
Phylum Myxomycophyta slime molds

Phylum Eumycophyta true fungi
Class Deuteromycetes imperfect fungi
Class Ascomycetes sac fungi (yeast and mildews)
Class Basidiomycetes club fungi (mushroom and rust)
Class Zygomycetes bread molds
Kingdom Animalia
Multicellular organisms without cell walls or chlorophyll; nutrition principally
ingestive, with digestion in an internal cavity
Phylum Porifera sponges

Phylum Cnidaria radially symmetrical marine animals
Class Hydrozoa portuguese man-of-war (Hydra)
Class Scyphozoa jellyfish
Class Anthozoa sea anemones and corals
Phylum Ctenophora comb jellies
Phylum Platyhelminthes flatworms
Class Turbellaria free-living flatworms (Planaria)
Class Trematoda parasitic fluke
Class Cestoda parasitic tapeworms
Phylum Aschelminthes roundworms (Trichina, Necator)

Phylum Rotifera rotifers
Phylum Bryozoa moss animals
Phylum Mollusca soft-bodied, unsegmented animals
Class Amphineura chitons
Class Gastropoda snails and slugs
Class Scaphopoda tooth shells
Class Pelecypoda clams and mussels
Class Cephalopoda squids and octopuses
Phylum Annelida segmented worms
Class Polychaeta sand worms
Class Oligochaeta earthworms
Class Hirudinea leeches
Phylum Arthropoda joint-legged animals with exoskeleton
Class Crustacea lobsters, crabs, barnacles
Class Arachnida spiders, scorpions, ticks
Class Chilopoda centipedes
Class Diplopoda millipedes
Class Insecta grasshoppers, termites, beetles
Phylum Echinodermata marine; spiny radially symmetrical
animals
Class Crinoidea sea lilies and feather stars
Class Asteroidea starfish
Class Ophiuroidea brittle stars
Class Echinoidea sea urchin and sand dollar
Class Holothuroidea sea cucumbers
Phylum Hemichordata acorn worms
Phylum Chordata dorsal supporting rod (notochord) at
some
stage; dorsal hollow nerve cord;
pharyngeal gill slits
Subphylum Urochordata tunicates
Subphylum lancelets
Cephalochordata
Subphylum Vertebrata vertebrates
Class Agnatha jawless fishes (lampreys, hog, fisher)
Class Chondrichthyes cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays)

Class Osteichthyes bony fishes
Class Amphibia frogs, toads, salamanders
Class Reptilia snakes, lizards, turtles
Class Aves birds
Class Mammalia mammals
Order Monotremata duckbill platypus, spiny anteater
Order Marsupialia opossums, kangaroos
Order Insectivora shrews, moles
Order Chiroptera bats
Order Edentata anteaters, armadillos
Order Rodentia rats, mice, squirrels
Order Logomorpha rabbit and hare
Order Cetacea whale, dolphin, porpoise

Order Carnivora dogs, bears, skunks
Order Proboscidea elephants
Order Sirenia manatees
Order Perrisodactyla horse, hippopotamus, zebra
Order Artiocdactyla pigs, deer, cattle
Order Primates monkeys, apes, humans
A summary of the major characteristics of the five kingdoms is found in table 6-4
TABLE 6-4
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS
Characteristic Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
1. Number of most are most are most are multicellular multicellular
Cell unicellular unicellular unicellular
(unicellular
or
multicellular
2. Type of cell prokaryotic eukaryotic eukaryotic eukaryotic eukaryotic
3. Presence of none present present present present
nuclear
membrane
4. Presence of none present present present present
mitochondria
5. Mode of asexual sexual and sexual and sexual and Mostly sexual
reproduction asexual asexual asexual and asexual
6. Ability to some some do not perform do not
perform perform perform perform photosynthes perform
photosynthesis photosynth photosynth photosynthes is photosynthesi
esis esis is s
7. Mode of heterotroph heterotrophi heterotrophic heterotrophic heterotrophic
nutrition ic and c and
autotrophic autotrophic
8. Motility some some primarily primarily motile
move; move; nonmotile nonmotile
others do others do
not not
9. Habitat aquatic and aquatic, or mostly mostly aquatic and
terrestrial in moist terrestrial terrestrial terrestrial
places
10. Examples bacteria, algae and Mushrooms, mosses, all animals
blue-green protozoans yeasts, rusts, ferns,
algae bread molds conifers,
flowering
plants

Assessment: Quiz
number.
A. Write A if the item refers to Aristotle and L if it refers to Linnaeus.
__________ 1. common names

__________ 2. Greek taxonomist
__________ 3. Father of Biology
__________ 4. Swedish taxonomist
__________ 5. two – kingdom system
__________ 6. binomial nomenclature
__________ 7. used Latin for naming organisms
__________ 8. divided organisms into kingdoms
__________ 9. classified man as Homo sapiens
__________ 10. grouped plants into herbs, shrubs and trees
B. From the following choices, select the kingdom to which each numbered item
is related.
A. Animalia D. Plantae
B. Fungi E. Protista
C. Monera
__________ 1. algae
__________ 2. insects
__________ 3. bacteria
__________ 4. autotrophs
__________ 5. mushrooms
__________ 6. prokaryotic cells

__________ 7. nucleus is absent
__________ 8. all species are motile
__________ 9. all species perform photosynthesis
__________ 10. performs only asexual reproduction

The Animal Tissues/
Integumentary System

be able to:
LO1. Identify what group of important animal tissues is matched
with its function in the human body.
LO2. Identify the parts of the skin and its functions.
The Animal Tissues
CONCEPT IN A BOX
Cells
Are organized into
tissues
either
Animal tissues Plant tissues
with different type with two types

epithelia connective muscular nervous meristematic permanent
r
maybe
Animal Cells Are Organized
Main Idea: Animals have specialized cells and tissues that form organs for
maintaining proper bodily function.
tissues to perform a common
EQ: How are cells organized into function?
Cells grow, mature, and undergo

differentiation in multicellular organisms. As a
result of cell differentiation, tissues are formed.
The human body, for example, is made up for
more than 200 types of differentiated cells. A
tissue is a group of similar cells performing a
common function.
F
ig. 1-1. Example of common
Tissues found in the human body
The study of animal and plant tissues is called histology. Histology involves the
preparation of thin sections of tissues, differentially stained and examined under the
microscope. A microtome is an instrument used to cut tissues into ultrathin sections.
Tissue sections are treated with biological stains to differentiate cells and tissues and
to have a clearer view of their different parts under the microscope.
There are four types of tissues found in animals: epithelial, connective, muscular,
and nervous tissues. These tissues have distinct structures and functions. Different
tissues make up an organ. The stomach, for example, is made up of four types of
tissues. The inner wall of the stomach is lined by columnar epithelial cells for
absorption of digested food. The stomach is surrounded by smooth muscle tissue
that is responsible for the movement of the stomach (peristalsis) during digestion.
The stomach walls also contain nervous tissues (nerves) that transmit signals to and
from the brain. Blood cells, a type of connective tissue, are responsible for the
transport of absorbed food. In addition, loose connective tissues are also found in

the stomach. These different tissues have specialized functions with a common
objective—that is, to digest food, the function of the stomach (figure 1-2).
Epithelial Tissues Covers
Epithelial tissues are composed of

closely aggregated cells forming
continuous sheets. In most cases, the
cells are held together by tight junctions,
a modification of the cell, membrane
that could be used for cell-to-cell
communication. The cells that make up
epithelial tissues are often attached to a
basal membrane, which is made up of
connective tissues.
Epithelial tissues cover body surfaces
and line organs and body cavities. The
epithelial tissues lining the inner wall of
blood vessels are called endothelium.
The functions of the epithelia (singular:
epithelium) include protection,
absorption, secretion, and sensation.
The epithelium of the skin, for example,
protects the underlying organs from
mechanical damage, ultraviolet light,
dehydration, and invasion of pathogens
such as bacteria. This is the reason the skin is considered the "first line of defense"
of the body against microbial infection. Some epithelial, tissues, such as those lining
the synovial membranes in joints, secrete fluids that lubricate tissues to minimize
friction. Minimize friction up of epithelial tissues. Fig. 1-2. Tissues found in the
stomach
Everyday Bio
The skin is the largest organ of the body, which is often abused and
underappreciated by the person until its compromise results in pain and loss of
resistance to infection.
Pillar of Bio
Johannes Evangelista Purkinje (1787-1869)

is a Czech physiologist who made
pioneering discoveries in the field of
histology. He invented the microtome, an
instrument for slicing thin portions of tissue
for microscopic examination. He also made

Fig. 1-3. Schematic
representation of the different
epithelial tissues in the body
some histological discoveries including the sweat glands, the neurons (Purkinje's
cells of the cerebellum), the muscular fibers (Purkinje's fibers in the tissue of the
ventricles of the heart), and nucleus of the human egg (Purkinje's germinal vesicle).
He also investigated identification by fingerprinting.
Epithelial tissues may be simple or stratified (figure 1-3). A simple epithelium is made
up of a single layer of cells. A stratified epithelium has more than one layer of cells.
There are three types of epithelium based on their shape---squamous, cuboidal, and
columnar epithelium.
Simple squamous epithelium consists of a single layer of flattened cells. These

flattened cells are usually found in thin barriers where exchange of nutrients, wastes,
and respiratory gases occur. They are found in the alveoli of the lungs where gas
exchange takes place, and in blood capillaries where diffusion and osmosis take
place. All the blood vessels and the heart are lined with simple-squamous cells.
Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of cube-shaped cells. Cuboidal cells

have larger cytoplasm compared to squamous cells; thus, they can undertake more
complex functions, such as absorption and secretion. The secretory cells of different
glands are made up of cuboidal cells. Cuboidal cells are also found in the tubules of
the kidney and the ducts of most glands.
Bio Bit
In severe burn cases or reconstructive surgery of closing a wound that cannot be

primarily closed, skin tissue grafts are used as an alternative wound management
technique. Skin transplanted from one location to the next within the body of the
person is called autograft. Skin grafts requiring artificial materials are also possible
by growing it in the laboratory. Cadaveric grafts are transplanted from one individual
to another within the same species. Pig skin grafts known as xenografts or
heterografts are transplanted from an organism of, one species to that of a different
species. Both tare used as biological dressings and skin substitutes.
Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of elongated

cells.
This type of epithelium is ideal for absorption and

secretion, since they contain large cytoplasmic volumes
with enough organelles and energy reserves to engage
in complex activities. The simple columnar epithelium
lining the small intestines is responsible for about 99
percent absorption that takes place in the digestive tract.
They have special structures called microvilli, which are
extensions of the cell membrane to increase their
Fig. 1-4.Schematic representation

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS of pseudostratified ciliated
58
columnar epithelium found in the
inner wall lining of the upper
respiratory tract.
surface area for absorption. The goblet cell is a specialized columnar cell found in
the lining of the stomach and small intestines responsible for the secretion of mucus.
Ciliated simple columnar epithelia are found in the small bronchioles of the
respiratory tract for the movement of mucus and in the fallopian tubes of the female
reproductive tract for the movement of reproductive cells.
Pseudostratified epithelium, as the name implies, is the "falsely stratified" epithelium

(figure 1-4). It is made up of columnar cells that are tall and thin and form irregular
shapes. The cells appear to be forming several layers but are actually arranged in a
single layer and all cells rest on the basement membrane. Pseudostratified
epithelium is found in the upper respiratory tract as ciliated types.s The cilia are
hairlike extensions of the cell that function to propel the mucus secreted by the
goblet cell along the surface of cells.
Connective Tissue Connects
Connective tissues include a large group of different tissues characterized by

having dispersed cells and large extracellular space called extracellular matrix. The
extracellular matrix includes protein fibers (collagen, elastic, or reticular) and ground
substances secreted mostly by the cells of the connective tissue. The extracellular
matrix may be solid such as in bones, liquid such as blood, or soft such as in
tendons (figure 1-5).
Fig. 1-5. Different locations of connective tissues in the body: (a) tendon, (6) adipose, (c)
cartilage, and (d) bone
The functions of connective tissues are varied depending on the type of connective
tissue. Connective tissues function mainly for binding and support of other tissues.
Other functions of - connective tissues include:
• protection • storage of fats
• provision of cushion • transport of nutrients and wastes
• maintenance of body form • body defense

• filling body space • repair of body parts
Connective tissues can be broadly classified into three large groups: connective
tissue proper (loose and dense connective tissues, reticular connective tissues,
elastic connective tissues; and adipose tissues), supportive connective tissue
(cartilage and bones), and fluid connective tissue (blood and lymph).
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose connective tissues are also called areolar connective tissues. It is a

type of connective tissue with watery matrix (ground substance) where its cells,
mostly fibroblasts, are located (figure 1-6). Special WBCs, called macrophages, are
also found in the matrix. Collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers are likewise found in
the matrix. Loose connective tissues are found beneath the epithelium of the skin
around blood vessels, muscles, and nerves; and in internal organs, such as the
lungs and urinary bladder. Its functions include binding and supporting one tissue to
another (as skin connects to muscles), protection and nourishment of the organs and
structures it binds (as it forms a protective layer over muscles, nerves, and blood
vessels), and storing body fluid.
Dense connective tissues are made up of closely packed bundles of collagen

fibers with few cells. They are less flexible than loose connective tissues but are
more rigid. Dense connective tissues are found in the dermis of the skin, in ligaments
that connect bones, and in tendons that connect muscles to bones to other bones
(figure 1-7).
Fig. 1-6. The cells Fig. 1-7. Achilles tendon, Fig. 1-8. Reticulocytes in
(fibroblasts) in loose a dense connective reticular connective tissues
connective tissues are far tissue, connects the secrete reticular fibers that
apart from one' another and muscles of the leg to the form a meshwork through
are separated by a matrix bones of the heel. which cells and fluids are freely
and lots of fibers. mobile.
Reticular connective tissues are made up of cells called reticulocytes

(specialized fibroblasts) and a matrix that contains reticular fibers (figure 1-8).
Reticular connective tissues give support to soft organs such as the spleen, lymph

nodes, and liver. They also provide the supporting framework for the bone marrow
and lymphoid (blood cell making) organs:
Elastic connective tissues, as the name implies, are highly elastic (flexible)
with flattened fibroblast cells with a matrix containing bundles of elastic fibers and
interspersed collagen fibers. Elastic fibers can stretch 1.5 times its normal length and
then recoil. The elastic fibers provide elasticity to tissues. It is found in large arteries
such as the aorta, in bronchial tubes, and ligaments of the vertebral column.
Adipose tissues or fat tissues are special types of connective tissue that store
fats. The fat cells or adipocytes appear as translucent fat globules (figure 1-9).
Adipocytes contain a large vacuole that stores fat. As a result, the nucleus is pushed
to one side, giving the cell the appearance of a signet ring. Adipose tissues can be
found anywhere in the body, especially where empty spaces are found. The fat cells
serve as energy reservoirs for organs and may provide insulation. Adipose tissues
found in the subcutaneous layer of the skin help shape, cushion, and insulate the
body. The kidneys, heart, and the eyes along the orbit are all cushioned by adipose
tissues.
Fig. 1-9. Adipose tissues in the belly of most sedentary

individuals. Adipocytes contain a large vacuole that stores
fats. As a result, the nucleus is pushed to one side of the cell.
Supportive Connective Tissue
The cartilage is a type of connective tissue with cells called chondrocytes,

which are separated by .a strong yet flexible matrix made up of a substance called
chondrin, a protein-carbohydrate complex. The chondrocytes are located in a
chamber called lacuna, which is surrounded by a membrane called perichondrium.
Cartilage is found in the human ears, nose, and joints. It forms the embryonic
skeleton of vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks. Cartilage gives strength,
support, and protection to the soft parts of the body (figure 1-10).

Fig. 1-10. The hyaline cartilage supports and
gives protection to the nose.
Bones are hardened connective tissues containing cells called osteocytes, a matrix
with collagen fibers, and mineral deposits such as calcium phosphate, magnesium,
carbonate, and fluoride ions. Like the cells of cartilages, osteocytes are also found in
a cavity called lacuna. Bones serve as the structural framework of the body and,
together with muscles, are needed for movement and locomotion. Inside long bones
are cavities filled with bone marrow, the site where blood cells are produced. Bones
also serve as the reservoir for calcium (figure 1-11).
Fig 1-11. A cross section of a bone Fig. 1-12. The different blood cell
showing the osteocytes found in small components: erythrocytes,
cavities called lacunae. The lacunae are leukocytes, and thrombocytes.
arranged in concentric rings around a
central canal where small blood vessels
are found.
Fluids Connective Tissue
Blood is a special type of connective tissue with a liquid matrix called the
blood plasma. The cells of the blood include the erythrocytes or RBCs for the
transport of oxygen; leukocytes or WBCs for the
body's defense against infection; and the
thrombocytes or blood platelets for blood clotting. In
addition, the blood transports nutrients to cells and
removes carbon dioxide and other wastes. The
blood also regulates the fluids, ions, and pH
balance of the body (figure 1-12).
Muscular Tissue Contracts

Muscular tissues are contractile tissues responsible for movement. The
muscle cells (or more accurately called muscle fibers) that make up muscle tissues
contain myosin and actin, which are proteins involved in muscle contraction. There
are three types of muscular tissues: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissues.
Skeletal muscle tissues, as the name implies, are attached to skeletons

through tendons. Skeletal muscle tissues are responsible for the movement of most
body parts and for locomotion. The contraction of skeletal muscles is under voluntary
control. A skeletal muscle fiber is long, cylindrical, and unbranched and it contains
multiple nuclei. Under the microscope, its fibers appear as alternating dark and light
bands or simply with striations thus, it is called striated muscle (figure 1-13). These
bands are due to the arrangement of myosin and actin filaments.
Cardiac muscular tissues are found only in the walls of the heart. The
contraction of cardiac muscles causes the heartbeat, which pumps blood. Cardiac
muscles are also striated, but its contraction is involuntarily controlled. Cardiac
muscle fibers are branching with only, one nucleus per muscle cell (figure 1-14).
Cardiac muscle cells are separate individual cells, but are compactly arranged one
another. Intercalated discs join one muscle fiber to another. The intercalated discs
allow impulses to move freely from one to the other. This results in a coordinated
contraction called the heartbeat.
Smooth muscular tissues are no striated, spindle-shaped muscles that are

involuntarily controlled. They are unbranched with a single nucleus per cell (figure 1-
15). Smooth muscles are found in the walls of the stomach, small intestines, uterus,
and blood vessels. The contraction of the smooth muscles causes these organs to
constrict their diameter. In the stomach and small intestines, these muscle
contractions cause peristalsis.
Fig. 1-13. Skeletal muscle Fig. 1-14. Cardiac muscular Fig. 4-15. Smooth muscular
tissues are striated, tissues are striated, tissues are nonstriated,
voluntary, and unbranched involuntary, and branching involuntary, and unbranched
with multiple nuclei. with a single nucleus per with a single nucleus per
muscle fiber. muscle fiber.
Nervous Tissue Conducts

The nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells, called neurons, found in the
brain and spinal cord. Neurons are specialized cells that conduct impulses to and
from the brain. A typical neuron is made up of three parts: dendrites, cell body, and
axon. Dendrites receive impulses and send them to the cell body. The cell body is
like a typical cell where the nucleus and organelles are found. The axon is a long
fiber-like part that transmits the impulses away from the cell body to the next neuron
(figure 1-16).
Fig. 1-16. Atypical neuron with specialized features
B. The Integumentary System

The Human Skin
The average adult human body has about 16 718.4 square centimeters or
1.67 square meters of skin. Touch the different parts of your body. Note the areas
where the skin is soft, and where it is rough.
Functions of the Skin
The skin is a tough, elastic material that prevents rapid evaporation of water
from our bodies. It prevents our internal body tissues from completely drying up.
The human skin has sweat glands (part of its internal structure) secreting
sweat (watery fluid that contains the body wastes) on its surface through openings
called pores. A sweat gland is a tubular structure tangled with capillaries. Metabolic
wastes (water, salts, and urea) diffuse from the blood and into the sweat glands.
When body temperature rises, sweat is released from the glands, travels through the
tube, and out through the skin pores. As you perspire, the metabolic wastes leave
your body. Have you noticed that your sweat is salty?
Our skin is composed of broad, flat cells that join together to form epithelial
tissues. These cells serve to protect and cover the skin.

Sometimes, when we get wet under the rain, we find droplets of rainwater on
our skin. We then look at our skin and see that it seems to be waterproof. This effect
is made possible by the oil that sebaceous glands inside the skin release.
Our skin protects our body from mechanical injuries and from bacterial
invasion. This is made possible by the presence of many layers. Melanin pigments
produced by melanocytes and Langerhans cells give protection against solar
radiation and bacterial invasion, respectively. Sebum from the sebaceous glands
have antibacterial action. As a sense organ, our skin can respond to various stimuli.
Since it contains millions of nerve receptors, it easily responds to touch, pressure,
pain, and changes in temperature.
Furthermore, the skin tends to control our body temperature through factions e
evaporation of sweat.
Parts of the Skin
Figure 1-1 shows a cross section of the human skin. Study it carefully and
distinguish the parts that compose it. Correlate these parts to the functions
mentioned earlier. The skin is composed of two basic layers of tissues. The
outermost protective tissue is called the epidermis and the finer, thicker layer is
called the dermis.
Figure 1-1. Cross section of the human skin

Have you seen a woman who had her skin peeled off at a beauty parlor? You
must have seen your own skin peel as a result of sunburn. As your skin peels off,
your body is actually getting rid of dead cells, which form the outermost and exposed
layer of the epidermis. In your scalp, oil secreted by the sebaceous gland sometimes
combines with these dead cells. This results in scaled-off tiny white patches called
dandruff.
Underneath your skin is a thicker layer of living cells called the dermis. A great
amount of fat is stored in the dermis. The layers of fat cells comprise the adipose
tissues. The dermis is sufficiently supplied with nerve endings and blood vessels.
This is exactly why your skin can easily respond to stimuli. Likewise, the relaxation of
the smooth muscles of the blood vessels in this layer keeps you warm during cold
weather. Why do you think those red flushes appear on your face when you are
angry, excited, embarrassed, or feverish?
Look at figure 1-1 again. What are the components of the dermis? What are their
functions?
When was the last time you perspired a lot? Was it when it was very hot? Was it
when you could not answer the questions on an exam?
Perspiration or sweat comes from the numerous sweat glands in our skin. These
glands are coiled tubes that secrete the salty perspiration that flows out through the
epidermal pores.
You must have noticed that there are people with a lot of hair on their arms and legs.
Run your fingers through your skin and feel the hair on its surface. Your hair is made
up of epithelial tissues. It has its living roots embedded in the dermis and its body
growing out through the epidermis.
How does the hair on your skin grow? At the base of each hair is a mass of actively
dividing cells. These cells produce layers of new hair cells that keep pushing upward
and out of the skin. This is the dead part of your hair. The only living part of the hair
is the base of the hair shaft.
Why does it hurt when you pull a strand of hair from your head? This is because
nerve endings and capillaries are part of the living base of each strand of hair. What
do these blood vessels provide your hair with? Why?
Pull out a strand of hair from your scalp. Then examine its root. Observe the whitish
mass around it. This is part of an oil or sebaceous gland, which secretes oil into the
sheath that surrounds the hair shaft. This keeps your hair oily and shiny.
When you feel excited or frightened, or when you are cold, you get goose pimples all
over your skin. How do you get goose pimples? Why does your hair stand erect?
The tiny smooth muscles connected to the sheath of each hair contract during these
situations. This contraction of r muscles pulls your hair up, thus straightening it. The

contracted muscles and the pushing of hair against the skin cause tiny bumps to
appear.
Now look at the nails at the tip of your fingers and toes. They are part of your skin.
They grow out of the dermis from special cells that divide rapidly to produce new
fingernail cells. Do you feel pain as you cut your long nails? Normally no, because
your nails are composed of dead cells. How about your teeth? They are also made
up of specialized epithelial cells.
B. Assessment : Quiz
Matching Type: Match Column A with Column B. Write the letters of your choice.
Column A Column B
______1. Epithelial tissue A. Protection
______2. Loose connective tissue B. Support
______3. Blood C. Bind/ Connect
______4. Adipose tissues D. Storage
______5. Dense connective tissue E. Transport
______6. Cartilage F. Involuntary Movement
______7. Skeletal muscles tissues G. Voluntary Movement
______8. Cardiac Muscular tissues H. Conduction/transmission
______9. Nervous tissue I. Release Metabolic wastes

as sweat
______10. Smooth muscular tissue J. Heat regulation
______11. epidermis K. Protects from mechanical

injuries and bacterial
invasion
______12. Sweat gland L. Respond to touch,

pressure pain and
Temperature
______ 13. dermis
______ 14. nerve endings

______ 15. Melanocytes
The Human Digestive

System

be able to:
LO1. Identify the main parts and functions of the human digestive
system.
LO2. Trace and explain the digestion process.
LO3. Differentiate mechanical digestion from chemical digestion.
The Digestive System

The food you eat consists of complex molecules of both organic and inorganic
compounds. Your body generally cannot utilize food in its most complex form as a
source of energy. There is a need for food to be broken down. Digestion is the
process of reducing food to smaller molecules that the body can absorb.
The main functions of digestion are:
1. to break up big pieces of food into particles; and
2. to break the particles into molecules that can dissolve in the body fluids and
pass through the cell walls for cells to utilize.

The Digestive Tract
Your digestive system includes the structures and organs that form the alimentary
canal, or digestive tract. It also includes those structures or organs that do not
directly act upon the food but secrete or store substances that aid in chemical
digestion.
Figure 2-1. The organs of the digestive system
Your digestive tract consist of the (1) mouth, (2) esophagus, (3) stomach, (4)
small intestine, (5) large intestine, (6) anus.
The accessory organs assisting these major parts are the (1) salivary glands,
(2) pancreas, (3) liver, and (4) gallbladder.
The Digestive Process

Digestion occurs in two stages: mechanical and chemical.

The mechanical stage of digestion takes place within the mouth and the stomach.
The food is acted upon mechanically or physically by the teeth and the tongue to
break it down into smaller pieces. To break down mechanically means to bite, cut,
tear, grind, and mash large bits of food into a fine mixture. The physical mixing of
food is done by the muscular contraction of the stomach and the movement of the
intestines.
Breaking down the food into smaller pieces is not enough for it to be digested. The
food still has to be changed into a more soluble form. At this stage, digestive
enzymes are needed to hydrolyze and break down starch into glucose molecules,
proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. The action of
enzymes in the process constitutes the chemical stage of digestion.
Both stages are equally significant. Mechanical digestion increases the absorbing
surface of food molecules by exposing a bigger number of pieces. This exposure
speeds up the chemical action of digestive enzymes.
Digestion in the Mouth

Upon entering your mouth, the food you eat is physically broken into pieces by your
teeth.
Mucus secreted by the cells lining your mouth moistens the food and facilitates
swallowing of the broken pieces.
Saliva is another secretion of the glands located

at different areas within your mouth. It lubricates
the food and secretes ptyalin—an enzyme, also
known as salivary amylase, that converts starch
to maltose.
In humans, there are three salivary glands. The

parotid glands lie on each side of the face just in
front of the ears. They are the largest among the
three glands. A disease called mumps is an
infection of these glands.
The submaxillary gland lies within the angle of

the lower jaws. The sublingual glands are found
embedded in the mucous membranes on the
floor of the mouth, under the tongue.
Figure 2-2. The salivary glands sublingual,
submaxillary, and parotid glands
Your tongue keeps food to be chewed by the teeth

inside your mouth and pushes the food to the back of

Figure 2-3. Your
tongue and its sensitive
areas
your mouth to be swallowed. The tongue also acts as the organ of taste. Scattered
over the upper surface of the tongue are taste buds, which have nerve endings at
their bases. The moistened food, as it makes contact with the taste buds, stimulates
the nerve endings, for one to perceive taste.
Movement of Food through the Esophagus
After you have chewed and mixed the food inside your mouth, you swallow it and it
goes down your alimentary canal. The food goes down the pharynx, where muscles
push it down your throat. At this point, a structure called the epiglottis closes over
your trachea to prevent food from entering your respiratory tract. Along tube called
the esophagus carries the food down to your stomach for temporary storage and
further digestion. Its walls are lined with a single layer of cells called mucosa. These
cells secrete mucus for mechanical lubrication of food.
The upper half of the esophagus is composed of voluntary or striated muscles that
allow swallowing. The lower half is composed of smooth involuntary muscles that
alternately relax and contract. This relaxation and contraction action brings about
peristalsis, a rhythmic, wavelike muscular action that pushes the food down the
alimentary canal.
Figure 2-4. The swallowing process
Digestion in the Stomach

Your stomach is a large, J-shaped organ found at the end of the esophagus, on the
upper left side of your body. An opening, the cardiac sphincter, closes and opens to
allow the flow of food from the esophagus to the stomach. Contractions of muscle
fibers in the stomach bring about the twisting, squeezing, and churning or mixing of
the food. These processes constitute the mechanical digestion of food in your
stomach.

The lining of your stomach is a thick, wrinkled membrane in which numerous gastric
glands are embedded. The walls of each gland are lined with secretory cells. One
kind of cell secretes an enzyme, the second secretes hydrochloric acid and water,
and the third, mucus. Altogether, these secretions form the gastric juice.
The enzymes produced by your stomach are mostly proteases, which break down
proteins. The main protease, pepsin, breaks down proteins into polypeptides in the
presence of an acid. This is why pepsin functions best in the stomach, where
hydrochloric acid is likewise produced.
Another enzyme present in the gastric juice, particularly of young individuals is

rennin. Rennin acts on milk protein, causing the milk to clot. This allows other
enzymes to act on it more easily.
The hydrochloric acid produced in your stomach is a strong acid. It helps break down
food. Hydrochloric acid also destroys most of the bacteria that may be present in the
system.
Food usually remains in the stomach for two to three hours. During this period, the
rhythmic contractions of the stomach muscles churn the food back and forth in a
circular motion, separating food particles and mixing them thoroughly with the
stomach secretion. At the completion of stomach digestion, the pyloric valve—the
valve at the intestinal end—opens and closes several times. With each opening of
the valve, food moves into the small intestine. Finally, the stomach is relieved of its
contents and begins a period of rest. After several hours without food, the stomach
starts contracting again. These contractions cause the sensation of hunger.
The partially digested food that is retained in the stomach before being transferred to
the small intestine is called chyme.
Digestion in the Small Intestine

Our small intestine is divided into three major parts: the duodenum, the upper 20
centimeter-long tube connected to the stomach; the jejunum, about 2.5 meters long;
and the ileum, the longest half that is coiled through the abdominal cavity.
If you could peep inside the small intestine, you would find a big surface area. This is
why very large amounts of food molecules can be absorbed in it. The folds of the
mucosa or membranous lining plus the presence of villi (sing., villus) increase the
surface area for absorption. Villi are tiny fingerlike projections of the mucosal folds.
Every villus has epithelial cells for covering and blood vessels scattered within.

Figure 2-5. Cross section of the small intestine
The presence of microscopic projections called microvilli on the surface of every

epithelial cell adds to the surface area of the small intestine.
You must remember that it is in the small intestine that final digestion and absorption
of food take place. The cells of the intestinal epithelium also produce some important
digestive enzymes. Among the enzymes secreted by the cells of the intestinal
epithelium are the peptidases. These enzymes break short polypeptides into amino
acids. Maltase breaks maltose to become glucose molecules. Other intestinal
enzymes are sucrase and lactase, which act on sucrose and lactose, respectively.
The pancreas and the liver, which are two related organs take part in your intestinal
digestion.
The pancreas is a digestive gland that serves two main functions: it secretes
hormones that regulate the balance of your blood glucose; it also secretes
pancreatic juice, which is emptied into the duodenum, a part of the small intestine.
The pancreatic juice neutralizes the acidic stomach contents (chyme) before they
pass into the small intestine. It also produces digestive enzymes that act on all three
major foods—carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Your pancreatic juice also contains the enzyme lipase, which hydrolyzes the neutral
fat to glycerol and fatty acids. The fats or lipids you take in as part of your diet do not
dissolve in the watery gastric juice found in your stomach. You can very well observe
this effect in a salad dressing where oil is mixed with vinegar but is not dissolved by
the acid. Before pancreatic lipase can act on the fats in your intestine, these fats
must first be broken down into tiny droplets through a process called emulsification.
The emulsifier in your body is found in a complex fluid, called bile, which is produced
in your liver, the largest gland in the body. Bile passes down a tube from the liver
and is stored in a small pouch called the gallbladder. As you digest food, the
gallbladder releases bile into the duodenum through a bile duct.
The Large Intestine

Your small intestine completes the process of chemical digestion. Within this organ,
the digested food diffuses through the epithelial lining of its wall into the bloodstream.
The soluble materials are now ready to supply every cell of your body with the
nutrients it needs to produce energy.

Not all food materials are completely digested. The undigested food materials
become watery and pass from the small intestine into the large intestine. The large
intestine is bigger in diameter, by about 7 centimeters, than the small intestine. It is
twice as wide as the small intestine. The large intestine is also called the colon.
The last 20 to 30 centimeters of your colon is the rectum, a muscular cavity, which
terminates in an opening called the anus. The anus forms the end of your alimentary
canal.
The main function of your colon is to absorb water from the undigested food
materials that it receives from your small intestine. The remaining food materials,
which then become more solid are called feces. They pass into your rectum, where
they are temporarily stored; they are eventually eliminated through the anus as
waste. Most of the undigested food materials in your feces consist of cellulose from
plant materials in your diet.
At the junction between your small and large intestines is a small fingerlike outgrowth
called the appendix. The specific function of the appendix in your body is not yet
discovered. Food and bacteria can be trapped in the appendix and cause
inflammation, a condition referred to as appendicitis. It is more common to have
appendicitis during childhood than in adulthood because the opening to the appendix
is wider in children than in adults.
Summary
Food is any substance that provides your body with energy and nutrients for growth,
maintenance, and repair of body tissues. Nutrition is the process by which organisms
obtain and use food. Nutrients are food substances that a person takes to grow and
stay healthy.
Energy in food is measured in food calories, or kilocalories. One food calorie is equal
to 1 000 calories, or 1 kilocalorie. Foods that supply the body with energy are
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Foods that do not supply the body with energy but
are essential for various life processes are minerals, vitamins, and water.
A balanced diet includes meat, fruits, vegetables, dairy products, and cereals or
grains.
Digestion breaks down food materials into smaller particles to convert complex food
compounds into simple and soluble ones for the body to use. It consists of two
phases—mechanical and chemical.
The alimentary tract is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and anus. In the mouth, your teeth and tongue begin the

mechanical digestion. The enzyme ptyalin from your saliva begins the digestion of
starch.
Food you eat moves from your mouth down to the esophagus and because
temporarily stored in the stomach. Complete digestion and absorption of food take
place in the small intestine. Its division are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The
villi on its inner walls provide the small intestine a bigger absorption surface.
The organs that aid the small intestine in its function are the pancreas and the live.
The pancreas secrets pancreatic juice containing substances that hydrolyzes fats.
Bile is produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder until it is released in the
duodenum of the small intestine to emulsify fats.
The undigested food materials moved the small intestine to the large food materials,
which then become more solid are called feces. They excreted from the body
through the anus.

B. Assessment: Quiz
Multiple Choice: Write the letter of your choice on the spaces provide before the
number.
_____1. Digestion is a process of ______?
a. changing food substances into soluble form.

b. changing food substances into complex form.
c. changing food substances into inorganic form.
d. changing food substances into smaller pieces.
_____2. Which of the following transports food from mouth down to stomach?
a. esophagus c. rectum
b. small intestine d. large intestine
______3. Which of the following is the main site of absorption of the vast majority
of nutrients?
a. stomach c. small intestine

b. pharynx d. large intestine
_____4. What do you call the entrance to the digestive system?
a. mouth c. pharynx
b. lungs d. esophagus
_____5. What do you call the exit to the digestive system?
a. stomach c. small intestine

b. pharynx d. large intestine
_____6. Salivary amylase secreted into the oral cavity starts the digestion of
_______.
a. proteins c. lipids
b. starch d. amino acids
_____7. Bile is produced in the _______.
a. liver c. pancreas
b. small intestine d. stomach
_____8. During digestion, proteins are broken down into molecules of ______.
a. glucose c. amino acids

b. fatty acids d. nucleic acids
_____9. Where does elimination occurs?

a. rectum c. mouth
b. anus d. large intestine
_____10. What form do carbohydrates become after digestion?
a. fats c. peristalsis
b. glucose d. polysaccharide
_____11. Which enzyme is produced by the stomach?
a. amylase c. lipase
b. bile d. protease
_____12. The mechanical stage of digestion means ______.
a. The food is cut, bite, grind or mash into fine mixture

b. The food is mixed with enzyme in the stomach.
c. The food is move to the stomach down to the intestines.
d. The food is hydrolyze into molecules of glucose, amino acids and
fatty acids and glycerol
_____13. The chemical stage of digestion means _______.
a. Breaking down food into smaller pieces.

b. Physical mixing of food in the stomach.
c. Digestive enzymes are needed to break down starch into glucose,
proteins into amino acids and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
d. Movement of food in the intestines
______14. What is another name for the large intestine?
a. anus c. digestive tract

b. colon d. duodenum
_____15. Which of the following is correct?
a. Mouth – Esophagus – Stomach – Small Intestine - Large Intestine

b. Mouth – Stomach – Large Intestine – Esophagus – Small Intestine
c. Mouth – Esophagus – Stomach – Large Intestine – Small Intestine
d. Mouth – Small Intestine – Esophagus – Large Intestine – Stomach

The Human Excretory
Systems

be able to:
LO1. Identify the parts and functions of the Excretory system.
LO2. Explain the processes by which urine is formed and how it
leaves the body.
LO3. Describe the function of the kidneys.
The Human Excretory System
Main Idea: The kidneys help maintain homeostasis by filtering blood.
EQ: What other excretory organs in the body help in maintaining internal balance?
The Need to Excrete Waste Products
Have you ever cooked instant pancit canton? If so, you know that you have to use a
strainer to separate the cooked noodles from the boiling water. The strainer acts as a
filter, separating the noodles from the water. The water is then thrown away as
waste. In the same way, the body must get rid of wastes to maintain a healthy body.
Food residues are eliminated from the body in the form of feces. Other waste that
are produced as a result of metabolic reactions that occur in the body must also be
eliminated. Excretion is the process by which the body get rid of toxic chemical
excess water, salts, and carbon dioxide to maintain osmotic and pH balance.

Organs of Excretion
The excretory system provides a way for

various wastes to be removed from the body.
Wastes, such as excess water and salts,
carbon dioxide, and urea (a nitrogen waste),
are removed from the body by the organs
involved in excretion, as shown in figure t172.
Carbon dioxide (and some water vapor) is
transported to your lungs by the circulatory
system and excreted every time you exhale.
The skin excretes excess water and small
amounts of nitrogen wastes in the form of
sweat. Like the noodle strainer, the kidneys act
as the body's filter. In doing so, the kidneys
filter wastes and poisons from the blood and
eventually excrete them as urine. The liver
converts ammonia into a much less toxic
nitrogen waste called urea, which is then
carried by the bloodstream to the kidneys,
where it is removed from the blood. The liver
also breaks down toxins and harmful
chemicals ingested through food and water, as
well as medicines and drugs so that they can be eliminated.
Fig. 3-1. Organs of excretion
Everyday Bio
An average human drinks 2.4 to 2.8 liters of water daily (about eight glasses) or
about 16000 gallons of water in a lifetime. A healthy adult eliminates about 1.5 to 2.3
liters of water each day through respiration, perspiration (sweat), and secretion
(urine).
Table : 1-1 shows the main wastes excreted by human.
Table 1-1 : Main Wastes Excreted By Human

Excretory Organ Waste Removed Source

Lungs Carbon dioxide Respiration
Water Vapor Respiration and excess in
diet
Kidney Urea Waste amino acids
Salts Excess in diet
Water Excess in diet and
respiration
Skin Urea ( sweat ) Waste amino acids
Liver Urea Excess amino acids
Kidneys: The Main Excretory Organs

The kidneys, which are the main organs of the excretory system, are reddish brown
in color and shaped like kidney bean located in the lower back. There is one kidney
on each side of the spinal cord just above the waist. Although each kidney is not
much bigger than an extra-large bar of soap, together they receive and filter almost
one liter of blood per minute, which is pumped into them from the aorta (the body's
largest artery). The kidneys are extremely important organs because of their role in
regulating the amount of water and salts contained in blood plasma. Each kidney has
three distinct areas (figure 3-2): the renal cortex (outer layer), the renal medulla
(middle layer), and the renal pelvis (becomes the ureter).
Figure. 3-2. (a) Parts of a kidney and (b) a view of nephron

Nephron: Kidney's Filtrating Unit
BIO BIT
The actual filtering process happens within the kidneys' millions of
microscopic blood-filtering factories called nephrons. Each nephron Your kidneys are
constantly at work.
is made up of a complex network of tiny tubes surrounded by a tight
They can filter up to
ball of capillaries (figure 3-3). They filter wastes from the blood, 5.5 liters (9 1/2 pints)
retain useful molecules, and produce urine. The kidneys contain of liquid every hour.

approximately one million nephrons. Each nephron is about three centimeters, long,
yet it is microscopic because it is so narrow.
The Excretion Process

Main idea: The process of waste excretion involves filtration, reabsorption,
secretion, and elimination.
EQ: How do the minute filtering structures of the kidney perform the different
excretory processes?
Have you ever cleaned out a desk drawer by sorting discarding, saving certain items
for future use, and then rechecking the drawer one last time? If so, you have
approximated the kidney's basic processes or stages—filtration, reabsorption,
secretion, and elimination—all of which involve the nephron (figure 3-3).
Fig. 3-3. Major processes involved in excretion
Filtration
Filtration starts at the cup-shaped capsule of the nephron called the Bowman's
capsule. Within each Bowman's capsule, a fine network of capillaries, called
glomerulus (plural: glomeruli), can be found. The actual filtration process happens in
the glomerulus. During filtration, the blood pressure inside the glomerulus forces a
fluid composed of small molecules (water, salt, glucose, amino acid, ions, water, and
urea) into the hollow interior of the Bowman's capsule. This fluid is now called filtrate.
Proteins and blood cells that are too large to cross the membrane stay in the blood.
Reabsorption and Secretion

Reabsorption of nutrients, salts, and most water happens in the renal tubules. These
tubules are long, narrow tubes connected to Bowman's capsules. Renal tubules
bend, at their center, forming a loop. If reabsorption would not happen, you would
soon lose most of the water, salts, and nutrients needed to survive. To continue the
journey, the filtrate passes through the renal tubules. It will be sorted there and small

molecules from the filtrate will be extracted, while useful substances will be
reabsorbed back to the bloodstream as waste materials are segregated.
Finally, during secretion, the filtrate reaches the end portions of the renal tubule.
Here, substances such as waste and toxic material, move from the blood into the
filtrate. This region of the nephron checks the blood supply one last time and
removes from circulation any ions, drugs, or other wastes that still remain. These are
then secreted, forming urine. The remaining filtrate or urine passes into a collecting
duct and the "clean" or filtered blood flows into the renal vein.
Urine Elimination
Urine, the product of filtration, reabsorption, and
secretion, is then emptied through the millions of
collecting ducts in each kidney that lead to the
ureters, tubes that carry the urine from the kidney
to the urinary bladder. The ureters direct the urine
into the urinary bladder, a hollow muscular sac
that stores urine. The urinary bladder gradually
expands as it fills. It has normal capacity of 400 to
600 millimeters, but you begin to feel the need to
urinate when it is one-third full. When your bladder
is two-thirds full, you start to feel really
Fig. 3-4. Urine from the kidney
uncomfortable. Muscular contractions of the travels to ureter and is temporarily
bladder force urine out of the body. Urine leaves stored in the urinary bladder. Urine
the bladder and exits the body through a tube exits through the urethra.
called the urethra. It is held close by a sphincter
muscle that controls the flow of your urine. This is
BIO BIT
similar to how the faucet controls the flow of water. Your bladder can stretch to hold 0.5
When you want to start urinating, the sphincter liters (almost one pint) of liquid. But
when it is empty, it is only the size of
muscle relaxes, opening the urethra and letting the a walnut.
urine flow out. The elimination of urine from the
body through the urethra is called urination. Figure
3-4 shows the organs that are responsible for urination.
Damage to the Kidneys

Main Idea: Kidneys are responsible for maintaining waste balance in the body.
EQ: Why does a person with defective kidneys dialysis at least three times a
week?

The kidneys are always exposed to hazardous chemicals that have entered the body
through the lungs, skin, or gastrointestinal tract. Any disease affecting your kidneys
can be life threatening, considering the major role that they play in maintaining
balance in your body. When the kidneys can no longer perform their functions such
as filtration and reabsorption, kidney failure occurs. When the kidneys fail, toxic
wastes such as urea will accumulate in the bloodstream to toxic levels: Although you
may lose a kidney in a disease or accident, the other may enlarge and do the work
for both. However, if both kidneys fail, there are two alternative treatments—kidney
dialysis and kidney transplant.
Kidney Dialysis
Kidney dialysis or hemodialysis is a temporary
treatment for those who suffer from kidney
failure. A dialysis machine is used in the
process that works like the nephron. A person is
connected to the machine by tubes, leading
from an artery or a vein. Kidney dialysis is
similar to artificial kidneys not because it
resembles the natural organ but because the
end result is the same: it filters urea and excess
ions from the blood. A person with kidney failure
needs to undergo dialysis several times a week.
Kidney Transplant
A more permanent solution to kidney failure is a
kidney transplant. To find a donor, doctors must
be able to match the tissues of the patient and
the donor so the patient's body will not reject
the new kidney. Kidney donations usually come
from individuals who have just died from
accidents or any volunteer organ donors.
Transplant surgery is expensive, but it is more
economical in the long run than the cost of numerous visits to hemodialysis centers.

B. Assessment quiz
Multiple choices: Write the letter of your choice on the space provided before the
number.
_____1. In which structure of the kidney does the filtration of blood occur?
a. Tubules
b. Glomerulus
c. Loop of Henle
d. Collecting ducts
_____2. Which is the correct path of filtered blood through the kidney?
a. Bowman’s capsule – glomerulus – tubules – collecting ducts

b. Glomerulus – bowman’s capsule – tubules – collecting ducts
c. Bowman’s capsule – collecting ducts – glomerulus – tubules
d. Glomerulus – bowman’s capsule – collecting ducts – tubules
_____3. All these are functions of the urinary system EXCEPT _______.
a. Secretion of bile
b. Reabsorption of water
c. Regulation of salt concentration
d. Removal of harmful materials of the body
_____4. All these factors can cause frequent urination EXCEPT____.
a. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

b. Caffeine
c. Diabetes
d. Pregnancy
______5. Which statement is NOT TRUE about a kidney stone?
a. Accidentally eating a stone causes the condition

b. A kidney stone stretches the urinary tract, causing pain
c. The stone can be formed from the crystallization of dissolved urinary
minerals
d. Some stones may pass out of the kidney and through the ureters
without surgery
______6. Which of the phrases best describes the kidney’s main function?
a. Digestion of food
b. Transmission of messages
c. Delivery of oxygen to cells
d. Filtering of substances from blood

______7. Which is the pathway of urine?
a. Urinary bladder – kidney – ureter – urethra

b. Urinary bladder – ureter – urethra – prostate gland
c. Kidney – ureter – urinary bladder – prostate gland – urethra
d. Glomerulus – renal tubule – ureter – urinary bladder – urethra
______8. Which of the following statement about urine is NOT TRUE?
a. It carries nutrients to body cells.

b. It contains substances harmful to your body
c. It is produce by both kidney’s at the same time
d. It contain substances that may form pebble-size renal stones
_____9. What are the blood – filtering structures of the kidney called?
a. Capillaries
b. Nephrons
c. Renal arteries
d. Tubules
_____10. Through what tube does urine leave the body?
a. Collecting tubes
b. Renal veins
c. Ureters
d. Urethra
______11. Excretion rids the body of _____.
a. excess food
b. Cellular metabolic wastes
c. Non-digestible ingested material
d. All of the above
______12. Kidney function (s) include
a. Water and salt balance

b. Removal of metabolic waste
c. Removal of excess water and excess salts
d. All of the above

______13. The _____ are muscular tubes that convey the urine from the kidney’s to
the bladder.
a. Urethras
b. Ureters
c. Urinary bladders
d. Nephrons
____14. Kidney contains many collecting ducts, which enter the renal ______.
a. Cortex c. pelvis
b. Medulla d. loop of henle
_____15. Urine is formed through the processes of _______.
a. Filtration and reabsorption

b. Filtration only
c. Reabsorption only
d. Filtration, reabsorption and secretion

The Human Reproductive System,
Fertilization and Development

be able to:
LO1. Identify the parts and functions that make up the male
reproductive system and female reproductive system.
LO2. Identify the hormones of ovarian and uterine cycles and
relate them with menstruation.
LO3. Explain the significant stages in the development of ovum.
The Male Reproductive System

Figure 4-1. The male reproductive system
The male reproductive organs are the two testes, which hang in a body or pouch
called the scrotum. The testes are oval bodies consisting of fine tubules enclosed in
a tough, fibrous sheath. These tubules, called seminiferous tubules, produce sperm.
The tubules empty into a mass of tubes along the sides of the testes called
epididymis, a temporary storage place for sperm. The minute spaces between the
seminiferous tubules are filled with cells that produce the male sex hormone called
testosterone. This hormone controls the development of secondary sex
characteristics, traits that distinguish males from females at the onset of puberty.
From the epididymis, sperm travel through another tube, called the vas deferens,
which receives them, carries them up, and delivers them into the urethra—the same
tube that drains the urinary bladder. Near the urethra is a side pouch, the seminal
vesicle, a gland that produces part of the seminal secretion.
Another gland, the prostate gland, produces a thin, watery, alkaline secretion that
mixes with the sperm and other secretions to form the semen. The secretion of the
prostate gland makes the sperm start to swim vigorously. During sexual excitement
or orgasm, the muscles of the pelvic floor contract and pump the semen out through
the penis. The bladder empties into the urethra but the flow is blocked by a ring of
muscle (sphincter) that contracts strongly during sexual excitement. Thus, semen
and urine cannot leave the body through the urethra at the same time.
The penis is a mass of erectile tissue (blood spaces surrounded by a fibrous case)
arranged in three columns.
Ordinarily the penis hangs down in front of the scrotum. During sexual excitement
much blood is pumped into the erectile tissue at the same time that the outflow
through the veins is partly blocked. When this happens, the penis becomes firm and
erect, and becomes bigger in size.
The skin of the penis is loose and freely

movable to make intercourse easier. This
loose skin ends in a fold, the foreskin or
prepuce, which covers the sensitive head of
the penis. The foreskin is often so long and
tight that it cannot be pulled back to cleanse
the penis properly. That is why circumcision is
of great advantage.
Figure 4-2. The parts of a human sperm cell

The Human Sperm Cell or Spermatozoa
The human sperm consists of four major parts: a head, a neck, a connecting
piece, and a tail. The head is a flattened, oval-shaped part that is propelled by the
lashing motion of the tail. When the sperm penetrates an ovum during fertilization,
the tail separates from the rest of the sperm. The head and the connecting piece
enter the ovum, and the zygote is formed.
A. The Female Reproductive System

The functions of the female human reproductive system are as follows:
1. to produce egg cells through oogenesis

2. to receive the sperm cells and provide a place where fertilization of the egg `
can take place
3. to provide nutrients for the development of the embryo
4. to produce hormones that promote the development of secondary sex
characteristics such as growth of pubic hair, development of the breasts and
the feminine form, which include wider hips for childbirth, and fat deposition in
areas like the thighs, arms, and lower abdomen.
Performing these complicated tasks are the following essential organs:
1. a pair of gonads called ovaries

2. a duct system, including uterine tubes, called the Fallopian tube; the uterus
(womb); and a copulatory organ—the vagina
3. the external genitalia, or vulva
The female reproductive organs or ovaries are

almond-shaped about 3.25 centimeters long, located
on each side of the pelvic cavity. These organs are
designed for developing the female reproductive
cells—eggs or ova—and producing the female
hormones. At birth, they contain around 200,000 to
400 000 unripe, immature eggs, which are also
called primary oocytes. About half of these are lost
before puberty; then one usually develops each
month during the child-bearing years. The remainder
dry up and disappear after menopause. The germ
cells contained in the ovaries are not arranged in
tubules as in the testes; instead, they are distributed
in a cortical layer of varying thickness, developing
within fluid-filled sacs called follicles. Figure 4-3. The female
reproductive system

At the start of puberty, the ovaries also produce a hormone called estrogen, which is
carried by the blood to all parts of the body. This hormone is responsible for the
female sex characteristics, such as high-pitched voice, the absence of a beard,
development of breasts, and widening of the pelvis. This hormone also stimulates
the eggs to ripen.
The fallopian tubes are paired, tubular, and muscular organs that run from the uterus
toward the ovary. The outer small ends of both tubes are funnel-shaped and are
surrounded by finger-like projections that help to guide the ovum into each tube. The
tubal lining is covered by small, hair like cilia so that the ovum can move slowly
onward. If the tubes become blocked by scars due to infection, the eggs cannot get
through and the woman will be sterile or unable to bear children. The inner ends of
the tubes empty into the upper corners of the uterus.
The uterus is a pear-shaped mass of solid muscles with a small, flat, central cavity
lined with a soft, moist membrane. The small end structure, or the cervix, dips
downward onto the top of the vagina. The cervix is the opening to the uterus. The
uterus is where the fertilized ovum is implanted, after passing through the fallopian
tubes where it is likely fertilized. The upper part of the uterus is freely movable and
can easily expand upward during pregnancy when the fertilized egg develops into an
embryo, then a fetus, and finally, to a fully developed infant.
The vagina is the birth canal leading from the uterus to the external opening of the
reproductive tract.
Accessory Organs of the Female

Reproductive System
The breasts, or mammary glands, are the

principal accessory structures of the
female reproductive system. The breasts
are essentially mixing factories that absorb
water, sugar, and other substances from
the blood and mix them together to make
milk. Each breast is composed of 25 or
more lobes of glands, each lobe with its
duct leading to the nipple. The nipple is an
erectile structure having 25 or more small
openings and surrounded by a darkened
area, the areola. See figure 4-4.
Figure 4-4. The female breast
B. The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles—Hormonal Functions

A woman's ovarian cycle varies with age, genetic and environmental factors, and her
nutritional status.
Ovarian Cycle

1. Hormones coordinate with the development of ova and the uterus. Let
us consider a typical 28-day cycle and call the first day of your
menstruation day 1. Each month your ovaries begin to ripen a number
of follicles under the influence of the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
During the first part of the menstrual cycle, these follicle cells become
filled with a fluid containing a female sex hormone responsible for
controlling the growth of the uterine lining or endometrium. This occurs
from days 1 to 13 of the cycle and is called the follicular phase.
Typically, only one follicle per month in one ovary becomes dominant
over the others and produces a ripened egg cell. As the follicles ripen,
the level of estrogen rises. This in turn signals the brain (hypothalamus
and pituitary gland) to release luteinizing hormone (LH) to trigger the
dominant follicle to release the -ripened egg. Ovulation is the release of
the mature egg from the ovary. This occurs at mid-cycle. The egg may
live after the ovum has been released from the ovary for 12 to 24
hours.
2. Discharged and drawn into the fallopian tube, the follicle turns into a
yellow body and forms corpus luteum. In the ovary, the corpus luteum
secretes estrogen and another female hormone called progesterone.
Progesterone helps prepare and maintain the endometrium for the
implantation of a fertilized egg. The time when egg is released (days 15
to 28) until the next first day of, menstruation constitute the luteal
phase.
Figure 4-5. A cross-section of a human ovary with different stages of development
Uterine Cycle
While the above events are taking place in the ovary, changes in the uterus also
happen. From days 5 through 14 of the 28-day cycle, the lining of uterus increases
rapidly in thickness and the uterine glands multiply and grow as estrogen is
produced by the follicles. This is the proliferative phase.
If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates and the levels of
progesterone and estrogen drop. Without sufficient amount of progesterone and
estrogen to maintain the thickened endometrium, the lining breaks down and is shed

off in a process called menstruation. This constitutes the secretory phase of the
uterine cycle (days 15-28). However if the egg is fertilized, and the embryo
successfully implants itself in the endometrium, the cells of the developing embryo
secrete the hormone human chorionic gonadotropian (HCG) that signals the corpus
luteum to continue progesterone secretions, thereby maintaining the thick lining of
the uterus. This thick lining will provide blood vessels that will nourish the embryo.
Figure 4-6. The female hormones at work during ovarian and uterine cycles
Summary
Sexual reproduction results from the fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell.
The male reproductive system consists of important structures such as the testes,
penis, scrotum, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, seminal vesicles, prostate glands,
and Cowper's glands.
The human sperm cell consists of four major parts: the head, neck, connecting
piece, and tail.
The female reproductive system performs female sexual and childbearing functions.
It consists of a pair of gonads (the ovaries), Fallopian tubes, the uterus, the vagina,
and the external genitalia (vulva). These organs perform' related functions: to
produce eggs (ova), to produce hormones, to receive the sperm cells that will fertilize
the egg, and to provide nourishment for the development of the embryo.

The ovarian cycle in females is characterized by production of hormones, production
and discharge of eggs from the ovaries, and menstruation. The female hormones are
estrogen, the follicle-stimulating hormone, the luteinizing hormone, and the
progesterone.
The menstrual cycle consists of four major stages: the follicular phase, luteal phase,
proliferative phase, and secretory phase.
C. Human Fertilization and Development

You were introduced to the process of fertilization in the past chapters. Fertilization is
the union of gametes, or the fusion of the egg cell nucleus and the sperm cell
nucleus when a sperm penetrates an egg membrane.
Fertilization may be external or internal. External fertilization is common among

aquatic organisms. During the process, sperm cells and egg cells are shed by their
donors in a surrounding medium (e.g., water), where they unite.
Fertilization is internal if it occurs in the female reproductive tract. In this process, the
egg which is produced by the female is met by the sperm inside the female body.
Then their nuclei fuse and cell division proceeds.
Fertilization of the Ovum
Ovulation, the process of releasing the egg cell, takes place between the tenth and
the sixteenth day of the average menstrual cycle. The ripened egg is quickly caught
from the ovary by the fringed edges of the fallopian tube. Through muscular and
ciliary activity, the egg begins to move into the upper portion of the tube. Sperm must
be introduced for fertilization to take place.
The motile sperm must first survive the acidic environment of the vagina then swim
upstream to the farther end of the fallopian tube to come in contact with the egg. As
they travel, the number of sperm is reduced because of such factors as acidity and
the many folds in the tube. By the time they reach the point of meeting with the egg,
the sperm may have been reduced to less than a hundred.
A single sperm moves through the layer and reaches the plasma membrane of the
egg. The plasma membrane of both sperm and egg interact allowing the content of
the sperm to penetrate the egg. Once this happens, the egg becomes impermeable
to any other sperm as a membrane develops around the fertilized egg. The sperm
and egg nuclei lose their membrane and fuse in a process called syngamy in
fertilization. The process occurs within twelve hours after sperm penetration.

Figure 4-7. The fertilization process
As fertilization occurs, other changes are also brought about in the body. The corpus
luteum of the ovary continues to develop and produce progesterone. This hormone
acts on the uterus. The membrane of the uterus continues to thicken, and many
small glands and capillaries form throughout the tissue in preparation for the arrival
of the zygote:
The Zygote reaches the uterus in a period of three to five days. During this time the
zygote continues to divide by ordinary cell division. See figure 4-8.
As shown in figure 4-8, the fertilized ovum gives rise to all the cells of the new
human body by a series of cell divisions. Once the splitting of the cells has begun, it
goes on continually, and a cluster of cells is formed. On the seventh day, the growing
cluster of cells attaches itself to the inner wall (called endometrium) of the mother's
womb. This cluster of cells is eventually fed by blood passing through this point of

attachment. Within a few weeks blood vessels form. As the cell cluster continues to
increase, its center becomes hollow. Gradually, the cells arrange themselves in
layers as they multiply.
Figure 4-8. Zygote development into an embryo
This developing zygote is called an embryo. For human beings, embryological

development lasts six weeks. The embryo grows until the new organism begins to
take shape and the human characteristics become prominent. From this time until
birth, it is called a fetus, a mammalian embryo after the main body features become
visible.
During the embryonic development, the two most significant stages are:
1. Blastula—a stage of development in which the embryo consists of single layer

of cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity.
2. Gastrula—in animals, an early stage of embryonic development during which
the second germ layer is formed.

Figure 4-9. Stages by which a fertilized egg (zygote) develops specific primary germ
layers.
Extraembryonic Membranes
As the embryo passes down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, a membrane forms
around the mass of dividing cells. This is, called the extraembryonic membrane, the
first of several membranes that will form but will not become part of the embryo itself.

Another membrane, the chorion, forms many small, fingerlike projections, the
chorionic villi. These structures produce enzymes to enable the villi to sink into the
uterine membrane, thus providing nourishment for the embryo through the
capillaries. Then another membrane develops—the amnion, the fluid of which
protects the developing embryo from mechanical injury and keeps it moist.
The placenta is a large, thin membrane formed in the uterus. It transports food and
waste materials between the mother and the developing young. The developing
embryo is connected to the placenta by umbilical cord. Until the time of birth, the
fetus receives its nourishment and oxygen through the placenta. Shortly after birth,
the placenta and the remains of the amnion are expelled. The navel is the scar that
marks the location of the umbilical cord.
Figure 4-10. Fetus in the mother’s womb

B. Assessment Quiz
number.
A. Write the letter of the word that DOES NOT BELONG to the rest of the group.
______1. a. estrogen hormone c. luteinizing hormone
b. follicle stimulating d. semen
______2. a. epididymis c. ovaries
b. follicles d. uterus
______3. a. cowper’s glands c. seminal vesicle
b. prostate d. scrotum
______4. a. scrotum c. testes
b. seminiferous tubules d. urethra
______5. a. estrogen c. follicle Stimulating
b. follicle d. progesterone
______6. a. corpus luteum c. follicle Stimulating
b. estrogen d. progesterone
______7. a. follicular c. puberty
b. luteal d. secretory
______8. a. fallopian tube c. uterus
b. ovaries d. vas deferens
______9. a. epididymis c. urethra
b. scrotum d. vas deferens
______10. a. fertilization c. menstruation
b. menopause d. puberty

B. Match column A with column B. Write the letter that corresponds to
the correct answer.
A B
1. male sex organ a. epididymis
2. female sex glands b. estrogen
3. produces egg cells c. fallopian tube
4. male sex hormone d. follicles
5. female sex hormone e. ovaries
6. produces sperm cells f. scrotum
7. storage place for sperm g. seminiferous tubules
8. transport egg cell to uterus h. testosterone
9. transport sperm from its i. uterus
storage place j. vas deferens
10. houses and nourishes a k. testes
developing embryo
C. Write the letter of your choice on the space provided before the number.
1. Reproductive cells are also called ______?

a. embryos b. zygote c. ovaries d. gametes
2. An absolutely essential growth process that begins within a few hours of
fertilization and is the division of cells (1 to 2, 2 t 4, 4 to 8, 8 to 16 etc.) is
called _____.
a. embriosis b. mitosis c. endotosis d. reproduction
3. As a result of cleavage the zygote becomes transformed into a hollow ball
of cells called the _____.

a. ovary b. blastocyst c. chorion d. ectoderm
4. In humans cleavage begins in the _______.
a. ovary b. oviduct or fallopian tube c. uterus d. vagina
5. _____ is the hormone that is the basis for the pregnancy test.
a. estrogen c. progesterone
b. human chorionic gonadotrophic hormone ( HCG ) d. testosterone
6. If the following male organs, which one is considered a primary sex

organs.
a. ejaculatory ducts b. gonads ( testes ) c. penis d. seminal
vesicles
7. Normal fertilization usually takes place in the ______.

a. fallopian tube b. vagina c. ovary d. uterus
8. Menstruation is the process by which the inner lining of the _______ is no

longer needed and is discharged from the woman’s body.
a. Fallopian tube b. vagina c. uterus d. ovary
9. Throughout the woman’s life, she will regularly menstruate once every:
a. Month b. year c. semester d. period
10. The journey of the mature ovum, if not fertilized, is _______.

a. Ovaries, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina
b. Ovaries, oviduct, cervix, vagina, uterus
c. Ovaries, uterus, vagina, oviduct, cervix
d. Uterus, ovaries, oviduct, cervix, vagina

REFERENCES
Capco, Carmelita M. and Yang, Gilbert C. 2011. You and the Natural World Biology.
Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Fuller, Harry J. and Ritchie, Donald D. reprinted 1968. General Botany. College
Outline Series. 5th edition. Cacho Hermanos, Inc.
Rabago, Lilia et. al (1984) Integrated Science II Biology
Ramos, John Donnie A. Ramos, Anna Cherylle M. (2019) Biology - Exploring Life
Through Science Series Third Edition. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. ICT
Integrated
IMAGE WEBSITE
https://www.amazon.in/World-Beautiful-Different-Flower-Multicolor/dp/B01N5J7NHF

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The Plant Tissues/Basic

Structure of the Leaf

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson the students should

A. Plant Organs Have Tissues

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1

Periderm (secondary Parenchyma cells

Ground Parenchyma cells

Sieve tube members

Meristematic Tissue Allows Growth

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 2

Surface or Dermal Tissue Protects

Surface or dermal tissue covers and

Cork is another example of surface tissue that

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 3

Vascular Tissue Transports

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 4

There are two types of conducting cells

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 5

The main role of the leaves as sites for food

External Structure of Leaves

Internal Structure of Leaves

Make a thin cross section of a

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 6

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 7

1. Opposite - Leaves are arranged in pairs on each node of a stem.

There are various types of leaf margins. The most

Modified Functions of Leaves

Normally, the function of a leaf is to make food. Some leaves may be

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 8

Have you seen the leaves of ampalaya, cadena de

Some leaves are modified into sharp structures

Examine a hairy leaf. At times, when you touch it,

Some leaves secrete certain

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 9

Matching Type: Match Column A with Column B, Column C with Column D.

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 10

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson the students should

LO3. Identify different kinds of specialized stems.

A. External Structure of a Stem

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 11

Internal Structure of the Stem

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 12

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 13

REGIONS OF A DICOT STEM

I. EPIDERMIS, which becomes replaced by a BARK in large woody plants

Refer again to Figure 2-4. Diagram B shows the following characteristics of a

a. The fibrovascular bundles are scattered throughout the pith.

Functions of the Stem

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 14

Besides mechanical support, a very important function of the stem is

Refer to Figure 2-7. Diagram A shows a tracheid. Notice that it is elongated;

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 15

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 16

Movement of Food through the Stem

The principle of diffusion. The molecules of a substance spreads through a

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 17

Look at Figure 2-9. It shows stems

FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 18

Plant Specialized Stem Function

_________ 1. What happens to a young dicot stem when it grows old?

_________ 2. Which of the following is NOT a function of the stem?

_________ 3. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE in Monocot stems?

_________ 4. Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE in Dicot stems?

_ 10. The region between two successive nodes is called_?

___ 11. Potato stores food. It is a specialized stem called_?

_ 14. Thorns of pomelo functions for__?

1. The primary function of flowers is __?

_ 1. A fruit is a matured_?