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Additive Manufacturing of Woven Carbon Fibre Polymer Composites

Article  in  Composite Structures · August 2018

DOI: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2018.08.091

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 Additive Manufacturing of Woven Carbon Fibre Polymer Composites

Andrew N. Dickson1, Keri-Ann Ross2, Denis P. Dowling1

School of Mechanical & Materials Engineering, University College Dublin, Ireland 1

School of Performing and Creative Arts , South Eastern Regional College 2

*Corresponding Author: Andrew N. Dickson – andrew.dickson@ucdconnect.ie

Abstract:

A novel technique for the fabrication of woven composites using Additive Manufacturing (AM) is
presented and evaluated. To-date fibre reinforced composites deposited by AM exhibit highly
anisotropic properties as the individual layers do not interact, this study helps address this by printing
of a 0/90 woven structure into one layer to aid in stress distribution. A fibre path generator was
created utilising Gcode to emulate the Weft-Warp components of a woven construction using a
continuous carbon fibre filament. This new pathing technique also allows for a woven structure to be
integrated with features (such as notches) previously only possible through destructive machining
processes. In order to evaluate the performance of the printed composites, open hole tensile studies
were carried out in which 6 mm holes were routed into the composite structure and the resulting
part’s mechanical performance were compared with specimens which had been die punched as well
as an unnotched control group. The latter exhibited strengths equivalent to 49% that of unnotched
specimen. In contrast the specimens with woven holes exhibited strengths which were 44% higher,
just 7% lower than the strength achieved for the unnotched specimens. Digital image correlation (DIC)
analysis also demonstrated significantly reduced strain concentration around the printed hole
perimeter, compared with that for the die punched hole.

Keywords: Carbon Fibre, Tailored Fibre Placement, Additive Manufacturing, Tensile Strength, Digital
Image Correlation.

1
Contents
1. Introduction: ................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1. 3D Printing System .................................................................................................................. 4
2.2. Carbon Fibre & Polymer Filament........................................................................................... 5
2.3. Fibre Pathing Technique: ........................................................................................................ 5
3. Experimental Setup: ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.1. Test Standard .......................................................................................................................... 7
3.3. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) ............................................................................................... 9
4. Results & Analysis: .......................................................................................................................... 9
4.1. Porosity Measurement ......................................................................................................... 10
4.2. Open Hole Tensile Testing (ASTM D5766) ............................................................................ 11
4.3. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) ............................................................................................. 13
4.4. Fractography ......................................................................................................................... 14
5. Conclusions ................................................................................................................................... 16
6. Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................... 17
7. References .................................................................................................................................... 17

1. Introduction:

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is widely used for the fabrication of polymer, metal and ceramic

components ranging from prototypes to ‘final products’ [1]. Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) is the

most widely utilised system for AM manufacture due to its relative low material cost, low material

wastage and ease of use [2] . The FDM process most often utilises a continuous polymer filament as

a feedstock material. At present thermoplastics are the most frequently utilised feedstock materials

for FDM due to their low cost, and low melting temperatures [3]. These include Polycarbonate (PC),

Polylactic acid (PLA), Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and Polyamide (PA or Nylon). To

overcome the poor mechanical performance of polymer 3D printed parts, fibre or particle

reinforcement can be added to form composite materials [4]. Zhong et al. incorporated chopped

glass fibres into ABS polymers using an FDM printing process with the aim of increasing tensile

strength [5]. This study demonstrated that interlayer bond strength was increased with increased

2
fibre contents, due to ‘bridging’ of fibres across layers. A further study by Ning et al. investigated ABS

with chopped carbon fibre, which yielded an increase in both tensile strength and stiffness [6].

Continuous fibre reinforcing of printed parts has been examined in several studies, an example being

that by Namiki et al [7]. This study, in which a print head was custom built, yielded continuous

carbon fibre PLA composites with strengths of up to 190 MPa in tensile, and 133 MPa in flexure.

Their strength values were 4-fold and 3-fold higher respectively, compared with the PLA only

specimen. Markforged released the first commercial continuous fibre/FDM system in 2014, the

performance of this system for the printing of carbon, Kevlar and glass fibres has been evaluated by

a number of authors [8] [9] [10].

Tailored fibre placement or fibre steering are techniques for the placement of fibres with the use of

sewing or tape systems. Sewing based systems have been utilised in attempts to increase composite

performance, and typically follow a path for fibre determined by Finite element models [11]–[13].

These systems utilise an un-sized bundle of filaments, which are fixed to a fabric backing by a thread,

guided by a sewing needle. These preformed fibre rows are then placed into a mould, vacuum

bagged and impregnated with the appropriate resin. Fibre bundles placed via this method are often

unevenly loaded by the fixation threads, which as highlighted by Uhlig et al [13], is associated with a

change in local volume fraction along the fibre roving. Tape laying systems are typically larger in

scale and are considerably faster. This technology is used extensively in the aerospace industry as it

is well suited to the laying of large, relatively flat areas of fibre i.e. aircraft wings [14]. In both cases,

automated systems lay unidirectional fibre layers, requiring deposition of multiple perpendicular

layers to achieve higher mechanical isotropy.

In order to increase mechanical isotropy of composite structures, reinforcing fibres are often woven

into fabrics and impregnated with an appropriate resin/polymer. In traditional manufacturing loom

woven composites are produced in large sheets and typically cut to size through machining or water

jet cutting [15], [16].This is to ensure more accurate final part dimensions, or if the part is to be

3
included in an assembly, for the inclusion of fittings and joints. Fibre composites used in aerospace

applications for example, often require machining to facilitate their integration into assemblies of

both metal and composite materials. A limitation with composites however, is when machined using

the same methods as applied to metals, delamination, broken and loose fibres for example, often

occur [17]. As a result of machining/cutting the composite components can become compromised,

and this may lead to premature failures [11]. One technique that has been used to address this

problem in the past is the use of a heated spike which is driven into the composite laminate to

produce a hole [18], [19]. This method has proven useful for assisting in the limitation of fibre

damage around the hole. A complication however can be the presence of exposed fibres around the

hole, as the matrix material is burnt off, reducing the potential for load distribution. Thus the need

for a system capable of producing a woven composite laminate, with selective fibre placement.

Hence, avoiding the fibre damage associated with drilling or punching. Such an AM system would

have advantageous properties with regards to tailoring material performance [20].

In this study, a method for printing of woven carbon fibre structures is demonstrated for the first

time. The printing system utilises a Polyamide 66 impregnated Carbon Fibre Tow as a feedstock

material. This was laid down using Gcode paths designed to produce a weft-warp like woven

structure, from a single continuous filament. To demonstrate the potential of this AM technique,

woven laminates with a centrally located hole were fabricated. Open hole tensile testing was

performed on these laminates to assess mechanical performance of both printed and drilled holes.

2. Materials & Fabrication Process:

2.1. 3D Printing System

Woven carbon fibre Nylon composites were fabricated utilising a Prusa i3 printer chassis onto which

a single Markforged fibre nozzle of 0.6 mm diameter, was installed. For the purposes of this study a

second printhead, such as that used with Nylon in the case of the Markforged systems is not

required, as only the carbon fibre with Nylon coating is printed. To reduce the heated region and

4
decrease the likelihood of clogging (through fibre snagging), a length of PTFE tubing was inserted

into the nozzle and the throat of the nozzle shortened. Also, the inner opening of the nozzle was

filleted. For the specimen produced in this study a print temperature of 245°C and a speed of

10mm/s was used. The printing was carried out onto an unheated Garolite print plate which was

coated in a layer of PVA solution, to ensure adequate adhesion during printing.

2.2. Carbon Fibre & Polymer Filament

Polyamide 66 impregnated 1k Carbon Fibre Tow was sourced from Markforged, CA. These filaments

(~0.35 mm diameter) consist of two materials, a fibre bundle (reinforcement) and an impregnated

polymer (matrix). The fibre bundle consists of approximately 1000, continuous 10 μm diameter

monofilaments, this provided the main load bearing component within the filament. The polymer

matrix material is a proprietary Nylon blend developed by Markforged. The filament is supplied on

150 cm3 spools and is stored in a dry box prior to printing, due to the Nylons hygroscopic nature.

2.3. Fibre Pathing Technique:

As the filaments used in this study contain continuous fibres, it is not possible to stop material

feeding after the print has begun (unlike polymer printing). It was therefore necessary to generate a

continuous toolpath (Gcode). Toolpaths were generated through a parametric algorithm, with

output commands compiled in a spreadsheet software before transferal to the printer. Outputs

generated were customisable by the altering of input parameters (such as sample size, weave

spacing, feature locations, print speed etc). An example of a square woven laminate mid-print is

shown in Figure 1. The woven structure produced in this study can be broken down into unit cells (

Figure 1 highlights 9 of these ‘cells’). By linking many cells together, a woven laminate is formed. The

size of these laminates is limited only by the dimensions of the CNC platform the head is mounted

on ( in this case 200x200 mm). Resulting in a system which is adaptable for production to any size

required. The use of higher speed is achievable by utilising a larger nozzle and fibre bundle. In

addition, the use of coaxial print-heads could also be applied to this end.

5
 Figure 1: 75 x 75 mm woven Carbon Fibre laminate produced through tailored fibre placement. Detailed image of finished
woven laminate and schematic representation of cross sectional structure.

The woven structure produced from this technique differs from a standard woven fabric constructed

(under tension) on a loom, (such as twill, plain or satin) in that a ‘flyer’ row remains at the top of the

structure. Whilst this would result in an unstable textile fabric (due to the absence of a binder), in

this case the ‘flyer’ is held in place by the matrix material. As the matrix material bonds directly to

the bulk structure it can still participate in load transfer. A positive property outcome of this

deposition pattern is the low crimp applied to fibres within the weave, reducing slack between fibre

bundle and reducing potential elongation of the laminate before full tension is reached [21].

Previous studies on tailored pathing utilise unidirectional fibre layers with a small fibre diversion to

incorporate a hole into a multi-laminate composite sheet [11], this led to high resin rich region

directly above and below the hole. This resin region allowed bolt travel in the Y-axis as the resin is

unreinforced. In this study, fibres from the X and Y axis were diverted around a region to leave a hole

with no matrix rich regions, as illustrated in Figure 2. This results in a hole that is reinforced with

hemispherical sections of fibre, whilst preventing fibre and matrix alteration, an issue highlighted in

previous studies [10],[18],[22].

6
 Figure 2: Fibre pathing in the Y-axis around the 6 mm Hole feature and fibre path in straight woven sections (red lines
indicate fibre path and placement). (left) Tailor Woven (right) Die Punched. Scale bar 1000 um.

After initial testing of the fibre pathing, it was found that cornering points, such as those used at

holes would always result in a smaller diameter than set in the Gcode command. Therefore, to

produce the 6 mm hole required for open hole tensile testing, a turning radius of 8.3 mm was used.

This technique of ‘overturning’ is similar to that used by the Markforged composite printer, as fibre

reinforced filament does not exhibit the same turning behaviours as standard printed polymers. As

the Carbon Fibre/Nylon filament is passed through the heated nozzle the matrix material liquifies, it

is pressed between nozzle and the build plate in an ‘Ironing’ type process which flattens the filament

into a ~0.16 x 0.9mm track. Once the filament leaves the nozzle it cools in-place and holds the fibres

together within it on the build plate. The delay between the molten nylon leaving the nozzle and the

nylon solidifying results in the need to increase the turning radii of corners. A cooling fan can be

used to cool this nylon faster; however, this reduces the length of time the molten material contacts

the underlying material, reducing bonding to the plate. This setup was capable of creating holes of

diameter 5.90± 0.07 mm. Whilst this accuracy in the current set-up, is below that obtained from die

punching holes (5.92± 0.03 mm), it is sufficient to assess the structures load bearing performance.

3. Experimental Setup:

3.1. Test Standard

7
To test the integrity of the produced woven structures, tests were carried out according to ASTM

D5766. This standard facilitates open hole tensile test evaluation. A direct comparative study was

then performed on the results of these tests on three specimen types. The ‘Tailor Woven’ specimens

were fabricated with a hole printed into the laminate with no fibre discontinuities. ‘Unnotched’

specimens are laminates of woven composite containing no hole and were thus used as a control

material. Finally, ‘Die Punched’ specimens were prepared by cutting a 6 mm hole into the laminate

post printing using a sharpened die punch.

Open Hole Tensile Test (ASTM D5766)

In addition to the ‘Tailor Woven’ and ‘unnotched’ specimen, a third specimen type was printed in

the same manner as the unnotched specimen, with a 6-mm hole then removed from the structure

with a die punch. This punching process causes the fracture of fibres passing through the centre of

the specimen.

Specimen were 200 x 36 x 0.35 mm in size (excluding selvedge regions) with a 6mm hole placed at

the centre of the composite. Tapered Carbon Epoxy tabs were bonded to the gripping ends. These

tabs are necessary due to the low thickness of the laminate making gripping points major stress

risers. Tabs reduced these stresses and all composite failures were observed at the hole/centre of

specimen. Specimen were comprised of a single 0.35 mm laminate to exclude interlaminar

interactions, and to allow for greater displacement for accurate DIC strain detection. Another

consideration in the preparation of specimens was that of excess material, this ‘selvedge’ material is

present due to fibre cornering. As cutting of selvedge ‘tabs’ may introduce a new variable to testing,

the tabs were left in place. Selvedge ‘tabs’ contain no fibre in the Y axis, and are therefore non-

loadbearing during tensile tests. Tabs on tensile samples were 10 mm in length. Five of each

specimen type were tested.

3.2. Mechanical Testing

8
Tensile tests were performed utilising an Instron 100 KN (50 KN Tensile) 8501 hydraulic tester. As per

ASTM D5766 (Open hole tensile) standard the specimens were tested at a crosshead speed of 1

mm/minute. Hydraulic grips were used to ensure equal gripping pressure on each tab (500 PSI). A

preload of 5 N was applied to each specimen prior to test start.

An Olympus GX51 optical microscope was utilised for fractographic imaging, and a TM-1000 Hitachi

scanning electron microscope (SEM) for cross-sectional analysis of specimen post testing.

3.3. Digital Image Correlation (DIC)

A LaVision Stereoscopic Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system was utilised to record strain fields on

the specimen surface during tensile testing (Figure 3). Post testing, strain analysis was performed

using the LaVision Strainmaster software package. This system was also used as a video

extensometer for all testing. To facilitate image capture, a random pattern of white elastic spray

paint was used to ‘speckle’ the surface (shown in Figure 3, left).

Hydraulic Grips

Test specimen

DIC Cameras

Figure 3: (right) Tensile testing setup on Instron universal tester during calibration procedure. Also shown are stereoscopic
cameras used for DIC measurements. Blue lighting aids in speckle point detection. (left) detailed image of test specimen,
with white speckle pattern.

4. Results & Analysis:

The results are presented in three sections, firstly the porosity and void content of the woven

composites are evaluated. The mechanical properties of the woven structures containing no holes

were then compared with those containing printed holes i.e. obtained by diverting fibres. The final

9
section presents the result of a study in which baseline specimens were die punched to create a hole

(resulting in cut fibres), in line with notch production practiced within the composite industry. The

die punched samples were then compared with woven composites with tailor woven holes (no fibres

cut), as well as those with no holes.

4.1. Porosity Measurement

The printed specimens were inspected under SEM to establish porosity levels (air void content)

within the woven laminate. Excessive porosity may reduce fibre-matrix contact and result in poorer

load transfer between adjacent fibres through matrix material, as has been highlighted for FDM

composites in studies prior [23]. It is therefore important to assess the occurrence (if any) of air void

infiltration within composite materials. The ‘Tailor Woven’ Specimens were cross-sectioned in both

the areas around the hole (A) and in the bulk composite structure (B) (Figure 4), these sections were

then mounted into acrylic resin and polished under a grinding wheel to facilitate cross section

examination using SEM.

Figure 4: SEM cross sections around the hole (A) and in the bulk structure (B) illustrating the reduction in porosity caused by
increased filament density around the hole perimeter. Several examples of pores are circled.

Porosity was quantified utilising image analysis software to identify void regions (Circled in Figure 4).

Measurements were obtained on 10 images (500x magnification), obtained from 3 specimens. The

average porosity for each region is shown in Table 1. As is evident from this table, bulk porosity was

higher and more varied than that obtained around the hole perimeter area, with porosity observed

10
as high as 23.0% and as low as 1.1% in different locations. This is a side effect of the increased

filament density present when a fibre is redirected around the opening. The build-up of fibre applies

further downward pressure on the heated filaments and pushes air out of the structure, thereby

increasing load transfer efficiency in this region and distributing stresses throughout the woven

structure (As demonstrated by DIC analysis in Section 4). Just to note that as these structures were a

single laminate thick, interlaminar porosity was not present. It is expected that multilaminate

structures would contain significantly higher void contents depending on print heights used. This is

scope for future study.

Table 1: Average porosity as percentage of total cross-sectional area

Tailor Woven Specimen - Porosity (%) by region

Hole Perimeter (A) Composite Bulk (B)
Average 2.24 6.07
St Dev 1.08 6.48

4.2. Open Hole Tensile Testing (ASTM D5766)

The ‘Unnotched’ composite test specimen achieved a maximum strength of 313 MPa. This

established a baseline value for the neat structures strength. ‘Die Punched’ specimens achieved a

strength of up to 154 MPa, 49% that of unnotched specimen. ‘Tailor Woven’ specimen achieved

strengths of up to 291 MPa, retaining 93% of an unnotched specimens strength. The resulting

strength was achieved despite the notches presence in the structure. Examples of Stress-Strain

graphs for each specimen are shown in Figure 5 and average tensile strengths compiled in Figure 6.

As illustrated in the latter figure also, the specimen failure was found to occur at the hole opening

for both the ‘Die Punched’ and ‘Tailor woven’ samples. The ‘No Hole’ samples were found to

fractured within 20 mm of the centre of the specimen.

11
 Stress - Strain
300

250
TENSILE STRESS [MPA]

200

150

100

50

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045
STRAIN [S]

Tailor Woven Die Punched Unnotched

Figure 5: Stress-Strain Curves for each specimen type

Open Hole Tensile Strength (MPa)

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
Tailor Woven Die Punched Unnotched
Fracture Region

Figure 6: Tensile testing results and fracture zone of each specimen type.

12
 4.3. Digital Image Correlation (DIC)

As expected, the max principal strain produced in punched and tailored specimen is significantly

higher versus those samples without holes. For these specimens the max strain around the hole was

4 times higher than that experienced in unnotched samples. In the case of Unnotched specimen (no

Hole) the maximum principal strain was observed at weave intersection points, which is likely to be

due to some crimping of fibres at these overlap points. Whilst both Punched and Tailor types

contained a stress rising notch, an image of each specimen during testing (T+60s) reveals a more

rapid onset of strain in ‘Die Punched’ specimen (Figure 7). As illustrated in Figure 8 the ‘die punched’

specimens exhibited similar max principal strain around the hole as obtained for the ‘Tailor woven’

specimens, prior to failure. This strain however for the ‘Die Punched’, occurred at just 52% the load

required for the ‘Tailor woven’ specimens.

Figure 7: DIC of specimen at T+60s immediately prior to ’die punched’ failure. Strain reaches 44-48 mS around the hole in
‘die punched’ specimens, this is compared with maximum of 24-25 mS in ‘Tailor Woven’ specimens.

This reduction can be attributed to the discontinuity of the fibres caused by the punching process.

The cutting of the fibres resulted in uneven strain distribution within the structure. As shown in

Figure 8, fibres above and below the hole are unloaded and are irrelevant to the strength of the

laminate. The majority of the applied forces are transferred into the fibres running down the

immediate left and right of the hole. In contrast, ‘Tailor Woven’ specimen distributed loads from the

13
hole to the surrounding structure, reducing localised strain at the hole. Whilst strain is still

concentrated at the hole, the load distribution is sufficient to delay failure until a load of 96% that

required for fracture of the unnotched specimen is reached.

Figure 8: DIC image of maximum principal strain (mS) immediately prior to failure. Unnotched and Tailor Woven at ~
T+120s, Die Punched at ~T+60s.

4.4. Fractography

Both microscopy and SEM were used to examine the fractured test specimen. Visual inspection was

utilised to identify failure mechanisms, porosity, as well as to assess the interaction between matrix

material and reinforcing fibre. Micrograph analysis revealed that ‘Unnotched’ specimen exhibited

translaminar failure near the midsection of the gage length. Crack arrest was observed at weft-warp

intersections, shifting the crack onto a different line of propagation (Figure 9). This crack arrest was

also observed in the ‘Tailor Woven’ specimen, however interestingly this was not a trait of ‘Die

Punched’ specimen failure. It is suspected that sudden load onset from the highly strained hole

region to the mostly unloaded composite bulk material (as observed in Figure 8), may have resulted

in faster crack propagation. This faster crack propagation did not allow for the material to arrest the

crack (all fracture regions shown in Figure 6).

14
 intralaminar
failure regions
Load Direction

Translaminar
failure

Figure 9: Unnotched specimen failure region. Indications are present of translaminar and intralaminar fracture modes as
indicated.

When assessing these specimen under SEM, polymer infiltration throughout the fibre bundles was

found to vary depending on the location within the structure. Some regions see limited air

infiltration, with other areas comprised of multiple poorly impregnated fibres that have been pushed

out of the matrix during printing. In resin rich segments, fibre-matrix contact appears high, however

bonding appears poor. SEM imagery reveals clean fibre tip pull-out; however many fibres remain in

the matrix material even after failure (Figure 10 - right). Some matrix cracking was observed around

the fracture zones, these cracks appear to have occurred in a brittle manner despite the Nylon

matrix being highly ductile. This behaviour would imply high load uptake from fibre despite this

poor bonding, with the matrix undergoing shock loading at the moment of fibre failure (Figure 10 –

left).

15
 Figure 10: (left) Region of heavily impregnated fibres following fracture. (Right) Fibre pull-out often results in clean fibre
tips, some fibre pull-out impressions are visible as shown.

5. Conclusions

Using FDM processing, combined with a continuous toolpath (Gcode), woven continuous carbon

fibre composite have been produced for the first time. The ability to auto layup woven laminate

containing apertures/holes were also demonstrated, without the need for post-machining. These

fibre structures were continuous in nature, with no break in fibre continuity around the hole

perimeter. The resulting structures can be manufactured with relatively low porosity. The tensile

performance of the ‘Tailored’ holes were compared with holes which were die-punched in the AM

printed composite. Printed structures containing 6mm apertures/holes retained 96% the tensile

strength of unnotched laminates, a significant improvement over die punched specimen which failed

at just 52% of this strength. Digital image correlation (DIC) analysis demonstrated that the ‘Tailor

Woven’ specimen exhibited significantly reduced strain concentration around the hole perimeter

compared with ‘Die Punched’, with loads being distributed throughout the woven structure. This

additive manufacturing technique has many advantages, woven composites can be produced into

which geometrically complex openings can be placed with minimal associated loss in mechanical

strength. This fabrication method means holes and orifices can be printed which avoids the strength

16
losses associated with conventional composite post processing operations. Future work will focus on

the production of larger multilaminate parts, and increasing of toolpath efficiency as well as

accuracy.

6. Acknowledgements

Supported by Irish Manufacturing Research and by SFI through the I-Form Advanced Manufacturing
Research Centre 16/RC/3872.

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