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Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you will be able to:

ECV 208 1. Define a retaining wall

2. Discuss different types of retaining walls

Strength of Materials II 3. Calculate active lateral earth pressures on retaining

walls using Rankine’s formula
4. Determine the stability of a retaining wall for the
following conditions:
Weight of
soil and Retaining Walls
concrete a) Tension in the masonry/concrete at the base of the
in the
structural wall
wedge
Active - Analysis and b) Overturning of the wall
Thrust
c) Sliding of the wall at the base
Passive
Conditions for
Thrust
d) Crushing of masonry/concrete at the base of the
Stability retaining wall.
Point O

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Retaining Walls
 A retaining wall is a structure built for the purpose of
holding back, or retaining or providing one-sided lateral
confinement of soil or other loose material. The loose
material being retained pushes against the wall, tending
to overturn and slide it.
 Retaining walls are used in many design situations where

Retaining walls there are abrupt changes in the ground slope. Perhaps
the most obvious examples to the reader occur along
highway or railroad cuts and fills.
 A retaining wall can be used to retain fill along a slope or it
can be used to support a cut into a slope as illustrated in
the figure below.
 Retaining walls are used in many other locations as well,
such as for bridge abutments, basement walls, and
culverts.
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Retaining Walls Types of Retaining Walls

Retaining walls are generally classified as being gravity,
A retaining wall is semi-gravity, cantilever, counterforts or buttressed types.
subjected to pressure,  Gravity retaining walls, shown in Fig (a)&(d) below, are
produced by the used for walls of up to about 3 m to 4 m in height. They are
retained earth in a usually so massive that they are unreinforced, constructed
similar manner as the with plain concrete and depend completely on their own
dam wall is subjected weight for stability against sliding and overturning. Gravity
to water pressure. walls may also be constructed with stone or block
masonry.
 Semi-gravity retaining walls, shown in Figure (b)&(e), fall
between the gravity and cantilever types. They depend
on their own weights plus the weight of some soil behind
the wall to provide stability. Semi-gravity walls are used for
approximately the same range of heights as the gravity
walls and usually have some light reinforcement.
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Types of Retaining Walls Types of Retaining Walls

(a) (b) (c)  Cantilever retaining walls are the most common type of
retaining walls. Such walls are generally used for heights
from about 3 m to 9 m. In discussing retaining walls, the
vertical wall is referred to as the stem. The outside part of
the footing that is pressed down into the soil is called the
toe, while the part that tends to be lifted is called the heel.
These parts are indicated for the cantilever retaining wall
(d) (e) (f) of Figure (c)&(f). The concrete and its reinforcing are so
arranged that part of the material behind the wall is used
along with the concrete weight to produce the necessary
resisting moment against overturning. This resisting moment
is generally referred to as the righting moment.

(a) & (d) are gravity walls; (b) & (e) are semi-gravity walls; (c) & (f) are
cantilever walls
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Types of Retaining Walls Types of Retaining Walls

 When it is necessary to construct retaining walls of greater
heights than approximately 9 m, the bending moments at
the junction of the stem and footing become so large that
the designer will, from economic necessity, have to
consider other types of walls to handle the moments. This
can be done by introducing vertical cross walls on the
front or back of the stem. If the cross walls are behind the
stem (i.e., inside the soil) and not visible, the retaining walls
are called counterfort Retaining walls. Should the cross (g) Counterfort walls; (h) Buttressed walls;
walls be visible (i.e., on the toe side), the walls are called
buttress retaining walls. These walls are illustrated in Figures  Each of these walls must be designed to resist the external
(d) and (e). The stems for these walls are continuous forces applied to the wall from earth pressure, surcharge
members supported at intervals by the buttresses or load, water, earthquake etc.
counterforts.  Prior to completing any retaining wall design, it is first
necessary to calculate the forces acting on the wall.
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Failures of Retaining Walls Forces on Retaining Walls

 The number of failures or partial failures of retaining walls is
rather alarming.
 One reason for the large number of failures is the fact that
designs are so often based on methods that are suitable
for certain special situations.
 For instance, if a wall that has a saturated clay behind it is
designed by a method that is suitable for a dry granular
material, there will be future trouble.

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Forces on Retaining Walls Forces on Retaining Walls

The self - weight of the retaining wall is calculated as
before for the dams, depending on the cross sectional
shape of the retaining wall. This weight will act through
the centre of gravity of the wall section.

The weight of retaining wall per unit length will be given

by:
For a rectangular section,
𝑊 = 𝛾𝑏𝐻
For a trapezoidal section,
𝑎+𝑏
𝑊=𝛾 𝐻
2
Where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒.

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Forces on Retaining Walls Forces on Retaining Walls

The frictional force is also calculated as before for the
dams, coefficient of friction and the self weight of the
wall. This frictional force will act at the base of the wall.
The frictional force = 𝜇𝑊
The lateral earth pressure
The magnitude of this lateral earth pressure depends
on the type of earth particles and the manner in which
they have been deposited on the back of the retaining
wall.
The pressure exerted against the wall will increase, as
did the water pressure, with depth but usually not as
rapidly.
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 The pressure at any depth is estimated using expression:
𝑃 = 𝐾𝛾ℎ
 In this equation, 𝛾 is the unit weight of the soil, ℎ is the
vertical distance from the surface of the soil to the point in
question and 𝐾 is a constant that is dependent on the
characteristics of the backfill. It is known as earth pressure
coefficient.
 Unit weights of soils will vary.
 The value of 𝐾 can vary quite a bit, being perhaps as low
as 0.3 or 0.4 for loose granular soils and perhaps as high as
0.9 or even 1.0 or more for some clay soils.
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Lateral Earth Pressure

 If a retaining wall is constructed against a solid rock
face, there will be no pressure applied to the wall by
the rock.
 But if the wall is built to retain a body of water,
Categories of lateral hydrostatic pressure will be applied to the wall.
earth pressure on  At any point, the pressure 𝑝 will be equal to 𝛾ℎ where
retaining walls 𝛾 is the unit weight of the water and ℎ is the vertical
distance from the surface of the water to the point
in question.
 If a retaining wall is built to retail a soil, the soil’s
behavior will generally be between that of the rock
and water (though as we shall learn at some point,
the pressure exerted by some soils is much higher
than that caused by water).
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Lateral Earth Pressure Lateral Earth Pressure

 Soil particles lack in cohesion and hence have a  The three pressures at any depth are estimated with the
definite angle of repose. following expressions:
 Angle of repose may be defined as the maximum
natural slope at which the soil particles will rest due to 𝐴𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑜 = 𝐾𝑜 𝛾ℎ
their natural friction, if left unsupported and for a 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝐴 = 𝐾𝐴 𝛾ℎ
sufficient length of time. 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑝 = 𝐾𝑝 𝛾ℎ

 The soil particles always exert some lateral pressure on

the walls, which retain or support them.  In the earth pressure equations, 𝐾𝑜 , 𝐾𝐴 and 𝐾𝑝 are
respectively known as at rest, active and passive earth
 There are three categories of lateral earth pressure
pressure coefficients.
and each depends upon the movement
experienced by the vertical wall on which the
pressure is acting. These are: At rest (𝑃𝑜) , active
(𝑃𝑎) and passive (𝑃𝑝) earth pressures.
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At Rest Earth Pressure Active/Passive Earth Pressures

 The at rest pressure develops when

the wall experiences no lateral
movement.
 This typically occurs when the wall is
restrained from movement such as
along a basement wall that is
restrained at the bottom by a slab
and at the top by a floor framing
system prior to placing soil backfill
against the wall.
At Rest Case

(No lateral movement)

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Active/Passive Earth Pressures Active/Passive Earth Pressures

- in granular soils Wall moves

away from soil

Wall moves A
towards soil

B
Passive Active
smooth wall

Let’s look at the soil elements A and B during the wall movement.

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Active Earth Pressure
 The pressure exerted on a retaining wall by the retained
material called backfill is known as active earth pressure.
 As a result of the active pressure, the retaining wall tends
to slide away from the retained earth.
 Active earth pressure of retained earth acts on a retaining
wall in the same way as the pressure of the stored water on
the wall.
 Active earth pressure – practical pressure which acts on
retaining walls.
 As the wall moves away from the soil backfill the active
condition develops and the lateral pressure against the
wall decreases with wall movement until the minimum
active earth pressure force (𝑃𝑎) is reached.
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Passive Earth Pressure
 This pressure is known as Passive Earth pressure.
 Passive earth pressure – theoretical pressure that
rarely comes into play.
 As the wall moves towards (into) the soil backfill, the
passive condition develops and the lateral pressure
against the wall increases with wall movement until
the maximum passive earth pressure (𝑃𝑝) is reached.
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Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficients
 Lateral earth pressure is related to the vertical earth
pressure by a coefficient termed the:
 At Rest Earth Pressure Coefficient (𝐾𝑜)
 Active Earth Pressure Coefficient (𝐾𝑎)
 Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient (𝐾𝑝)
 The lateral earth pressure is equal to vertical earth
pressure times the appropriate earth pressure
coefficient.
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Passive Earth Pressure
 On the other hand, if the wall moves into the soil, then
the soil mass is compressed, which also mobilizes its
shear strength and the passive pressure develops.
 This situation might occur along the section of wall
that is below grade and on the opposite side of the
retained section of fill.
 Some engineers might use the passive pressure that
develops along this buried face as additional restraint
to lateral movement, but often it is ignored.
 As a result of the movement of the retaining wall, the
compressed earth is subjected to a pressure which is
in the opposite direction of the active pressure.
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lateral earth pressure
Coefficients
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At Rest Coefficient
 Depending upon whether the soil is loose sand,
dense sand, normally consolidated clay or over
consolidated clay, there are published relationships
that depend upon the soil’s engineering values for
calculating the at rest earth pressure coefficient.
 One common earth pressure coefficient for the “at
rest” condition in granular soil is:
𝐾𝑜 = 1 – sin(∅)
 Where: 𝐾𝑜 is the “at rest” earth pressure coefficient
and ∅ is the soil friction value.
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Rankine’s Active and Passive Coefficients

Active and Passive Coefficients
When discussing active and passive lateral earth
pressure, there are two relatively simple classical
theories (among others) that are widely used:
 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
 Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory
Rankine’s theory is one of the most acceptable theories for
the determination of active earth pressure on a retaining
wall.
The Rankine Theory assumes:
 There is no adhesion or friction between the wall and soil.
 Lateral pressure is limited to vertical walls.
 Failure (in the backfill) occurs as a sliding wedge along
an assumed failure plane defined by φ.
 Lateral pressure varies linearly with depth and the
resultant pressure is located one-third of the height (H)
above the base of the wall.
 The resultant force is parallel to the backfill surface.

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Rankine’s Active and Passive Coefficients Coulomb’s Active and Passive Coefficients
The Rankine active and passive earth pressure coefficient The Coulomb’s active and passive earth pressure
for the specific condition of a horizontal backfill surface is coefficients are derived from a more complicated
calculated as follows: expression that depends on the angle of the back of the
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ ∅ wall, the soil-wall friction value and the angle of backfill.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐾𝐴 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 450 − Although this expression is not shown, these values are
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 2
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ ∅ readily obtained in textbook tables or by programmed
𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐾𝑃 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 450 + computers and calculators.
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 2
Some tabulated values for active and passive coefficients
based on Rankine’s expressions are shown in the table The tables below show some examples of the Coulomb
below. active and passive earth pressure coefficient for the
specific case of a vertical back of wall angle and
horizontal backfill surface.

The Tables illustrate increasing soil-wall friction angles (𝛿).

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Coulomb’s Active and Passive Coefficients
Coulomb’s Active Pressure Coefficients
Coulomb’s Passive Pressure Coefficients
Coulomb’s Active and Passive Coefficients
Some points to consider are:
 For the Coulomb case shown above with no soil-wall
friction (𝑖. 𝑒. 𝛿 = 0) and a horizontal backfill surface,
both the Coulomb and Rankine methods yield equal
results.
 As the soil friction angle (∅) increases (i.e. soil
becomes stronger), the active pressure coefficient
decreases, resulting in a decrease in the active force
while the passive pressure coefficient increases,
resulting in an increase in the passive force.

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Lateral Earth Pressure Forces

 The simplest consideration of earth pressure theory
starts with the assessment of the vertical geostatic
effective stress, 𝑃𝑜 , at some depth in the ground
(effective overburden pressure).
Calculating total  In most cases, the vertical stress at any depth in a soil
mass due to its self weight is the summation of the
lateral earth pressure simple products of the unit weight of each soil layer
force and its corresponding thickness down to the depth of
interest.
 The effective component of this pressure is denoted
by 𝑃𝑜.
 Due to a variety of factors, including depositional
patterns, the lateral stress, 𝑃ℎ, in a soil mass is usually
not the same as the vertical stress, 𝑃𝑜.
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Lateral Earth Pressure Forces Lateral Earth Pressure Forces

 Since the vertical stress is known with reasonable certainty
for practical purposes, the lateral stress can be assumed to
be a certain percentage of the vertical stress and can be
expressed as follows:
𝑃ℎ = 𝐾𝑃0
Where 𝑃ℎ is the lateral geostatic effective stress at height ℎ
and 𝐾 is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure and
depends on the state, whether at rest, active or passive,
i.e.
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑜 for “at rest” condition.
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑎 for “active” earth pressure condition.
𝐾 = 𝐾𝑝 for “passive” earth pressure condition
 In cases where ground water exists, the lateral pressure due to
the water at any depth below the ground water level is equal
to the hydrostatic pressure at that point since the friction angle
of water is zero and use of the equations given for 𝑃ℎ leads to a
coefficient of lateral pressure for water, 𝐾𝑤 equal to 1.0.
 The lateral earth pressure is computed by using the vertical
effective overburden pressure 𝑃𝑜 at any depth and applying
equations given.
 The lateral earth pressure is then added to the hydrostatic
water pressure to obtain the total lateral pressure acting on the
wall at any point below the ground water level.
 For a typical soil friction angle of 300 , Rankine’s 𝐾𝑎 = 1/3.
Since 𝐾𝑤 = 1, it can be seen that the lateral pressure due to
water is approximately 3 times that due the Rankine’s active
lateral earth pressure.

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Lateral Earth Pressure Forces

 If the retained material is subjected to some
superimposed surcharge load (e.g. pressure due to
traffic, building etc), it will cause a constant pressure
on the retaining wall from top to bottom. The total
horizontal pressure due to surcharged load,
Examples –Rankine’s
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ Active earth pressure
𝑃 = 𝐾𝐴 × 𝑝 = ×𝑝
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅

where p is the intensity of the surcharged load.

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Examples Solution – Example 1

Example 1: Find the resultant Rankine’s active lateral force and
the distance of the point of application from the bottom in the
case of the retaining wall shown below. The soil profile and the pressure diagram are shown below.

𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝐴 𝐵6
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝟑𝒎 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝟑 𝒎 𝜸𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
∅𝟏 = 300
𝐸
𝐶 26
𝐼
𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝒎 𝜸𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
∅𝟐 = 300
42
𝐻 𝐷 𝐹 𝐺
Take the unit weight of upper soil as 20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 and ∅ = 300 and Soil Profile Lateral Earth
weight of lower soil as 24 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 and ∅ = 300 .
Pressure Diagram
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Solution – Example 1 Solution – Example 1

At a depth of 0 m:
Lateral pressure IE at this depth of 3 m due to the top soil layer is
given by:
Effective stress (vertical)=surcharge
= 18 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝑃𝐼𝐸 = 78 × = 78 × = 26 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
Lateral pressure AB at this depth of 0 m due to the top soil layer is 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
given by:
Similarly, lateral pressure IE at this depth of 3 m due to bottom soil
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 layer is given by:
𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 18 × = 18 × = 6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝑃𝐼𝐸 = 78 × = 78 × = 26 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
At a depth of 3 m: 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛30

This pressure of 26 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 is broken into:

Effective stress (vertical) is:
18 + 𝛾1ℎ1 = 18 + (20 × 3) = 78 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

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Solution – Example 1 Solution – Example 1

At a depth of 5 m: The lateral earth pressure diagram on the retaining wall with
different pressure components is shown below. The pressure 𝐴𝐵 or
Effective stress at this level is given by: 𝐼𝐶 or 𝐻𝐷 is due to surcharge. Pressure 𝐶𝐸 is due to upper soil and 𝐹𝐺
is due to lower soil.
18 + 𝛾1ℎ1 + 𝛾2ℎ2 = 18 + (20 × 3) + (24 × 2) = 126 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟐
𝐴 6 𝐵
Lateral pressure HG at this depth of 5 m is due to the bottom soil 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
layer and is given by: 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝟑 𝒎 𝜸𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
∅𝟏 = 300 1 2
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝑃𝐻𝐺 = 126 × = 126 × = 42 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 𝐶 20 𝐸
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 𝐼
𝟐 𝒎 𝜸𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑 3
This pressure of 42 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 is broken into: ∅𝟐 = 300 4
6 20 16
𝐻 𝐷 𝐹 𝐺
𝑃𝐻𝐷 = 6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃𝐷𝐹 = 20 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 Soil Profile Lateral Earth
Pressure Diagram
𝑃𝐹𝐺 = 16 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
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Solution – Example 1 Solution – Example 1

The total force per meter length of the wall is given by: Let 𝑦 be height of the point of application of the resultant pressure
from the bottom of the wall.
𝐹 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 3 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4
5 3 2 2
1 1 116𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 × + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 × 2 + + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 3 × + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4 ×
= 6×5 + × 20 × 3 += 20 × 2 + × 16 × 2 2 3 2 3
2 2
5 3 2 2
= 30 + 30 + 40 + 16 30 + 30 2 + + 40 + 16
2 3 2 3
𝑦=
116
= 116 𝑘𝑁
215.7
= = 1.859 𝑚
Point of application of the resultant force: 116

The distance of the line of action of the resultant from the

bottom of the wall can be determined by taking the moments
about the base of the wall.

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Examples Solution – Example 2

Example 2: For the retaining wall shown in the figure below, The soil profile and the pressure diagram are shown below.
assume that the wall can yield sufficiently to develop active 𝐴
state. Determine the Rankine’s active force per unit length of
the wall and the location of the resultant line of action.
𝜸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
𝟑𝒎 ∅𝟏 = 300 Pressure units are kN/m 2

𝑮𝑾𝑻 12.46 16 𝐻
𝟑𝒎 𝜸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑 𝐶 𝐷
𝐵
∅𝟏 = 300
𝑮𝑾𝑻
𝟑𝒎 𝜸𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
∅𝟐 = 360
𝟑𝒎 𝜸𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
∅𝟐 = 360
19.62 29.43
𝐸 𝐹 𝐼 𝐽
𝐺

Soil Profile Lateral Earth Pore

Pressure Pressure
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Solution – Example 2 Solution – Example 2

Lateral pressure BD at this depth of 3 m due to the top soil layer is
Because of the presence of water table, the effective lateral
given by:
pressure and the hydrostatic pressure have to be calculated
separately. 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝑃𝐵𝐷 = 48 × = 48 × = 16 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
At a depth of 0 m: 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅1 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛30

Similarly, lateral pressure BC at this depth of 3 m due to bottom

Pressure due to water (pore pressure)at A=0
soil layer is given by:
Effective stress at A=0.
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛36
𝑃𝐵𝐶 = 48 × = 48 × = 12.46 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
At a depth of 3 m: 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛36

Pressure due to water (pore pressure)=0 At a depth of 6 m:

Effective stress at B is: Pressure due to water (pore pressure) is given by:
𝛾1ℎ1 = 16 × 3 = 48 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
𝑃𝑤 = 𝛾𝑤ℎ𝑤 = 9.81 × 3 = 29.43 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2
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Solution – Example 2 Solution – Example 2

𝐴

Effective stress at this level is given by: 𝜸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑

𝟑𝒎 ∅𝟏 = 300 Pressure units are kN/m 2
𝛾1ℎ1 + 𝛾2 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ2 = 16 × 3 + 19 − 9.81 × 3 = 75.57 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 1
𝑮𝑾𝑻
Lateral pressure GE at this depth of 6 m is due to the bottom soil 12.46 3.54 𝐻
𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
layer and is given by:

1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛36 𝟑𝒎 𝜸𝟐 = 𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑

2
𝑃𝐺𝐸 = 75.57 × = 75.57 × = 19.62 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2 ∅𝟐 = 360 4
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛36 3

The pressure distribution diagram that results from these figures 12.46 7.16 29.43
𝐸 𝐹 𝐺 𝐼 𝐽
with different pressure components is shown below.
Lateral Earth Pore
Soil Profile
Pressure Pressure

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Solution – Example 2
The total force per meter length of the wall is given by:

𝐹 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 2 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 3 + 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 4

1 1 1
= × 16 × 3 + 12.46 × 3 + × 19.62 − 12.46 × 3 + × 29.43 × 3
2 2 2

= 24 + 37.38 + 10.74 + 44.145 Conditions of stability

= 116.27 𝑘𝑁 for a retaining wall
The distance of the line of action of the resultant from the
bottom of the wall can be determined by taking the moments
about the base of the wall:

3 3 3 3
24 3 + 3 + 37.38 2 + 10.74 3 + 44.145 3
𝑦= = 1.78 𝑚
116.27
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Conditions of Stability Conditions of Stability

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Conditions of Stability Examples

Example 3: Find the stability of the retaining wall shown below.
The conditions for stability of a retaining wall are the Also find the extreme stresses at the base of the wall, taking the
same as those for the stability of a dam. In general, a unit weights of soil retained and masonry of the wall as
retaining wall is checked for the following conditions 16 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 and 22 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 respectively. Assume the angle of
internal friction of the soil as 300.
of stability:
 To avoid tension in the masonry at the base of the 1𝑚
wall. 𝐷 𝐶
 To safeguard the wall from overturning.
 To prevent the sliding of the wall. Non
cohesive 6𝑚
 To prevent crushing of masonry at the base of the backfill
wall.
𝐴 𝐵

3𝑚
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Solution – Example 3 Solution – Example 3

Check for tension in the masonry
Top width (𝑎) = 1𝑚; bottom width (𝑏) = 3𝑚; height of wall
(ℎ) = 6𝑚; unit weight of soil = 16 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3; unit weight of masonry Earth pressure per meter length of the wall:
= 22 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 and angle of internal friction of the soil ∅ = 300
𝛾ℎ2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 16 × 62 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
1𝑚 𝑃= × = × = 96 𝑘𝑁
2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 2 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝐷 𝐶

Weight of the wall per meter length of the wall:

6𝑚 𝑎+𝑏 1+3
𝑊=𝛾× × ℎ = 22 × × 6 = 264 𝑘𝑁
𝑃 2 2
2𝑚
𝐴 𝐽 Taking moments of the wall section about A and equating the
𝐾 𝐵
same:
𝑾 𝑹 1+3 1 1 2
3𝑚 × 6 AJ = 6 × 1 × + × 2 × 6 × 1 +
2 2 2 3
12𝐴𝐽 = 13
63 Githuku CR 64 Githuku CR 𝐴𝐽 = 1.08 𝑚

Solution – Example 3 Solution – Example 3

Point where the resultant cuts the base:
Check for sliding of the wall:
𝑃 ℎ 96 6
𝑥= × = × = 0.73 𝑚 Let the coefficient of friction of the wall be 0.6.
𝑊 3 264 3
Frictional force at the base of the wall:
𝑑 = 𝐴𝐾 = 𝐴𝐽 + 𝑥 = 1.083 + 0.73 = 1.813 𝑚
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑊 = 0.60 264 = 158.4 𝑘𝑁
Since the resultant force lies within the middle third of the base
width (from 1.0 to 2.0), the wall is safe against tension in its
Since the frictional force (158.4 kN) is more than the horizontal
masonry at the base.
pressure (96 kN), the wall is safe against sliding.
Check for overturning:
Extreme stress at the base of the wall:
Since the resultant force lies within the base width AB as
Eccentricity of the resultant:
obtained above, the wall is safe against overturning also
𝑏 3
𝑒=𝑑− = 1.813 − = 0.313 𝑚
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Solution – Example 3 Alternatives for improving

Maximum and minimum stress at the base of the wall: factor of safety against sliding
𝑊 6𝑒 264 6 × 0.313
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1+ = 1+ = 142.6 kN/𝑚2
𝑏 𝑏 3 3

𝑊 6𝑒 264 6 × 0.313
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1− = 1− = 33.4 kN/𝑚2
𝑏 𝑏 3 3

67 Githuku CR 68 Githuku CR

Assignment 9
Question 1: A retaining wall with a smooth vertical backface has
to retain a sand backfill up to a height of 4.5 m. A uniform
surcharge of 48 kN/m2 is placed over the backfill. The water table
is at 2 m below G.L. The specific unit weight of the backfill above
the water table is 15 kN/m3 while below the water table is 19
kN/m3. The angle of internal friction of the soil above and below
the water table are 300 and 350 respectively. Determine the
Assignment magnitude and point of application of the resultant active thrust
on the wall.
Question 2: A trapezoidal masonry retaining wall 1 m wide at the
top and 3 m wide at its bottom is 8 m high. It is retaining earth
having level with the top of the wall on its vertical face. Find the
stability of the retaining wall and calculate the maximum and
minimum intensities of stress at the base of the wall if the unit
weights of masonry and earth is 24 kN/m3 and 18 kN/m3
respectively. Assume the angle of repose of the earth is 400 and
the coefficient of friction between the wall and the soil is 0.62.
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The End

Any
Questions?

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