ECV 310

Public Health Engineering II

Eng. Dr. ISAIAH BOSIRE OMOSA

Reminder:
The true higher education is gained by studying and
obeying the word of God. But when God’s word is laid
aside for books that do not lead to God and the
Kingdom of heaven the education acquired is a
perversion of the name:
EGW
 Course objectives

Prerequisites: ECV 303: Public Health Engineering I

Objective
The objective of the course is to impart knowledge on characteristics
of wastewater

Expected Outcomes
At the end of the course, student should be able to:
1. Identify sources of wastewater
2. Understand physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
wastewater
3. Understand methods of collection and conveyance of wastewater
4. Identify processes relevant for onsite treatment of wastewater
5. Understand effect of wastewater on humans
 Course outline

Course Description
• Sources of waste water: Domestic, Industrial and
storm runoff.
• Waste water characteristics; physical, chemical and
biological.
• Waste water collection and conveyance: methods
and appurtenances.
• Waste water treatment and disposal; methods for
small communities-pit latrines, septic tanks,
cesspools, soakage pits.
• Waterborne diseases; types, transmission and
prevention.
 Organization and assessment

Teaching Organization
Lectures: 2 hours per week; Tutorials: 1 hour per week and 3 hours
per week Laboratory work.

Assessment
Ordinary Examination at end of Semester 70%; Continuous
Assessment 30% of which: 10% shall be continuous assessment tests
and 5% shall be assignments and 15% shall be for laboratory
exercises.

Practical work/Laboratory Exercises

Each student is required to conduct the four experiments listed below.

• Determination of wastewater organic load by BOD and COD tests

• Physical & chemical parameters (solids, colour, pH etc)
• Determination of wastewater pathogenic load by faecal coliform
test-microbiological/bacteriological, Determination of helminth count
• Field estimation of wastewater quantity from a community or
housing estate.
 REFERENCES

• George Tchobanoglous, Franklin L. Burton and H. David Stensel;

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse. Mcgraw-Hill, 4 ed., 2002.
• Wastewater Engineering. Metcalf and Eddy, McGraw-Hill,
• Joseph A. Salvato, Nelson L. Nemerow and Franklin J. Agardy;
Environmental Engineering.Wiley, 5th ed. 2003. ISBN:047141837
• Mackenzie Davis and Susan J. Masten; Principles of Environmental
Engineering and Science.McGraw-Hill, 2003. ISBN:0072350539
• Arcadio P. Sincero and Gregoria A. Sincero (2002) Environmental
Engineering, A design approach, Prentice Hall of India
• Salvato Joseph A. (1982) Environmental Engineering and Sanitation,
Wiley Interscience 3rd edition
• Nathanson Jerry A (2003) Basic Environmental Technology: Water Supply,
waste management and pollution control, 4th edition earson Education Inc.
• Gilbert M. Masters (1991) Introduction to Environmental Engineering and
Science, Prentice Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-483066-0
• McGhee, T.J., Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed.,McGraw-Hill,
• Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (AWWA,
APHA & WEF)
DO YOU AGREE WITH THESE?

WATERWISDOM QUOTES

“Water does not divide; it connects. With simplicity it links all aspects of our existence”.

---------------David Rothenberg and Marta Ulvaenus

“What is of all things most yielding, Can overcome that which is most hard, being
substanceless, it can enter in even where there is no crevice. That is how I know the value of
action which is actionless” (天下柔弱莫于水，而攻者莫之能先，其无以易之)。.
----------------Lao Zi (老子), 5th Century B.C.

“Our planet is shrouded in water, and yet 8 million children under the age of five will die
this year from lack of safe water”.
------------------United Nations Environment Program (when ?)

“Living things depend on water, but water does not depend on living things. It has a life of
its own”.
-----------------E.C. Pielou

“Men lost in a hot desert can live for a week or two without food, but without water they
die in a few days. The remarkable survival of Pablo for eight days in the Arizona desert with
no food and only 9 litres of water merely emphasizes the rarity of such an event”.
------------------------------McGee, 1906
 Do you
still

Water, Water Everywhere Not a Drop to Drink!

agree?

A woman
wades through
floodwaters to collect
drinking water at
connects ?
water that
Is this the
Kakadhowa village in
lower Assam, 69 miles
west of Gauhati, India
 Industrial ww
Storm runoff

Industrial ww

Nairobi River profile

Domestic ww
 Introduction

What is public health engineering and what are its roots?

We must first satisfy the question, ‘what is engineering’?

Engineering may be defined as the application, under constraints of scientific

principles to the planning, design, construction and operation of structures,
equipment and systems for the benefit of society.
 Introduction
Evolution of the concept

With the development of large cities, furthered by the Industrial Revolution,

people moved to urban areas and lived more in crowded conditions and the
frequency of epidemics increased.

• Urbanization and industrialization significantly contributed to the

formation of unsanitary conditions in many areas. The terms “public
health” and “sanitary” were first applied to those engineers seeking
solutions to the elimination of waterborne disease in the 1800s
 In 1854, a localized outbreak of Asiatic Cholera broke out in London. Through
careful examination by John Snow and John York, they demonstrated, with
the science available to them, that the source of pollution had to be from the
Broad Street Pump Station. It was later found that a nearby broken sewer
was the source of the contamination into this drinking water source.

Finally it was correlated to an English soldier who had just returned from
India and carried the cholera bacteria. This incident was a milestone as it was
the first proof that water could be a vehicle for disease such as Asiatic
Cholera.

• The biggest change to move sanitary engineering forward was the

development of the science of bacteriology. (2) Leprosy became endemic
about 1300; also between 1348 and 1350, the bubonic plague or Black
Death caused the death of nearly one quarter of Europe's population, nearly
60 million persons died. It was unknown how to counteract these so-called
"Acts of God."

• Finally in the 17th Century, scientific study was beginning. Names like Anton
Van Leeuwenhoek, the inventor of the microscope Edward Jenner and Louis
Pasteur all did work in the development of the science of bacteriology, but
yet the science was not perfected.
• In the contemporary time and in many parts of the world, PUBLIC
HEALTH ENGINEERING is called Environmental Engineering.

• You can fathom from the foregoing that public health engineering is
geared towards the health and well being of the human populace while
environmental engineering goes further and addresses the environment in
its entirety.

• Public health engineering and/or sanitary engineering as precursors of

environmental engineering were largely ANTHROPOCENTRIC.
 SANITATION DEVELOPMENT IN KENYA

NATURAL SANITATION

‘Natural sanitation’, in which open space, plantation or bush is used for

human waste disposal was prevalent in the pre-colonial days and well into
the colonial era of Kenya i.e. British Kenya, 1895-1963
 CAT METHOD

The ‘Cat method’ that involves burying excreta in shallow hand dug holes
was also extensively practiced

People working on farms may dig a small hole each time they defecate and
then cover the faeces with soil. This is sometimes known as the "cat"
method. Pits about 300 mm deep may be used for several weeks. Excavated
soil is heaped beside the pit and some is put over the faeces after each use.

This was practised as a requirement of cleanliness in the Biblical exodus

period……Deuteronomy 23:13-14
Sanitation development in Kenya closely followed the development of the
railway, which was a precursor for the proliferation of townships along its
path and most of which started as railway stations.

The development of townships triggered the need for centralized

wastewater development to avert disease outbreaks like plague, typhoid,
cholera and dysentery that had become common in a town like Nairobi as
early as 1902.

However, for some good time to come, the bucket system (Night soil) was
to be used in most urban centres and whose final disposal was simply
dumping in open spaces or quarry pits away from residential areas. This
disposal method was equally unsatisfactory.
By 1954, various parts of colonial Kenya had adopted different modes of
sanitation; almost all native reserves used pit latrines and townships
embraced the bucket system.

Waterborne sanitation dominated European quarters in the major

townships. Construction of township sewage treatment works started
around 1956. Between 1956 and 1962 less than 10 sewage treatment
works were constructed.

This marked the period when waterborne sanitation was seriously

considered, mainly in major townships
However, little regard was employed to the appropriateness of the
technologies chosen for sewage treatment works in terms of sustainability.

This can, to a large extent, be attributed to the colonial administrative

system. Nearly all technological needs were imported from Britain on a ‘cut
and paste’ mode leaving little room for more applicable alternative
technologies
 Introduction

• Environmental engineering deals with structures, equipment and

systems that are designed to protect and enhance the quality of the
environment and to protect and enhance public health and welfare. In
other words this is Public Health Engineering.
 Therefore environmental engineers deal with structures, equipment and
systems that are designed to protect and enhance the quality of the
environment and to protect and enhance public health and welfare. In
other words this is Public Health Engineering.

For example, the environmental engineer plans, designs, constructs and

operates sewage treatment plants to prevent the pollution of receiving
streams. These structures enhance water quality. He also does water
treatment plants for safe drinking water to enhance public health and yet
does air pollution control equipment for cleaner air etc
 Introduction

• Traditionally, environmental engineers drew their basic

education and training from civil engineering programs.

• In order to broaden their perspective and capabilities,

contemporary environmental engineers pursue course work
and postgraduate training in professional areas including
biology, chemical engineering, chemistry, and hydrology.

• Since the environmental engineer is now dealing with sensitive

public issues, training in public education, public policy, and
other social sciences is desirable.
Topic 1: Wastewater sources

So, what is wastewater?

 Wastewater sources

What is wastewater?
• Wastewater is the combination of liquid and water-transported wastes
from homes, commercial buildings, industrial facilities, and institutions,
along with any groundwater infiltration and surface water and
stormwater inflow that may enter the sewer system
• Wastewater, basically, is the flow of used water from a community. It is
99.94 percent water by weight (Water Pollution Control Federation
1980).
• The remaining 0.06 percent is material dissolved or suspended in the
water.
• It is largely the water supply of a community after it has been fouled by
various uses
 Components of Wastewater

Wastewater may be classified into the following components:

• Domestic or sanitary wastewater. Wastewater discharged from

residences, commercial (e.g., banks, restaurants, retail stores), and
institutional facilities (e.g., schools and hospitals).

• Industrial wastewater. Wastewater discharged from industries (e.g.,

manufacturing and chemical processes).

• Infiltration and inflow (I/I). Water that enters the sewer system from
groundwater infiltration and storm water that enters from roof drains,
foundation drains, and submerged manholes.

• Storm water. Runoff from rainfall and snow melt.

Criteria for Proper Wastewater Disposal

Because of the need for proper wastewater disposal, the following six criteria
should be used in designing and operating any wastewater disposal system:

1. Prevention of microbiological, chemical, and physical pollution of water

supplies and contamination of fish and shellfish intended for human
consumption
2. Prevention of pollution of bathing and recreational areas
3. Prevention of nuisance, unsightliness, and unpleasant odors
4. Prevention of human wastes and toxic chemicals from coming into contact
with man, grazing animals, wildlife, and food chain crops, or being exposed
on the ground surface accessible to children and pets
5. Prevention of fly and mosquito breeding, and exclusion of rodents and
other animals
6. Adherence to surface and groundwater protection standards as well as
compliance with regulations governing wastewater disposal and water
pollution control.
The King of Wei Kingdom asked the famous doctor Bianque: “ You and your two
brothers are all good at medical treatment. Which one of you is the best?”
Dr. Bianque answered: “ My eldest brother is the best, the second elder brother is
better and I am the least skilled”.
The King asked again: “ But why you are the most well-known?”
Dr. Bianque answered: “My eldest brother cures the diseases before their outbreaks.

Normally people don’t know he can remove the causes of the diseases in advance, so
his reputation could not be widely spread out. Only the family members know that.
My second elder brother cures the diseases when the ailments start. People therefore
think that he can only treat minor ailments. For this reason his fame can not go
beyond our township. However, I cure the diseases when they are already serious.
People see the big operations I do, such as releasing blood from the blood vessels and
applying medicine on the skin, so they think my medical skill is the highest, which
resulted in my widest popularity in the country.”

WW
Engineers
 Domestic wastewater

Domestic Wastewater
• Domestic wastewater is the spent water originating
from all aspects of human sanitary water usage.

• It typically constitutes a combination of flows from

the kitchen, bathroom, and laundry, encompassing
lavatories, toilets, baths, kitchen sinks, garbage
grinders, dishwashers, washing machines, and
water softeners.

• As such, commercial, institutional, and industrial

establishments contribute a domestic wastewater
component
 Domestic WW

Composition. The composition of domestic wastewater refers to the actual

quantities of physical, chemical, and biological constituents present
Domestic WW
 Domestic WW
Biological Constituents

• The biological constituents found in domestic wastewater are extremely

important, due to the public health considerations involved, which stem
from the source and nature of the microorganisms present.

• Many of the waste substances present in domestic wastewater are

organic and serve as food for saprophytic microorganisms that live on
dead organic matter

• Of the microorganisms present in domestic wastewater, bacteria,

protozoa, fungi, algae, and viruses are of the greatest significance to
the environmental engineer

Why is this so?

 Domestic WW

• Bacteria play a fundamental role in the decomposition and stabilization of

organic matter both in nature and in wastewater treatment plants.

• Additionally, of the pathogenic organisms found in domestic wastewater,

bacteria are the most numerous and are responsible for diseases of the
gastrointestinal tract, such as typhoid and paratyphoid fever, dysentery,
diarrhea, and cholera

• Protozoa feed on bacteria and are essential in the operation of biological

treatment processes and in the purification of streams, since they maintain
a natural balance among the different groups of microorganisms

• Fungi are “molds” that have the ability to survive at low pH values, making
them significant in biologically treating some industrial wastes and
composting solid organic wastes.

• Algae are significant because of their ability to reproduce rapidly under the
proper conditions and create algal blooms in surface waters. In addition to
the nuisance associated with such blooms, algae also create taste and odor
problems when present in water, thus diminishing its value for water supply
purposes.
 Domestic WW

Domestic ww TT using CW

Oaklands Park, U.K., 1990

Photo: Paul Cooper
 Domestic
TECHNICAL WW
ROUTE / METHODOLOGY

Flow Characteristics.
• Since domestic wastewater is a by-product of life and living processes,
the quantity of sewage generated in a given area is dependent on the
number of people residing in the area and the contribution of each
individual to the sewer system.

• Therefore, there are two essential components to be considered in

establishing average wastewater flow rates for a given area: population
and per capita sewage contribution.

• In addition, the fluctuations normally experienced on an hourly, daily,

and monthly basis must be taken Into account in any consideration of
domestic wastewater flow characteristics. These factors are most
significant for the designer faced with the problem of establishing a
design basis for collection and treatment facilities

Why is flow characteristic important?

 Domestic WW
 Water Supply Records. To establish flow characteristics for an
existing sewer system, direct field measurements and review of
existing records are advised. For new systems where this is not
possible, public water supply records are often used as an aid in
estimating wastewater flows.
 Studies have indicated that for residential areas, approximately
30% of the total quantity of water supplied is consumed, and the
remaining 70% is discharged to the sewer as domestic wastewater.
In kenya, we assume 80%.

 Per-Capita Sewage Flow. However, as indicated, there is no normal per

capita sewage flow that is applicable to all communities. Variations are
due not only to location, climate, and community size, but also to such
related factors as (1) standard of living, (2) water pricing, (3) water quality,
(4) infiltration, (5) distribution system pressure, (6) extent of meterage,
and (7) systems management.

 Per capita sewage flow can be expected to typically vary between 75 to

125 gal/day (285 and 475 L/day) depending upon all of the factors
indicated.
Population Projections. The development of population estimates in recent
years has become an exacting science, worked out with great care and in
considerable detail by demographers.

 Such data today are usually available from local, regional, and state
planning agencies, whereas in the past, environmental engineers were
typically responsible for developing their own projections.

 This is particularly important for development of new sewerage

schemes in areas with none.

 Future population trends depend on many factors, some known and

some unknown. Known factors include;

• Location with respect to transportation facilities for workers, raw

materials, and manufactured products
• Possible expansion of present industries
• Availability of sites for residential, commercial, or industrial development
• Civic interest in community growth
• Availability of other utility services at reasonable rates
• Real estate values
The Empirical Models:
• Graphical extension,
• Arithmetic growth projection
• Geometric growth projection
• Declining growth projection
• Logistic curve projection
 Industrial Wastewater

• Industrial wastewater emanates from the myriad of industrial processes

that utilize water for a variety of purposes.

• The composition of industrial effluents is equally as variable as flow

rates and dependent to a large degree on the particular industry in
question. Even within the same industry different processes would
discharge ww with varied composition.

• However, If the water requirements of the industries are known,

estimates of wastewater flow may be made by assuming about 85 to
95 percent of the water used becomes wastewater when internal
recycle is not practiced
 Industrial wastewater

• However, it must be emphasized that pollutant loading will vary extensively

within a given industry, and consequently, industrial wastewater
characterization must be done on a plant-by-plant basis.

How can this be done?

Plant Wastewater Survey. In addition to characterizing plant wastewaters, a

properly conducted survey of plant waste streams is a vital first step in
developing an efficient plant wastewater management program.

• There are two basic elements in any plant wastewater survey: (1) definition
of the physical characteristics of the plant’s sewer systems, and (2)
development of individual wastewater stream profiles.

• Physical Characteristics. The most common starting point of a plant

wastewater survey is the drawing file, to determine the extent of available
information. All layout and schematic drawings that relate to the plant’s
sewer systems and water supply should be compiled and carefully
reviewed.

• The next step in the survey involves field verification of data gathered thus
far, and exploration of areas of uncertainty.
 Industrial wastewater

Waste Stream Profiles—Composition. The establishment of individual waste

stream profiles, which characterize the composition and flow of all
wastewater sources, is the objective of any plant wastewater survey.

• Consequently, considerable care must be exercised in this phase of the

survey to ensure that all data obtained are accurate and representative of
actual plant conditions.
 Storm water

Historically, many communities elected to collect storm water and

wastewater in combined sewers and convey the peak dry weather
flow to the wastewater treatment plant while large surges of storm
water were diverted directly to surface water bodies.

The resulting mixture of sewage and storm water has major adverse
impacts on the receiving bodies of water.

Current regulations prohibit this combination in new facilities in most

areas of the world.

We shall learn about Separate and combined sewers later

 Infiltration and Inflow

The extraneous flows in sewers are defined as follows :

• Infiltration. The water entering a sewer system, including
sewer service connections and from the ground through foundation
drains, defective pipes, pipe joints, connections, or manhole walls.
Infiltration does not include inflow.

• Inflow. The water discharged into a sewer system, including

service connections from such sources as;
roof downspouts (also called leaders ); basement, yard, and area
drains; cooling-water discharges; drains from springs and swampy
areas; manhole covers; cross connections from storm sewers and
combined sewers; catch basins; storm water; surface runoff; street
wash water; or drainage. This category is further subdivided as:
 Infiltration and Inflow

• Steady inflow. This category includes water from basement and footing
drains, cooling water discharges, and drains from springs and swampy
areas. It is not distinguishable from infiltration when hydraulic
measurements are taken in the sewer.

• Direct inflow. These are inflows that cause an almost immediate

increase in wastewater flows. Sources of direct inflow include roof
downspouts; basement, yard, and area drains; footing drains; manhole
covers; cross connections from storm sewers and combined sewers; catch
basins; storm water; surface runoff; street wash water; or drainage.
 Topic 2: Wastewater Characteristics

Physical characteristics
Generally, physical pollutants/characteristics can be categorized
as follows:
• Solids
• Color
• Odor
• Taste
• Conductivity
• Temperature

Each of these categories can have chemical or biological sources

and they can possibly be removed by chemical or biological
treatment methods.

Why are the above parameters referred to as physical?

Solids

Solids refer to matter suspended or dissolved in water or wastewater. Solids

may affect water or effluent quality adversely in a number of ways.

Waters with high dissolved solids generally are of inferior palatability and may
induce an unfavorable physiological reaction in the transient consumer.

For these reasons, a limit of 500 mg dissolved solids/L is desirable for

drinking waters.
‘‘Total solids’’ is the term applied to the material residue left in the vessel
after evaporation of a sample and its subsequent drying in an oven at a
defined temperature. Total solids includes ‘‘total suspended solids,’’ the
portion of total solids retained by a filter, and ‘‘total dissolved solids,’’ the
portion that passes through the filter.

‘‘Settleable solids’’ is the term applied to the material settling out of

suspension within a defined period. It may include floating material,
depending on the technique.
FSS- fixed suspended
solids
VSS- volatile suspended
solids
TVS- total volatile solids
VDS- Volatile dissolved
solids
FDS- fixed dissolved solids
TS- Total solids
TFS- total fixed solids
FIGURE 3.1 Total suspended solids filtering apparatus
FIGURE 3.2 Total suspended solids scale
FIGURE 3.3 Settleable solids apparatus. (Imhoff cone)
Temperature
 Temperature readings are used in the calculation of various forms of
alkalinity, in studies of saturation and stability with respect to calcium
carbonate, in the calculation of salinity, and in general laboratory operations.

 Elevated temperatures resulting from discharges of heated water may have

significant ecological impact.

 The temperature of a water is a physical water quality parameter since

temperature can have a negative effect on aquatic life, especially the
propagation of fish.

 Various types of fish require certain temperatures for existence and a lower
temperature for propagation.

 In general, a wastewater which is too warm to allow appropriate life or

propagation, must be cooled to permit temperatures by association with a
cooler gas or fluid
Odour

 Odor, like taste, depends on contact of a stimulating substance with

the appropriate human receptor cell.

 Odor is recognized as a quality factor affecting acceptability of

drinking water (and foods prepared with it), tainting of fish and other
aquatic organisms, and esthetics of recreational waters.

 Most organic and some inorganic chemicals contribute taste or odor.

These chemicals may originate from municipal and industrial waste
discharges, from natural sources such as decomposition of
vegetable matter, or from associated microbial activity, and from
disinfectants or their products.
Taste
Taste refers only to gustatory sensations called bitter, salty, sour, and sweet
that result from chemical stimulation of sensory nerve endings located in the
papillae of the tongue and soft palate.

Can you give the taste of the 3 categories of wastewaters; domestic,

industrial and storm water?
Color

 Wastewater is “colored” if it is not completely clear. Color can be suspended

color (apparent color) or dissolved color (true color), and may be prohibited in
a pre-treatment ordinance.

 The term ‘‘apparent color’’ includes not only color due to substances in
solution, but also that due to suspended matter

 In some highly colored industrial wastewaters color is contributed principally

by colloidal or suspended material. In such cases both true color and
apparent color should be determined.

 Colored industrial wastewaters may require color removal before discharge

into watercourses.

 Color is quantitatively determined by visual comparison with a known

concentration of colored solutions or by spectrophotometric methods.
Turbidity

 Clarity of water is important in producing products destined for human

consumption and in many manufacturing operations.

 Beverage producers, food processors, and potable water treatment plants

drawing from a surface water source commonly rely on fluid-particle
separation processes such as sedimentation and filtration to increase clarity
and insure an acceptable product

 The clarity of a natural body of water is an important determinant of its

condition and productivity.
 Physical Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater.
Fresh, aerobic, domestic wastewater has been said to have the odor of
kerosene or freshly turned earth. Aged, septic sewage is considerably
more offensive to the olfactory nerves. The characteristic rotten-egg odor
of hydrogen sulfide and the mercaptans is indicative of septic sewage.
Fresh sewage is typically gray in color. Septic sewage is black. W
astewater temperatures normally range between 10 C and 20
C . In general, the temperature of the wastewater will be higher
than that of the water supply. This is because of the addition of warm
water from households and heating within the plumbing system of the
structures.

Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater

Industrial processes generate a wide variety of wastewater
pollutants. The characteristics and levels of pollutants vary
significantly from industry to industry. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has grouped the pollutants into three
categories: conventional pollutants, nonconventional
pollutants, and priority pollutants
 Chemical Characteristics

 Chemical pollutants can be organic or inorganic.

 There are thousands of organic pollutants consisting of various

combinations of carbon, hydrogen, and perhaps oxygen and/or many
other inorganic or organic molecules.

 In general, organic pollutants are more biodegradable with fewer carbon

and/or other molecules attached.

Inorganic chemical pollutants can be categorized into pure chemical

pollutants and chemical indicators,
Heavy Metals. Any cation having an atomic weight greater than 23 (atomic
weight of sodium) is considered a heavy metal; so, wastewaters obviously
contain numerous types of heavy metals. Because many Heavy metals can be
toxic and/or carcinogenic, the types and levels of metals in wastewater are
important to consider.

Dissolved Inorganic Solids. Because many inorganic salts will dissolve in

water, dissolved inorganic solids is a very broad category. One can determine
the amount of dissolved inorganic solids in wastewater by filtering a sample
through a 0.45-m filter, collecting the filtrate, and vaporizing first the water (at
103°C) and then the organic fraction (at 550°C) from the filtrate. The amount of
material left in the vessel after incineration at 550°C is referred to as the fixed or
inorganic dissolved solids level.

Toxic Organic Compounds. There is also great concern that wastewaters may
sometimes contain hazardous organic materials.

Table 6.8 provides some examples of organic compounds that are considered
toxic and/or carcinogenic.
Aluminum, Al. Aluminum is a naturally occurring metal and is
commonly used in water and wastewater treatment as alum or
aluminum sulfate [Al2(SO4)3], or with water [Al2(SO4)3.18H2O]. Alum
added to water with hydroxide ions forms an aluminum hydroxide
[Al(OH)3] precipitate.
Aluminum is suspected to be a contributor to Alzheimer’s disease.

Ammonia, NH3, NH4+. Ammonia is present in nature as part of the

Nitrogen Cycle.

Ammonia, at certain concentrations, is toxic to fish and is therefore

considered a pollutant to waters classified for fish and wildlife
Arsenic, As. Arsenic is found in nature and in manufactured pesticides. It
possesses both metallic and non-metallic properties and is insoluble in water.

It is of interest environmentally since it is highly toxic to humans and is

chronic, or cumulative in human and animal organs.

A chronic chemical accumulates in certain organs and is not discharged with

urine or feces.

Barium, Ba. Barium is known to stimulate heart muscles and affect the
gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system.

A fatal dose of barium to humans is reported to be 550 to 600 mg.

It is found in mine tailing operations.

 Beryllium, Be. Beryllium is toxic to fish and aquatic life and various
plants.

Additionally, it inhibits photosynthesis in terrestrial plants.

Bicarbonate, HCO3. Bicarbonate, as a source of alkalinity, can be a

contributor of iron chlorosis in plants.

Bicarbonate reacts with calcium to precipitate as CaCO3.

Boron, B. Boron, at approximately 1 to 4 mg/l, can be toxic to plants and

at approximately 30 mg/l, can have physiological effects on animals and
humans. It can be found in groundwater.
Cadmium, Cd. Cadmium affects metabolism and is quite toxic to animals and
humans. Cadmium, common in plating wastewaters, is cumulative in the
kidney and liver organs and can cause death.

Calcium, Ca. Calcium is the most common cause of hardness in water. It can
be toxic to fish, but has no known physiological effects to humans.

Chloride, Cl. Chloride can be recognized as a taste at 500 to 1000 mg/l. In

seawater, chloride is present at approximately 25,000 mg/l and has
physiological effects on animals and humans. Chlorides are present in urine
and are toxic to plants. High chlorides can act as a laxative.
Chlorine, Cl. Chlorine is highly toxic to fish and other organisms in mg/l
concentrations, but as such is highly effective as a disinfecting agent for
bacteria. The disinfection efficiency of chlorine is highly pH dependent.
Chlorine can combine with certain organics in wastewater to form
carcinogens. Chlorine is not found naturally, but is typically manufactured
from the electrolytic generation of NaCl.

Chromium, Cr. Chromium is found in soil as a heavy metal and in industrial

waste. The reduced state trivalent chromium Cr+3n is less toxic than
oxidized hexavalent chromium Cr. Chromium can have its valence changed
between these two values using reduction reactions.
Cyanide, CN. Cyanide is a compound consisting of carbon and nitrogen
molecules and can be fatal at 8 mg/L. At low pH, CN forms hydrogen cyanide
(HCN) which is a highly toxic, almond smelling mustard gas. Extreme care
must be taken in laboratory studies involving CN. Cyanide is present in
industrial wastes, especially in electroplating and insecticide production.

Fluorine, F. Fluorine as Fluoride occurs naturally and is non-cumulative.

Four grams can be fatal and greater than 15 mg/l can cause tooth mottling.
Low levels are known to build tooth hardness and resistance to cavities.

Iodine, I. Iodine at approximately 1 mg/l is known to be desirable for goiter

prevention and is the reason for iodized salt.

Copper, Cu. Copper at levels above 100 mg/L is highly toxic to animals
and humans and can cause vomiting and liver damage. High
concentrations of copper turns water blue and is used as a paint pigment.
Copper sulfate can be used for algae control.
Iron, Fe. Ferrous iron, Fe2 is soluble in water and ferric iron, Fe3 is
insoluble. Therefore ferrous iron must be oxidized to become settleable. In
natural groundwater, iron is present as ferrous bicarbonate, Fe(HCO3)2.
The presence of iron can cause a red stain from wastes at 5 to 10 mg/l.

Lead, Pb. Lead is naturally found and is present in paint, solder and
industrial waste. Lead is cumulative in animal and human organs with
greater than 0.5 mg/l causing lead poisoning. Plumbism is a disease
caused by lead which affects the central nervous system of animals and
humans.

Magnesium, Mg. Magnesium is common in natural ground and surface

waters, causes hardness and has an unpleasant taste. It has a laxative
effect as magnesium sulfate.

Manganese, Mn. Manganese behaves somewhat like iron but is more

difficult to remove. It can cause a black stain.
Nickel, Ni. Nickel seldom occurs in nature in its elemental form. It is
relatively non-toxic to humans, but can be toxic to fish and aquatic life.

Nitrate, NO. Nitrate has been used as an indicator for the presence of
organics. Nitrates can cause methemoglobinemia at greater than 100 mg/l
where a baby cannot breath enough oxygen.

Oxygen, O2. Dissolved oxygen is important environmentally since it is a

necessary source of energy in a biological treatment process and must be
present for the survival of fish and aquatic life.

Phenol. Phenol can be found in industrial wastes and will cause taste and
odor. If chlorine is present, phenol should be limited to less than 0.001 mg/l.
Phosphorous, P. Phosphorous can be a nutrient that encourages the growth
of algae, contributing to the eutrofication or rapid aging of a body of water.

Potassium, K. High concentrations of potassium can cause heart problems in

humans. Potassium can also have an effect on irrigated plants

Selenium, Se. Selenium can be present in pesticides and certain industrial

wastewaters. It can cause dental caries and can be toxic to fish and plants.

Silica, Si. Silica can cause boiler scale and is a major constituent of sand and
glass.

Silver, Ag. Silver is usually recovered because of its value but in water is
highly toxic to humans.

Sodium, Na. Sodium can bind soil if 10 to 20 percent of the cation exchange
sites (Ca and Mg2) are taken up by Na. This physical soil deterioration
causes low soil permeability.
Sulfate, SO3,SO4. Sulfates are found in industrial waste and are the
oxidized form of sulfides. Sulfates can have a laxative effect over 1000
mg/l.

Zinc, Zn. Zinc imparts a metallic taste to water and is found in many
industrial wastewaters. Zinc will cause a milky appearance to water over 30
mg/l.
Chemical Indicator Tests

General. Certain tests have been developed to indicate water quality based
on chemical characteristics which can be simpler, less expensive, or more
indicative of water quality than a chemical compound test.

Acidity. The acidity of water is an indicator of its capacity to react with a

strong base to a designated pH. Titration with a standard alkali solution to
an end point of 8.3 pH is used for most wastewaters. For very low pH
wastewaters, an end point of 3.7 is occasionally used. Acidity is reported in
mg/l of CaCO3

Alkalinity. Alkalinity is primarily a function of the carbonate (CO3),

bicarbonate (HCO) 3 and hydroxide (OH) content of a wastewater. Titration
with a standard acid to an end point of 8.3 pH is reported as
phenolphthaline alkalinity and titration to an end point of approximately 4.5
is reported as total alkalinity. Alkalinity is measured in mg/l as CaCO3
Conductivity. Conductivity is a quantification of the ability of water to
carry an electric current. Most conductivity tests are accomplished with
an instrument.

Hardness. Total hardness is the sum of calcium and magnesium

concentrations expressed in mg/l of CaCO3. It is generally a measure of
the capacity of water to precipitate soap. Hardness is either calculated
from the results of separate calcium and magnesium tests or is
determined from a color change when titrating a sample with
ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA).
Organic Pollutants. There are three tests commonly used to measure
the total organic pollutants present in a wastewater; biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total organic
carbon (TOC). Since these tests are most often used in conjunction with
biological treatment, they will be discussed under, “Biological Pollutants.”

Salinity. Salinity is generally a unitless measure of the dissolved salts in

solution. The most accurate measure of salinity is conductivity as described
above.

Surfactants. Since surfactants can affect wastewater treatment by

emulsifying oils or metals and can cause foaming, they are of interest. About
2/3of total surfactants used are anionic. Anionic surfactants can be
determined by using the Methylene Blue Active Substances (MBAS)
procedure. Nonionic surfactants can likewise be determined with the Cobalt
Thiocyanate Active Substance (CTAS) procedure.
 Biological Characteristics

o Biological pollutants have a combination of inorganic and organic

constituents and are characterized by being cellular in nature.

o For biological treatment purposes, only the organic constituents can be

destroyed, and since all cellular material uses oxygen for energy, tests
involve the measurement of either carbon content or oxygen demand, or
an actual bacterial count.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) test is an empirical test which uses
standard laboratory procedures to determine the oxygen requirements of
wastewaters.

The BOD, unless treated with an ammonia inhibiting chemical, will indicate the
total of carbonaceous and nitrogenous oxygen demand.

When biodegradable organic matter is released into a body of water,

microorganisms, especially bacteria, feed on the wastes, breaking it down into
simpler organic and inorganic substances.

The amount of oxygen required to oxidize (break down) organic wastes

aerobically is called BOD. BOD is often expressed in milligrams of oxygen
required per liter of wastes ( mg/L) and is considered to be a measure of the
organic content of the waste (strength of waste).
 BOD MODEL

The amount of BOD remaining at time ‘t’ equals;

This model assumes Phelps Law which states that the rate of biochemical oxidation of organic matter is proportional
to the remaining concentration of unoxidized substance.
EXAMPLE 1: Given K= 0.25 per day, BOD5 = 6.85 mg/L, for a river
water sample. Find L0.
Courtsey: Prof. LU-iesd
When this decomposition takes place in an aerobic environment,
that is, in the presence of oxygen, the process produces non-objectionable,
stable end products such as CO2, sulphate (SO4), orthophosphate (PO4) and nitrate (NO3).
A simplified representation of aerobic decomposition is given by the following:

Organic matter + O2 microorganisms CO2 + H2O + New cells + Stable

products

When insufficient oxygen is available, the resulting anaerobic decomposition is

performed by completely different microorganisms. They produce end products
that can be very objectionable including hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia
(NH3) and methane (CH4).
 The BOD determination has been standardized and measures the
amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms in the stabilization of
wastewater during 5 days at 20 C.

For ordinary domestic sewage the 5-day value or BOD5 represents

approximately two-thirds of the demand which would be exerted if all
biologically oxidizable material oxidized.

The BOD test procedures can be found in Standard methods for the
examination of water and 5wastewater (APHA, AWWA, and WEF, 1995).
When the dilution water is seeded, oxygen uptake (consumed) is assumed to
be the same as the uptake in the seeded blank. The difference between the
sample BOD and the blank BOD, corrected for the amount of seed used in
the sample, is the true BOD. Formulas for calculation of BOD are as follows
(APHA, AWWA, and WEF, 1995):
 CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

The BOD test, while the best available representation of what will occur in
natural water, requires a minimum of 5 days and thus is not useful in control
of processes in sewage treatment plants which have retention times on the
order of hours.

The COD test involves an acid oxidation of the waste by potassium

dichromate.
Chemical Oxygen Demand

 The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is a measure of the oxygen

required from a strong chemical oxidant for the destruction of an
organic material. The chemical oxidant selected for the COD test is
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7).

 The sample is oxidized by a boiling mixture of (K2Cr2O7) and sulfuric

acid using an excess of (K2Cr2O7). After digestion, the remaining
unreduced (K2Cr2O7) is measured to determine the amount consumed
by titrating with ferrous ammonia sulfate (FAS) until the end point is
indicated by a sharp color change. The amount consumed is related to
the organic waste and inorganic matter available in the WW

 Relationship between BOD/COD

 Biological degradability; BOD:COD ratio>0.4
Total Organic Carbon
The Total Organic Carbon (TOC) test is a more direct indication of
organic content than the BOD or COD test.

The TOC test does not provide all of the information that the BOD and
COD tests provide.

The BOD test indicates the actual oxygen needed for biologically
destroying the organic.

The COD test indicates the chemical oxidation requirements for

destruction,

and the TOC test indicates the total organic matter present and is
independent of the oxidation state of the pollutant.
 Coliform Bacteria Tests

Coliform bacteria are some of the most common bacterial species, ranging
from pathogenic to innocuous, and are found extensively in soil and in the
feces of warm blooded animals.

Elevated temperature tests can be used to separate these organisms into

those of fecal origin and those from non-fecal sources.

The standard test for coliform bacteria from the intestines of warm blooded
animals is the fecal coliform test. In a completely treated wastewater, no fecal
or non-fecal coliform bacteria should be present after disinfection.

All samples for coliform tests must be preserved at 10C before testing, and
should be tested within 24 hours. The samples should be contained in sterile
bottles.
Coliform Tests
Multiple Tube Coliform Tests.
The multiple tube coliform test is recommended for wastes of high turbidity,
salty or brackish waters, as well as muds, sediments and sludges.

This test uses multiple capped sterilized lauryl tryptose or lactose broth
placed in fermentation tubes with small inverted vials. These tubes are
inoculated with sample and incubated at 35C for 48 hours.

The tubes are examined for gas formation or acidic (yellow) growth at 24
and 48 hours. The presence of gas or acidic growth constitutes a positive
presumptive reaction.

The positive presumptive cultures are inoculated into fermentation tubes

containing inverted brilliant green vials and lactose bile broth and
incubated for an additional 48 hours at 350C.

Formation of gas in the fermentation tube vials at any time within 48 hours
confirms the tests. Calculation of the MPN is made using Tables.
Membrane Filter Coliform Test.

For the membrane filter test, a sufficient sample is filtered to yield between 50
and 200 coliform colonies. The sample is filtered through a membrane under
partial vacuum.

The filter is then placed in an absorbent enrichment pad in a culture dish and
soaked with lauryl tryptose broth.

The filter is placed on this pad and incubated for 1.5 to 2 hours at 35C. The
filter is then removed from the enrichment pad and rolled onto the Endo medium
(agar) surface. The dish is then incubated for 20 to 22 hours at 35C

Value reported as CFU/100ml

Fecal Coliform Test.

The fecal coliform test inoculates all positive presumptive cultures from the
coliform test described above into fermentation tubes containing inverted
vials and E.C. medium broth.

These tubes are incubated at 44.5C for 24 hours and placed into a water
bath. Gas production within 24 hours is considered a positive fecal coliform
reaction.

MPN is calculated as described above for the coliform test

 Topic 3: Wastewater conveyance (sewer systems)

The term conveyance or piping system refers to a complete network of

pipes, valves, and other components.

Wastewater collection systems collect and convey wastewater to the

treatment plant.

The complexity of the system depends on the size of the community and
the type of system selected.

Conveyance or piping systems resemble veins, arteries and capillaries.

According to Nayyar, “they carry the lifeblood of modern civilization.

Night soil/bucket system?

Public sanitary sewers perform two primary functions:

• Safely carry the design peak discharge,

• Transport suspended materials to prevent deposition in the sewer.

It is essential that a sanitary sewer has adequate capacity for the peak flow
and that it functions at minimum flows without causing operational
problems.

Alignment of Sewers

The alignment of sewers shall be determined by the need for sewer service,
environmental constraints and economic feasibility. There are three major
elements to a sewer alignment:

(1) the route selected,

(2) the horizontal alignment and
(3) the vertical alignment.
Route Selection

The route or streets to be traversed by a proposed sewer should be based

upon sewer deficiency Studies and demand for sewage service.

The Horizontal Alignment

The most economical horizontal alignment will, generally, be the shortest

length possible. The alignment may be varied to accommodate utilities, to
maintain traffic safety, convenience and to minimize other appurtenant
work
In regard to early conveyance systems, the prevailing practice in medieval
England was the use of closed pipes.

This Practice was contrary to the Romans who generally employed open
channels in their long-distance aqueducts and used pipes mainly to distribute
water within cities.
There are “six basic piping systems:

(1) raw water and finished waste distribution mains;

(2) plant yard piping that connects the unit processes;
(3) plant utility, including the fire hydrant lines;
(4) chemical lines;
(5) sewer lines;
(6) and Miscellaneous piping, such as drainage and irrigation lines.”

Besides raw water, treated water, wastewater

influent, and treated wastewater effluent, the
materials conveyed through piping systems
include oils, chemicals, liquefied gases, acids,
paints, sludge, and many others.
Sewer categories
Sewers can be classified as into 3 categories;
• Sanitary
• Storm
• Combined
The above can broadly be grouped into separate and combined sewers.

Separated sewers consist of sanitary sewers and storm sewer networks

separately.

Sanitary sewers carry a mixture of household and commercial sewage,

industrial WW, water from groundwater infiltration/inflow, basement and
foundation drainage connections. Separated sanitary sewers should be free of
stormwater, but they seldom are.

Storm sewers are commonly buried pipes that convey storm drainage. They
may include open channel elements and culverts, particularly when drainage
areas are large.

Combined sewers on the other hand are designed for collection and
conveyance of both sanitary WW and storm surface runoff in one conduit.
 Methods of collection and conveyance of wastewater include;
1. gravity systems,
2. force main systems,
3. vacuum systems,
4. and combinations of all three types of systems.

Gravity Collection System

In a gravity collection system, the collection lines are sloped to permit the
flow to move through the system with as little pumping as possible.

The slope of the lines must keep the wastewater moving at a velocity
(speed) of 0.3m/s. Otherwise, at lower velocities, solids will settle out and
cause clogged lines, overflows, and offensive odors.
Force Main Collection System

In a typical force main collection system, wastewater is collected to central

points and pumped under pressure to the treatment plant.

The system is normally used for conveying wastewater long distances. The use
of the force main system allows the wastewater to flow to the treatment plant at
the desired velocity without using sloped lines.

It should be noted that the pump station discharge lines in a gravity system are
considered to be force mains since the content of the lines is under pressure.

Pumping stations provide the motive force (energy) to keep the wastewater
moving at the desired velocity.
Vacuum system
In a vacuum collection system, wastewaters are collected to central points and
then drawn toward the treatment plant under vacuum.

The system consists of a large amount of mechanical equipment and requires

a large amount of maintenance to perform properly.

Generally, the vacuum type collection systems are not economically feasible.

Each source is connected to the vacuum main through a special entry valve
which opens automatically when a sufficient volume of sewage has
accumulated in the gravity household sewer.

The valve recloses automatically after a timed interval sufficient to permit the
accumulated waste to be drawn into the main.

The vacuum is maintained by pumps at a central collecting tank to which a

number of mains may be connected.

The accumulated waste in the tank is periodically pumped to treatment or to

another part of the collection system
 Sewer appurtenances

Manholes
Manholes provide access to sewers for inspection and cleaning
and are located;

• At changes in direction
• Changes in pipe size
• Substantial changes in grade
• At intervals of 30m (in Kenya) in straight lines

Inlets
Inlets are structures through which storm water enters the sewers.
Their design and location require consideration of how far water will be
permitted to extend into the street under various conditions.
Sewer outlets and outfalls

Stormwater and treated WW may be discharged to surface drainage or to

bodies of water such as lakes, estuaries, or the ocean.

Outlets to small streams are similar to the outlets of highway culverts,

consisting of a simple concrete headwall and apron to prevent erosion.

Sewers discharging into large bodies of water are usually extended beyond
the banks into fairly deep water where dispersion and diffusion will aid in
mixing the discharge with the surrounding water.
Manholes should not leak and they should have sufficient strength to prevent
collapse; they should preferably be closed by heavy cast iron covers which
have holes to allow some ventilation; this means that manholes should be
carefully sited to ensure that flood water does not drain through their covers
during heavy rain.
In Kenya today, four types of manholes and inspection chambers,
which are manholes and inspection chambers, which are manholes
on property drains, are normally constructed:-

i) Concrete block work with rendering;

ii) Brickwork with rendering;
iii) In-situ mass concrete;
iv) Precast concrete rings, with or without in-situ mass concrete
surrounds.
Sewer materials

• Asbestos cement (AC)- these are almost extinct though some sewers
that had been constructed are in existence. Issues of asbestos
contamination being carcinogenic drove this material out of market.

• Brick
• Clay
• Concrete
• Iron
• Plastic
• Steel
Concrete Pipes
There are local companies which, manufacture concrete sewer pipes in all
sizes from 6 inches (150 millimeters) diameter up to 48 inches (1 200
millimeters) in three inch (75 millimeters) increments; four inch (100
millimeters) diameter pipes are also made. All locally manufactured concrete
sewer pipes are nominally in accordance with KS 02-548:1986 (Concrete
Pipes -drainage).

The sewer pipes are normally unreinforced and only one wall thickens per
pipe diameter are available; however, some of the manufacturers say they
could provide extra strength pipes if required.

Occasional hydraulic and crushing pipe tests are carried out, on request, by
the Ministry of Works. The manufacturers do not normally test their own
products.
PVC Pipes

There are three types of drainage pipe depending on the thickness of the walls
viz: -
:Low, Medium and High Grade. Pipes up to 12 inches (300 millimeters) in
diameter are made in Kenya from PVC imported in bulk. Joints are flexible and
are sealed by rubber rings; each length of pipe has a socket affixed to the pipe
during manufacture.

These sewers pipes are nominally in accordance with KS 06-

217:1981(Specification for unplasticized PVC pipes and fittings for buried drain
and sewer but there have been occasional cases of eccentricity resulting in
variable thicknesses of the two pipe walls.

When the total cost of transport plus laying and bedding sewers is taken into
account, PVC sewers are competitive with concrete sewers.
Design of sewer systems (design principles)

• Preliminary investigations
These provide a basis for cost estimates which are used to evaluate
the feasibility of a project and to justify it for fund raisings.
Preliminary designs are undertaken to enable cost estimates and
alternatives
Cost estimates are done for alternatives
• Detailed design requirements
Undertaken once preliminary investigations confirm the feasibility of
the works
• Design principles
Sewers are designed as not flowing full though they are normally
closed. They are normally designed as flowing ½-2/3 full.
• Sanitary sewers
• Storm sewers
Sewer Sizes

When a sewer laid at shallow gradient runs into a steeper sewer, it is often
theoretically possible to decrease the diameter of the downstream sewer;
however, this is not good practice and it is recommended that, except
under very exceptional circumstances, no sewer should discharge into a
sewer of smaller diameter than itself.

Sewers should not run surcharged; therefore, where sewers of differing

diameters meet at a manhole, they should be laid so that their soffits (that
is the inside roof of each pipe) are level.
Maximum Depths of Sewers

It is difficult to make any generalization about the maximum economic

depth to which a sewer should be constructed;
this depends upon;
• ground conditions,
• the depth of water table,
• local topography,
• the size of sewer and its proximity to buildings;

However, sewers should rarely be deeper than 26 feet (8 meters).

 STEPS IN THE DESIGN OF SEWERS

1. QUANTITY OF WASTEWATER.
For any segment of proposed sewer, the design wastewater flow
must be determined. Sanitary or domestic wastes based on the
population served by a given segment, extraneous infiltration/inflow,
and contributing industrial flows must be added to produce the design
flow.

A sewer should be capable of dealing with the peak flows which it

receives; these will normally occur during wet weather and will be
equivalent to the sum of:
The average daily design flow of domestic sewage multiplied by a
factor Plus The average daily design flow of industrial effluent
multiplied by a factor Plus The maximum rate of inflow of storm
water Plus The maximum anticipates rate of inflow of groundwater

FOR STORM SEWERS, QUANTITY OF STORM RUNOFF CAN BE

ESTIMATED USING SUITABLE HYDROLOGICAL MODELS SUCH AS
THE RATIONAL MODEL.
Sewer Design Procedure

Having computed the flow of sewage along a pipe length, the sewer is
designed to ensure that the following conditions are satisfied:

Minimum self cleansing velocities are attained. Ensuring that

minimum gradients are provided automatically ensures that minimum
self cleansing velocities are attained
Depths to which pipes are laid are minimized within permissible limits
Adequate pipe flow capacity is available to carry the maximum peak
future design flow
The depth of flow at peak flow is within the recommended limits.
Minimum sewer diameters are provided
Following the location and topographic survey, the sewer line is plotted in plan,
and a ground elevation along the line is plotted in profile. Additional elevation
data are needed to define design restraints, such as bottom of stream beds, road
and railroad structures, and sewer and service line elevations.

Gravity Sewer. Once the field data are available and design flows are
established, manual or computer-assisted computations may begin to
size 4 inch minimum and vertically locate a gravity sewer in profile.

Slope. The slope of the gravity sewer should be sufficient to provide a

minimum velocity of 0.6 m/s. Maximum velocities should not exceed 3
m/s due to the development of hydraulic problems in the sewer.
In practice, most engineers use the simpler Manning formula. The Manning
formula is;

The roughness coefficient n varies with respect to pipe material, size of pipe,
depth of flow, smoothness of joints, root intrusion, and other factors.

For design of new sewers, the pipe material, or its interior liner, is used to
select an n value.

Table 6.25 shows ranges of Manning’s n for common sewer pipe materials.
Typically, an n value of 0.013 is used in sewer design.
Force Main.
For force mains (pressure sewers), velocity is the primary design factor, and it
is dependent roughness associated with the pipe material.

Typically, a design velocity of 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s) at average daily flow is used.
Maximum velocities are considered in the range of 8 to 12 ft/s (4.8 to 7.2 m/s).

The maximum velocity dictates the pressure condition for design of fittings
and reaction blocking.

The Hazen–Williams formula is used commonly for force main design. The
velocity equation form is

where V = mean velocity, m/s (ft/s)

C = roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of the energy grade line
The value of the Hazen–Williams C varies with the type of material as
shown in Table 6.26 and is influenced by the type of construction and age
of the pipe. Common design practice uses values of 100 for unlined and
120 for lined force mains as representative of conditions during normal
service periods.
Example:1
Design a circular sewer for a maximum discharge of 650 L/s running
half full. Consider Manning’s coefficient of n = 0.012, and gradient of
sewer S = 0.0001.

Solution
Q = A.V

0.65 = (πD2/8) (1/n) R2/3 S1/2

R = A/P
Solving for half full sewer, R = D/4

Substituting in above equation and solving we get D = 1.82 m

Freeboard allowance should always be allowed.

Why do we need such systems and what are they?
Rural areas and the outskirts of urban areas may have insufficient
population to support sewer systems and central treatment, even with the
use of vacuum or pressurized collection.

In such areas it is likely that unsanitary disposal techniques will be used

unless local regulations are both well thought out and unscrupulously
enforced
History of onsite wastewater treatment systems
King Minos installed the first known water closet with a flushing device in the
Knossos Palace in Crete in 1700 BC.

In the intervening 3,700 years, societies and the governments that serve them
have sought to improve both the removal of human wastes from indoor areas
and the treatment of that waste to reduce threats to public health and ecological
resources.

The Greeks, Romans, British, and French achieved considerable progress in

waste removal during the period from 800 BC to AD 1850, but removal often
meant discharge to surface waters; severe contamination of lakes, rivers,
streams, and coastal areas; and frequent outbreaks of diseases like cholera and
typhoid fever.
The past century has witnessed an explosion in sewage treatment
technology and widespread adoption of centralized wastewater collection
and treatment services throughout the world.

Although broad uses of these systems have vastly improved public health
and water quality in urban areas, homes and businesses without centralized
collection and treatment systems often continue to depend on technologies
developed more than 100 years ago.

Septic tanks for primary treatment of wastewater appeared in the late 1800s,
and discharge of tank effluent into gravel-lined subsurface drains became
common practice during the middle of the 20th century
Decision I (On-site treatment or off-site treatment)

1) Population Density

All On-site waste disposal options require adequate space within the lot for
their installation. Such space is usually available in rural and low density to
medium density urban areas. However, as the density of settlement
increases, such space is not readily available, and, even when it is
available on-site systems are likely to meet with community opposition
especially because they need desludging at some stage during their
operation.
2) Service Level of Water Supply

Most low cost, on site waste disposal systems, such as pit latrines and pour
flush latrines, only handle the disposal of excreta. Sullage is usually left to
infiltrate into the ground at the surface or via some form of on-site sullage soak
away. As water consumption increases, the need for such soaks ways
increases. In areas of adverse soil conditions and high densities of population,
the space for soak ways may not be readily available.
3) Water Table

It is recommended that the infiltration capacity of the ground be studied using

percolation testing to assess the Feasibility of disposing of sullage by
infiltration for
service levels III and IV.

In Kenya, effluent from on-site facilities is disposed mainly by infiltration in rural

areas, or direct to the street drainage system in urban areas. Potential
problems associated with infiltration relate to both pollution of ground water
and soil permeability. In this connection, the following guidelines are indicated
by WHO and the World Bank.
4) Permeability of Soil

Soil permeability is a key factor in adopting infiltration disposal for either excreta
alone or a mixture of excreta and sullage, but reliable permeability data not easy to
derive over a wide area since the coefficient is highly variable and can change
significantly over a short distance. The infiltration capacities given in table 3.4 (US
Environmental Protection Agency, 1980) are recommended as a possible basis for
the sizing of pits and drainage trenches where information about actual infiltration
rates is not available.
The most commonly employed systems are
• cesspools,
• septic tanks,
• rotating biological contactors (RBCs),
• constructed wetlands, subsurface percolation,
• mounds and
• intermittent sand filters and small complete treatment systems..

In some areas without running water, the pit privy and VIP are used
Fly and odour nuisance may be substantially reduced if the pit
is ventilated by a pipe extending above the latrine roof, with fly-proof
netting across the top. The inside of the superstructure is kept dark.
Such latrines are known as ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines.
A latrine may be fitted with a trap providing a water seal, which is
cleared of faeces by pouring in sufficient quantities of water to wash
the solids into the pit and replenish the water seal.

A water seal prevents flies, mosquitoes and odours reaching the latrine
from the pit. The pit may be offset from the latrine by providing a short
length of pipe or Covered channel from the pan to the pit.
In this latrine, excreta fall into a watertight tank to which ash or
vegetable matter is added.

If the moisture content and chemical balance are controlled, the mixture
will decompose to form a good soil conditioner in about four months.

Pathogens are killed in the dry alkaline compost, which can be removed
for application to the land as a fertilizer.
An aqua-privy has a watertight tank immediately under the latrine
floor. Excreta drop directly into the tank through a pipe.

The bottom of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in the tank, forming a
water seal to prevent escape of flies, mosquitos and smell.

The tank functions like a septic tank. Effluent usually infiltrates into the
ground through a soakpit.
A latrine built over the sea, a river, or other body of water into
which excrete drop directly, is known as an overhung latrine.

If there is a strong current in the water the excrete are carried away.
Local communities should be warned of the danger to health
resulting from contact with or use of water into which excrete have
been discharged.
This latrine has a bucket or other container for the retention of
faeces (and sometimes urine and anal cleaning material), which is
periodically removed for treatment or disposal.

Excreta removed in this way are sometimes termed night soil.

Conventional household systems and treatment options
The three primary components of a conventional system (figure ) are the soil, the
subsurface wastewater infiltration system (SWIS; also called a leach field, drain
field, percolation field or infiltration trench), and the septic tank. Treatment options
include physical, chemical, and biological processes. Use of these options is
determined by site-specific needs
Important factors to consider
Soil Characteristics- permeability is the single most important
characteristic

Sewage Flow Estimates

The sewage flow to be expected from various establishments can vary,
depending on the day of the week, season of the year, habits of the
people, water pressure, type and number of plumbing fixtures, and type
of place or business. For that reason, septic system design should be
based on the average maximum flow rate to ensure adequate capacity.
CESSPOOLS/cesspits

These are underground chambers constructed solely for the reception

and storage of wastewater with no treatment taking place.

Cesspools are required to be water tight and constructed so as not to

overflow, have a minimum capacity of 18m3 or 45 days retention for two
people assuming a per capita water usage of 1801/ day to be
constructed so that it can be completely emptied, and be adequately
vented and covered. ….in the USA

They are not septic tanks and so no treatment occurs. Normally only
Used for single dwellings or small groups of houses (three to four
maximum), they can be constructed from a variety of different materials
including concrete, plastic and fibreglass, although prefabricated units
must be set in concrete.
Clearly cesspools are only used where no other form of treatment is
possible, and the need to have them regularly emptied means that they
are amongst the most expensive form of treatment for domestic dwellings
in terms of both capital and operational costs.

The only improvement in such a system is achieved by adopting water-

saving improvements that reduce the volume of wastewater discharged.

There are advantages, however, such as no power requirement, no

quality control required, no mechanism that can go wrong, the process is
not injured by intermittent use, and as there is no effluent discharge there
is no immediate environmental impact.
SEPTIC TANKS
The most common system for wastewater treatment and disposal at
homes in rural areas is by using a septic tank for the settling and
treatment of the wastewater and a subsurface absorption field for the
disposal of the septic tank overflow

A septic tank is a watertight tank designed to slow down the movement of

raw sewage passing through it so that solids can settle out and be broken
down by liquefaction and anaerobic bacterial action.

Septic tanks do not purify the sewage, eliminate odors, or destroy all solid
matter, but rather, simply condition sewage so that it can be disposed of
using a subsurface absorption system

Septic tanks are often confused with cesspools and it is important to

differentiate between the two as in many areas these two terms are
incorrectly used interchangeably. A cesspool is solely a storage tank,
which requires regular emptying and is not intended as a septic tank in
which the settleable solids are separated from the liquid fraction that is
continuously discharged to a percolation area.
The process
Septic tanks can provide only partial treatment to wastewaters so further
treatment is required either by a secondary treatment system or by the provision
of a percolation area in which the sewage percolates into the soil via a system of
underground distribution pipes.

Although most commonly used for individual houses, septic tanks can be used to
serve small communities of up to 500 and are commonly used in combination
with a percolating filter or reed bed for small rural villages.

Septic tanks require no power and where sub-surface drainage is used quality
control can be confined to suspended solids removal only.

They are not adversely affected by intermittent use, have a very small head loss
and can achieve a 40-50% biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and 80%
suspended solids removal.

In its simplest form the septic tank consists of a single chamber (Fig. 22.3a) with
a single input and output. They can be of any shape although they are normally
rectangular in plan, with two chambers and made out of concrete.
The tank consists of three separate zones, a scum layer on top of the clarified liquid
with a sludge layer in the base.

Wastewater enters and leaves the tank via T-shaped pipes, which prevents
disturbing the scum layer or allowing solids to be carried out of the tank. As the
wastewater moves through the chamber settleable solids gradually form a sludge,
while any fats or buoyant material floats to the surface where it is retained by the
baffle edge of the T pipe and forms the scum layer.

The scum layer, although not vital to the successful operation of the tank, helps its
operation in three ways;
It prevents oxygen transfer through the air-water interface, insulates the anaerobic
chamber by preventing heat loss, and finally attracts and retains fats, floating
material and any solids risen from the sludge layer.

It is in the sludge layer where anaerobic decomposition occurs slowly degrading the
organic fraction.

Decomposition is often incomplete and the settled material is only hydrolysed and
not broken down to methane, resulting in intermediate products of anaerobic
digestion such as short-chain fatty acids being produced and slowly diffusing back
into the clarified liquid to be discharged from the tank. This incomplete anaerobic
activity results in unpleasant odours.
Design

The primary purpose of a septic tank is to provide suspended solids and

oil/grease removal through sedimentation and flotation. The important factor to
achieving good sedimentation is maintaining quiescent conditions. This is
accomplished by providing a long wastewater residence time in the septic tank.
Tank volume, geometry, and compartmentalization affect the residence time.

Septic tanks must have sufficient volume to provide an adequate hydraulic

residence time for sedimentation.

Hydraulic residence times of 6 to 24 hours have been recommended

The two most important design criteria for septic tanks being the suitability of land
for percolation and the capacity of the chamber

An efficient septic tank design should provide for a detention period longer than
24 hours; an outlet configuration with a gas baffle to minimize suspended solids
carryover; maximized surface area to depth ratio for all chambers (ratio more than
2); and a multichamber tank with interconnections similar to the outlet design
(open-tee inlet and outlet).
 The capacity and hence the retention time for settlement and sludge digestion
is generally calculated according to the number of people discharging.

IN IRELAND The minimum capacity of a septic tank must not be <27201

with the actual capacity calculated as:

where C is the capacity in litres and P is the number of people discharging into the system.

In Kenya, the capacity of tanks are based on the number of people served;

Number of people Tank capacity

100 22,500
200 45,000
300 67,500
400 90,000
Design of tank volume conventionally is based on the residence time and flow
rate.

T=V/Q

PERCOLATION AREAS/Drain field/absorption fields/leaching field

Where treated wastewater cannot be discharged to surface water a percolation

area is constructed to allow the effluent to seep through the soil and into the water
table. This is achieved by a system of perforated or open jointed distribution pipes
which are laid on 20-30-mm diameter gravel or clean crushed stone to allow the
water to freely drain away. In general the area required for percolation is
determined by carrying out soil percolation tests on the site designated for the
percolation area.

Design of percolation area is based on percolation test results or the following

empirical model

Q=204/t0.5

Where Q is the flow, L/m2.day and t is time, min, required for the water to fall 25
mm (percolation test results).
Design example of septic tank size and drain field

Determine the size of a septic tank and percolation field for a mobile home park
which has 210 residents. The average percolation rate has been determined to
be 6mm/min, assume that the anticipated flow is 190L/day per capita and HRT of
24hrs, the laterals are 900mm wide 30m long.

Solution

Population = 210 residents

Daily flow rate = 210x190= 39,900 L/day= 40m3/day
V=t.Q= 1x40m3=40m3

The percolation rate is (time for water to fall 25mm)= 25/6= 4.17min,
But Q=204/t0.5
Therefore Q= 100 L/m2.day

The total trench area = 40,000/100= 400m2

If the laterals are 900mm wide and 30m long, then for this area we require 15
laterals i.e. 400/0.9x30

If the laterals are placed at 2m cc then the size of drain field required is
30x30=900m2
Operation
Little information is available on the operation of septic tank systems and on the
whole they are very robust. However, care should be taken when using the following:

• Disinfectants should be used moderately as their bactericidal properties kill off the
anaerobic bacteria which can result in awful odours being produced during
recovery.
• Caustic soda which is so often used to remove grease from drains can cause the
sludge to flocculate and rise
• High sodium concentrations in the water do not affect the septic tank system
directly but can impair the drainage properties of the soil
• Detergents, especially alkyl benzene sulphonate, are known to inhibit the digestion
process, although providing the tank capacity is sufficient, and normal
concentrations of detergents used, the performance of the system will not be
impaired
• Large flushes of water to the tank should be avoided, if possible, to prevent
scouring and resuspension of the sludge.
• Solid material such as disposable nappies, tampons, sanitary towels, bones,
cigarette butts and cat litter will not degrade in the tank and should not be
discharged to the septic tank as they will reduce the volume of chamber very
quickly and can be difficult to remove
The commonest faults associated with septic tanks include the following.

3. Blocked outlet pipes are frequently a problem due to the scum layer becoming
too thick or sludge physically blocking the outlet pipe which causes the tank to
overflow. Many systems have inadequate percolation areas and access to the
tanks for the sludge tanker is often inadequate, with the desludging pipe
occasionally having to pass through the owners' house to reach the tank

2. Non-desludging is the commonest fault resulting in a reduced retention time

and a stronger effluent due to less settlement. The loss of sludge under these
circumstances can block pipes, percolation areas or filters.

1. Leaking joints when tanks have been constructed from concrete panels or
concrete rings. It is important that septic tanks should be water tight to prevent
contamination of the groundwater and so they should be constructed, if possible,
without joints.
Leaching Pit/soak pit
Leaching pits, also referred to as seepage pits, are used for the disposal of settled
sewage from septic tanks where the soil is suitable and a public water supply is
used or where private well-water supplies are at least 150 to 200 feet away and at
a higher elevation.

Leaching pits work like a vertical absorption field, although they lack the areal
extent of such fields.

Pits are usually 10 to 20 feet deep and 6 to 12 feet in diameter. The bottom of the
pit should be at least 2 feet, and preferably 4 feet, above the highest groundwater
level
This is the most common disposal system for septage in Kenya
PIT PRIVIES (PIT PRIVY)
A typical privy consists of a pit about 1m square by 1.25m deep lined with
rough boards on the sides and covered with a reinforced concrete slab.

A concrete riser supports the seat and a vent pipe conveys odors through
the roof. The slab rests on a concrete curb to which the house is bolted.

Earth is banked around the curb to prevent runoff from entering the pit. A
privy of this type can serve an average family for up to 10 yrs then the
superstructure can be demounted and mounted on a fresh pit.

Ideal for temporary settlements such as campsites.

Discuss the similarities and differences between the privy and the VIP.
 Topic 5: Waterborne diseases

Improper disposal of human excreta and sewage is one of the major causes of
disease in areas where satisfactory sewage treatment is not available. Because
many pathogenic microorganisms are found in sewage, all sewage should be
considered contaminated…..guys! you are doctors!

The King of Wei Kingdom asked the famous doctor Bianque: “ You and your two brothers are all
good at medical treatment. Which one of you is the best?”
Dr. Bianque answered: “ My eldest brother is the best, the second elder brother is better and I am
the least skilled”.
The King asked again: “ But why you are the most well-known?”
Dr. Bianque answered: “My eldest brother cures the diseases before their outbreaks. Normally
people don’t know he can remove the causes of the diseases in advance, so his reputation could
not be widely spread out. Only the family members know that. My second elder brother cures the
diseases when the ailments start. People therefore think that he can only treat minor ailments.
For this reason his fame can not go beyond our township. However, I cure the diseases when they
are already serious. People see the big operations I do, such as releasing blood from the blood
vessels and applying medicine on the skin, so they think my medical skill is the highest, which
resulted in my widest popularity in the country.”
At a minimum, treatment is required for suspended solids and for dissolved
organics. Special processes may be necessary to achieve removal of specific
pollutants, such as phosphorus from a municipal source or heavy metals from a
plating facility. The minimum levels of treatment are established by regulation.

The improper treatment or disposal of untreated excreta, sewage, or other

wastewater (including gray water) dramatically increases the possibility of
disease transmission via direct contact with any of the following:

• Houseflies or other insects that land on excreta and then land on and/or
bite people
• Inanimate objects such as children’s toys that contact excreta and are
subsequently handled by people
• Direct ingestion of contaminated water or food
The waterborne microbiological agents of greatest concern are
• pathogenic bacteria,
• viruses,
• helminths,
• protozoa, and
• spirochetes.

Infectious bacterial agents are associated with shigellosis and salmonella

infections,

while viral agents are associated with infectious hepatitis A, viral gastroenteritis,
and other enteric viral diseases.

Helminths are associated with ascariasis, taeniasis, dracunculiasis, trichuriasis,

toxocariasis, enterobiasis, and other illnesses.

Protozoa are associated with amebiasis and giardiasis, while spirochetes are
associated with leptospirosis.
The ability of treatment systems to remove these pathogens
varies, depending on the system and the pathogen in question.
For example, primary sedimentation can remove zero to 30
percent of all viruses; 50 to 90 percent of the bacteria, taenia ova
and cholera vibrio; zero percent of the leptospires; 10 to 50
percent of the Entamoeba histolytica; 30 to 50 percent of the
ascaris; and 80 percent of the schistosomes.
By contrast, trickling filters can remove 90 to 95 percent of the
viruses, bacteria, and cholera vibrio; zero percent of the leptospires;
50 percent of the Entamoeba histolytica; 70 to 100 percent of the
ascaris; 50 to 99 percent of the schistosome ova; and 50 to 95
percent of the taenia ova.

Activated sludge treatment can remove 90 to 99 percent of the

viruses, bacteria, and cholera vibrio; zero percent of the leptospires;
50 percent of Entamoeba histolytica; 70 to 100 percent of the ascaris;
and 50 to 99 percent of taenia ova.

Stabilization ponds (not less than 25-day retention) can be expected

to remove all viruses, bacteria, vibrio, leptospires, Entamoeba
histolytica, ascaris, schistosome ova, and taenia ova.

Septic tanks can be expected to remove 50 to 90 percent of the

cholera vibrio, ascaris, schistosoma, and taenia present; 100 percent
of the leptospires; and zero percent of the Entamoeba histolytica.
Chemical coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration will remove
nearly all viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths, particularly if
supplemented by chlorination or other effective disinfection treatment.

In addition, sewage sludge accumulates heavy metals from wastewater.

Because many of these metals are very toxic, the use of sewage sludge as
a soil builder may result in higher levels of toxic metals in treated
vegetation and animals that eat that vegetation. For that reason, sewage
sludge should not be used as a soil builder or fertilizer supplement for
forage crops unless it is known to be free of significant amounts of toxic
metals or other pathogens.
Finally, wisdom isn’t necessarily intellectual might.
On the contrary, the one who is sure of his or her
brainpower is in the most danger of playing the fool,
because even the smartest person knows so little

THE
END

The true higher education is gained by studying and obeying the word
of God. But when God’s word is laid aside for books that do not lead to
God and the Kingdom of heaven the education acquired is a perversion
of the name