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HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

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FL3220 English Lexicology

Class 124094
K63

English Compound Word

Name of student: Nguyen Thi Bao Ngoc

Code: 20183137

August 2021
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Table of Contents
I. Introduction................................................................................................................ 3
II. Theoretical background .............................................................................................. 3
1. Definitions of word compound .......................................................................................... 3
2. Classifications ................................................................................................................. 4
III. Implications ................................................................................................................ 5
IV. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 6
References ................................................................................................................................. 7
Appendix .................................................................................................................................... 9
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I. Introduction
In linguistics, morphology refers to the study of word formation. The most
productive process of word formations in English is compounding which accounts for 40
percent (Plag, 2002). Despite its vital productivity, many questions and problems about
compounds have not been solved. Therefore, this paper aims to provide an insightful theory
about compounds in English. This essay can be divided into two main parts. The first part
concerns the basic notion of English word compounds, ranging from definitions given by
various scholars to classifications of compounds. The second part is devoted to potential
implications from the theoretical background presented.
II. Theoretical background
1. Definitions of word compound
First of all, many theories were put forth to define the morphological aspect of
compound words. According to Arnold, “Compound words are words containing at least
two stems which occur in the language as free forms.” (Arnold, 1986, p 108). From David
Crytal’s perspective, “A compound is a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one
lexical stem” (2018, p 139). In addition, Bauer, a famous linguist in this field, defines
compound as “a combination of two or more lexemes' (2003). Meanwhile, compound word
is also understood as “Two or more root words may be joined” (Fromkin et al., 2018, p 60).
In general, these definitions share a common conceptual core which is based on
morphological point of view. When defining compounds, researchers mentioned above
carry two assumptions about compounds. Firstly, the notion of compounds contain “at least
two” elements. For example, “notebook” contains “note” and “book”, “baby-outfit”
contains two elements “baby” and “outfit”, in which “outfit” is a compound itself.
Secondly, “the material” of compounds is “free stem”, “lexical stem”, “lexemes”, “root
words”, all of which denote the same notion. By these definitions, combinations containing
at least one element with no independent status would be excluded from compounds
concept. It is believed that Bauer’s definition is appropriate when coming to compound
since the terminology “lexeme” would seem specific enough to eliminate affixes but broad
enough to embrace the roots, stems, and free words (Lieber & Stekauer, 2011).
On the other hand, there are some different definitions. For example, a compound is
formed when two or more simple or complex words are combined into a morphological
unit” (Mahnkopf, 2004). But regarding to “morphological unit”, surface forms of English
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compounds and free syntactic groups are indistinguishable in terms of their morphological
forms (compare, for example, blackboard and black board). In addition, "word" might be
modified by derivation or inflection while compound word is usually described as base
words to differentiate compound word and word phrase (Sara Conti, 2004). For example,
compare “deep fried” and “fried deeply”. “Fried deeply” is a word phrase (fried is
derivation; deeply is derivation); “deep- fry” is a compound; both use root words.
Meanwhile, Marchand argued a compound is “a combination of a determining and a
determined part; the determining (modifier) generally precedes the determined (head)”
(1960, p.380). For example, in “washing machine”, machine is the head which determines
the meaning and the category of the compound, and “washing” is the modifier. However, in
some compounds, neither of its components can be categorized distinctly as a head, and its
meaning often cannot be guessed immediately from its constituent parts, such as white
collar, airhead, paleface. (Kilampi, 2020). Moreover, Lees provides an interesting point of
view: compound is a kind of “embedded sentences' ' (as cited by Kilampi, 2020, p.2). This
is because, this definition is given based on a particular perspective rather than a
morphological one.
In conclusion, compound words appear to be straightforward in their meaning, but
turn out controversial in detailed discussion. None of the definitions is completely true or
false. However, in favor of morphology, the former group of definition is quite sufficient.
They allow us to deal with the internal structure of compound words consistently. While
the latter need more discussion and consideration.
2. Classifications
Numerous etymologists have been especially fascinated by classifying compounds
according to different criteria. These criteria include composition and the linking element,
part of speech, structure of intermediate constituents, other characteristics, i.e. semantically
(Arnold, 1968), written form (Katamba, 1994), origin (McArthur & McArthur, 1996), the
presence of head (Haspelmath, 2002), etc. Among these criteria, categorizing compounds
based on part of speech seems to be the most accessible way (Delahunty & Garvey, 2010)
while based on the presence of head is the most influential one (Bauer, 2017). However,
there are some overlaps between these subtypes of compounds. The salient example is
semantic approach (Arnold) and the presence of head approach (Haspelmath). Non-
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idiomatic compounds (Arnold) and endocentric compounds (Haspelmath) refer to the same
concept. (see Appendix)
The explanations for terminological variability of classification would include the
great variety of compounds (Arnold, 1968) and diverse viewpoints about compounds
(Mahnkopf, 2004). For example, because of its vital productivity in English, some linguists
consider word formation as a grammatical rather than a lexical phenomenon. Therefore,
compounds is positioned on the border between lexis and grammar, in other word, “part
vocabulary and part syntax” (Mahnkopf, 2004)
III. Implications
There are several implications and applications of English word compounds based
on theories mentioned above. First of all, definitions and classification is fundamental to
compound word recognition as well as acquisition. For example, compounds differ from
other kinds of word formation such as derivation since it is the creation of words by
modification of a root without the addition of other roots while compounding put together
two roots. Moreover, these theories allow us to deal with the internal structure of compound
words more consistently. The structure of complex words is studied. As a result, English
learners can easily recognize compound words. It is also important to the emergence of new
compositions.
Next, the etymology of compound words can be identified. According to the
definition, compound is a combination of root words. As a result, the etymology of
compound can be inferred from its intermediate constituents’ origin. In linguistics,
compounds can be either native or borrowed. Native English roots are typically free
morphemes, so that means native compounds are made out of roots that exist in the
language as free form (Kemmer, 2003). For instance, mailman is a naive compound
because it is composed of free root mail and free root man. Meanwhile, in Greek and Latin,
roots do not typically stand alone. So compounds are composed of bound roots.
Compounds formed in English from borrowed Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this
characteristic (Kemmer, 2003). Salient examples include photograph, iatrogenic. Therefore,
by examining the intermediate constituents of compounds, the etymology of this compound
can be studied.
Thirdly, the semantic feature of compound words is examined. In order to grasp the
meaning of compound words, the intermediate constituent’s meanings need to be brought
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in contact with each other. In other words, to understand the meaning of snowball, the
reader needs to understand that it refers to a ball made of snow, whereas a snow tire is not a
tire made of snow but a tire used in snowy conditions. In addition, the ending lexeme is
used as an access code to locate the meaning of the full compound word or that its meaning
is coactive with the meaning of the full compound (Juhasz, 2006). However, in many cases,
the meaning of compound words have nothing to do with their intermediate constituent’s
meaning.
Translation is also an applicable field of word compound since it is an important
component in language. Theory about compounds has allowed us to investigate translating
strategy. For example, the theory about head and modifier is fundamental to “Changing
words order” technique. “Bedroom” should be translated as “room” then “bed” in
Vietnamese.
IV. Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper is devoted to different theories about English word
compounds in a systematic framework as well as implications. Compound words seem to
be straightforward in meaning but turn out problematic in agreement among researchers.
This essay hopefully helps readers gain an insightful understanding about this branch in
word formations. Though its many limitations, this paper would be fundamental to future
research such as word compounds in across-linguistic context or in comparison with
compounds in different languages. Future research papers may include analysis of
compounds in movies, short stories, or literary work. Because compounding analysis not
only expands our vocabulary, but also can know the function of compound words in
sentences.
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References
Algeo, J. (2007). Vocabulary. In Тhe Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 4,

Edited by Romaine, Suzzane. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bauer, L. (2003). Introducing Linguistic Morphology. Georgetown University Press;

Second Edition edition (2003–06-23).

Bauer, L. (2017). Compounds and Compounding (Cambridge Studies in Linguistics, Series

Number 155). Cambridge University Press.

Crytal, D. (2018). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Third Edition).

Cambridge University Press.

Delahunty, G. P., & Garvey, J. J. (2010). The English Language: From Sound to Sense

(Perspectives on Writing) (Illustrated ed.). Parlor Press.

Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2018). An Introduction to Language (11th ed.).

Cengage Learning.

Haspelmath, M. (2002). Understanding Morphology. Routledge.

Juhasz, B. J., Starr, M. S., Inhoff, A. W., & Placke, L. (2003). The effects of morphology

on the processing of compound words: Evidence from naming, lexical decisions

and eye fixations. British Journal of Psychology, 94(2), 223–244.

https://doi.org/10.1348/000712603321661903

Katamba, F. 1994. Morphology. London: Macmillan Press

Kemmer, S. (2003). Words in English: Types of Word Formation. Words in English.

https://www.ruf.rice.edu/%7Ekemmer/Words/wordtypes.html

Kilambi, P. Compound Words-A Cognitive Linguistic Study. Preprints 2020, 2020080601

(doi: 10.20944/preprints202008.0601.v1).

Lees, R. B. (1968). The Grammar of English Nominalizations. 5th printing. The Hague:

Mouton.
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Lieber, R., & Stekauer, P. (2011). The Oxford Handbook of Compounding (Oxford

Handbooks) (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.

McArthur, T., & McArthur, R. (1996). The Concise Oxford Companion to the English

Language (First ed.). Oxford University Press.

Mahnkopf. R, 2004, Syntactic and Semantic Features of English Compounds, Munich,

GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/189408

Marchand, H. (1960). The Categories and Types of Present-day English Word Formation

(2nd ed). Munich: Beck, pp.380-81

Plag, I. (2003). Word-Formation in English (Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics).

Cambridge University Press.

Sara Conti. (2004). Compound Adjectives in English A descriptive approach to their

morphology and functions. University of Pisa and the University of Vienna.

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Appendix
The subtypes of compound listed in compound shed light on the discussion of the
terminological variability in classifications of compound words. According to Arnold
(1968), based on structural principles, there are neutral, morphological and syntactic
compounds. In neutral compound, there are subtypes: simple neutral compounds which
consist of simple suffix less stems such as blackboard; derivational compounds in which
one constituent is derivational stem such as air- constituent and neutral contracted
compounds whose one constituent is clipped stem such as U-turn. Morphological
compounds are compounds having stems linked by a vowel or a consonant. For example,
handicraft, spokesman, handiwork, etc. Syntactic compounds are compounds like mother-
in-law, lady-in-waiting, good-for-nothing, etc.

Based on the semantic aspect, the compound is categorized as an idiomatic and non-
idiomatic compound. The meaning of Non-idiomatic compounds can really be described as
the sum of their constituent meanings. They include bedroom, earthquake, sunrise, etc.
While the meaning of idiomatic compounds do not correspond to the separate meanings of
their constituent parts. For instance, blackboard, tallboy, lazy bone or butter-finger.

According to part of speech, compound words consist of compound nouns,

compound verbs and compound adjectives. Most compound nouns in English are formed
by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives. For example, the root words “tooth” and
“paste” are nouns, we have the compound word “toothpaste”. “Cold-blooded”, “old-
fashioned”, “deep-sea”, “last-minute”, “good-looking” are compound adjectives. A
compound verb is a word compound which acts as a single verb, such as out-fox, shortlist,
etc.

Based on written form, compound words may be hyphenated, written open (as
separate words), or written solid (closed) (Katamba, 1994). A hyphenated compound is
simply a combination of words joined by a hyphen or hyphens, such as mother-in-law.
Open compounds include “end zone”, “high school”. The closed forms are compounds
written as single words (newspaper, goldfish).

Based on origin, English compounds fall into two types (McArthur & McArthur,
1996). Classical are compound words composed from combining roots derived from
classical Latin or ancient Greek roots such as “microscope”, “telephone”, “photograph” .
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Vernacular compounds like “teapot” and “blackbird”, based on the compounding patterns
Germanic languages.

Last but not least, based on the presence of head, compound words are perceived as
endocentric, exocentric, copulative and appositional compounds. An endocentric compound
consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole
compound, and modifiers, which restrict this meaning. For example, the English compound
bedroom, where room is the head and bed is the modifier, is understood as a room where
the bed is positioned. An exocentric compound is a compound that none (neither) of its
components can be perceived as a formal head, and its meaning often cannot be
transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For example, the meaning of “blue-collar”
has nothing to do with the meaning of “blue” or “collar”. Copulative compounds are
compounds with two semantic heads, such as bittersweet or sleepwalk. The meaning of
copulative is the sum of its constituents. Appositional compound refers to the compound
whose parts of it refer to the same referent. For example, a maidservant refers to a maid
who is a servant.