SPSC Written Preparation For The Posts Of Assistant

Engineer Civil (BPS-17) In Public Health Engineering

& Rural Development Department, Government Of
Sindh
Hydraulics & Fluid Mechanics
(Lecture No: 03)

 Course Instructor:
Faisal Iqbal Shaikh
Assistant Engineer Civil (BPS-17), PHE & RD Department, Govt. of Sindh
B.E Civil (MUET, Jamshoro)
MEM Construction Management (NEDUET, Karachi)
 Lecture Modules
Discharge
Orifice and its Types
Jet of Water and Vena Contracta
Types of Hydraulic Coefficients
Discharge through various types of orifice
Time required to Empty the tank and related problems
Flow through pipes and its problems
Power transmitted through pipes
Compound Parallel and Equivalent Pipes and Their Problems
Bernoulli’s Equation, its derivations and Limitations
Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation and Related Problems
Discharge
Definition:
 The quantity of liquid flowing per second is called “Discharge”.
 It is denoted by “Q”.
 Mathematically,
Q = V/T

Where, V = Volume
T = Time
 Units: Cumec (m3/sec), Cusec (ft3/sec), Cm3/sec

 Also, Discharge = Area x Velocity (i.e Q = A x V)

 Velocity taken is average. Reason?
 1m3 = 1000 Litres

 1 Litre = 1000 cm3

Orifice and Its Types
 Orifice:
 An opening in a vessel through which the liquid flows out is known as an orifice.
 The main purpose of an orifice is the “measurement of discharge”.
 It may be provided in the vertical side of the vessel or in the base.
 Types of Orifice:
 According to Size:
Small orifice
Large orifice
 According to Shape :
Circular orifice
Rectangular orifice
Triangular orifice

 According to Edge:
Sharp-edged orifice
Bell-mouthed orifice
 According to Nature of Discharge:
Fully submerged orifice
Partially submerged orifice
 Jet Of Water And Vena Contracta
Jet of Water:
 The continuous stream of liquid that comes out or flows out of an orifice is called “Jet of Water”.

 Vena Contracta:
 The section at which the position of jet of water is horizontal or where the maximum contraction of water
occurs is called “Vena Contracta”
 The jet of water after leaving the orifice with the horizontal direction and maximum contraction is called
“Vena Contracta”.

 The values obtained at the Vena contracta are the actual ones whereas those obtained from the orifice are
theoritical because the area of the orifice is also considered in it.
Hydraulic Coefficients
 Discharge Through
Various Types of Orifice
 Discharge
Through A Large
Rectangular
Orifice
 Discharge
Through A Wholly
Drowned Orifice
Discharge Through A Partially Drowned Orifice
Time Required to Empty
the Tank and Related
Problems
Flow Through Pipes
Pipe:
 A closed conduit generally made up of a circular cross section used to convey water or any liquid from one place to
another is called pipe.

Types of Pipe:
 Long Pipe: When L > 1000D, minor losses are neglected.
 Short Pipe: When L < 1000D, minor losses are considered.

Types of losses in Pipe:

 Minor Losses: These are due to change in cross section i.e sudden increase or decrease in diameter or due to
obstruction in flow. These are further divided into following types,
i. Loss at entrance: 0.5 V2 / 2g
ii. Loss at exit: V2 / 2g
iii. Loss due to sudden Enlargement: (V1 – V2)^2 / 2g
iv. Loss due to sudden contraction: [(V2)^2 / 2g ] (1/Cc – 1)^2 . The Value of Cc taken as 0.62.
v. Loss due to obstruction: V2 / 2g [ A / {Cc(A-a)} ]^2 where A = Cross section area of pipe and a = area of
obstruction .
 Major Losses: These are due to friction between the inside surface of the pipes. They are calculated by two formulas as follows,
i. Darcy’s Equation for the loss of head due to friction:
 It is given by,
H = 4fl(v^2) / 2gd
Where, f = Darcy’s frictional coefficient
l = Length of pipe
v = Velocity of water through pipe
g = acceleration due to gravity
d = diameter of the pipe
• If discharge (q) is given than formula will be,
H = fl(q^2) / 3(d^5)
i. Chezy’s equation for the loss of head due to friction:
 In chezy’s equation, V = c{(mi)^0.5}, where C = chezy’s constant, m = Hydraulic radius and i = loss of head of water due to friction per
unit length.
 So the formula is given by,
H = 4l(v^2) / (c^2)d
Or
H = L(v^2) / (c^2)m
Loss of Head in the pipe having constant cross section:

 In this case, three losses will be considered which are (i) Loss at entrance, (ii) Loss due to friction and (iii)
Loss at exit. Mathematically,
H = 0.5(V^2)/2g + 4fl(V^2)/2gd + (V^2)/2g
Loss of Head in the pipe having 2 cross sections:

 In this case, five losses will be considered which are (i) Loss at entrance, (ii) Loss due to friction in section 1, (iii)
Loss due to sudden enlargement from section 1 to section 2, (iv) Loss due to friction in section 2 and (v) Loss at exit.
Mathematically,
H = 0.5{(V1)^2}/2g + 4f(L1){(V1)^2}/2gd1 + (V1-V2)^2/2g + 4f(L2){(V2)^2}/2gd2 + {(V2)^2}/2g
Power to be transmitted through pipes:
 When water is allowed to fall from higher level to the lower level, power is generated.
 When there is a waterfall, we do not allow the water to simply fall but it is made to flow through a pipe so that
the direction of water may be set in some convenient way from which may produce some power.

 When water is flowing through such pipe, some head of water will be lost due to friction.
 Thus, net head “h” will be,
h = H – hf
• Efficiency of transmission,
η = h/H = (H – hf) / H
• Power to be transmitted = Weight of water flowing per second x Head of water
= ωQh = ωQ(H-hf)
 Compound, Parallel
and Equivalent Pipes
Compound Pipe:
• A pipe obtained by connecting pipes of different lengths and diameters with one another to form a pipeline
is called a “Compound pipe”.

• It is also called “Pipes in series”.

• As the pipes are in serious, therefore discharge through such pipe will be continuous.
Parallel Pipe:
• When two pipes are laid in same direction so as to increase discharge from one tank to another, such an
arrangement is called “Pipes in Parallel”.
• In such case, the loss of head in all pipes will be same and each pipe will discharge water independently.

• Total discharge from one tank to another will be equal to sum of discharge through all such pipes.
• Mathematically,
hf = hf1 = hf2
Hf = f`1L1{(Q1^2) / (3{(d1)^5} = f`2L2{(Q2^2) / (3{(d2)^5}
And, Q = Q1 + Q2
Equivalent Pipe:
• Sometimes, a compound pipe is replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter and of the same length as that of the
compound pipe so that the loss of head as well as the discharge is same in both the cases.

• Such new pipe of uniform diameter is called “Equivalent Pipe”.

• Its diameter is called “Equivalent size of the pipe”.
• In such a pipe,
H = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
Or H = f(Q^2)/3 [{L1/(d1^5)} + {L2/(d2^5)} + [{L3/(d3^5)}
And, Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
• Length of the equivalent pipe L = L1 + L2 + L3 + ……
• Equivalent size of the pipe “d” is calculated by,
L/(d^5) = L1/(d1^5) + L2/(d2^5) + L3/(d3^5) + …..
Bernoulli’s Equation, its
derivation and
applications
Bernoulli’s Principle:
• For a perfectly incompressible fluid flowing in a continuous stream, the total energy of any particle of a liquid
remains same while it moves from one point to another.

• Mathematically,
Z + p/ω + (v^2)/2g = constant
Where, Z = Potential Energy

p/ω = Pressure Energy

(v^2)/2g = Kinetic Energy

Proof:
 Practical Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle:
• It is the basic equation or principle which has the widest application in Hydraulics or Applied Hydraulics.
• There are three practical applications of Bernoulli’s equation which are:
a) Venturimeter
b) Orifice Meter
c) Pitot Tube
 Venturimeter:
 An apparatus used for finding out the discharge of the liquid flowing in the pipe. It consists of three parts which are described
below:
i. Convergent Cone: A short pipe converging from
diameter d1 to diameter d2. It is also known as
inlet of venturimeter and its slope is between ¼ or 1/5.
i. Throat: A small portion of circular pipe in which
the diameter d2 remains constant.
i. Divergent Cone: Also known as outlet of venturimeter,
it diverges from diameter d2 to larger diameter d1.
Its length is about 4 to 5 times than that of convergent cone
Discharge through Venturimeter:
• It is given by the formula,

Q = [C (a1)(a2){(2gh)^(1/2)}]/[{(a1)^2} – {(a2)^2}]^0.5
Where, C = Coefficient of Venturimeter,
a1 = Area of convergent/divergent cone
a2 = Area of throat
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = Difference between pressure head at convergent and throat sections

Proof:
Orifice Meter:
 An apparatus used to measure the discharge in a pipe.

 It consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known as an orifice. This plate is fixed inside a pipe.
 A mercury manometer is inserted to know the difference of pressures between the pipe and the throat.

Discharge through Orifice Meter:

• It is given by the formula,
Q = [C (a1)(a2){(2gh)^(1/2)}]/[{(a1)^2} – {(a2)^2}]^0.5
Where, C = Coefficient of Orifice meter,

a1 = Area of pipe at inlet

a2 = Area of throat
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = Reading of mercury manometer

Proof:
Pitot Tube:
 An apparatus used to measure the velocity of flow at the required point in a pipe or a stream.

 It consists of a glass tube bent through 90 degree.

 The lower end of the tube faces the direction of flow.
 The liquid rises up in the tube due to the pressure exerted by the flowing liquid and through this rise velocity
can be easily calculated by the following formula,

V = (2gh)^0.5
Where, V = Velocity of liquid In the tube (Theoretical Velocity)
g = Acceleration due to gravity

h = Rise of liquid in the tube

Proof: