UGRC 150

CRITICAL THINKING AND PRACTICAL REASONING

INSTRUCTOR: G. ADDISON
LESSON TWO
 OUTLINE
A. DEFINITION
1. ASPECTS OF A WORD’S MEANING
• CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION
2. SIX TYPES OF DEFINITION
• LEXICAL THEORETICAL
• OSTENSIVE STIPULATIVE
• OPERATIONAL IDEAL
OUTLINE CONT’D

3. WELL-DEFINED AND OPEN-TEXTURED WORDS

4. PROBLEMS ARISING WITH DEFINITIONS
• TOO NARROW
• VAGUE
• TOO BROAD
• CIRCULAR OR BEGGING THE QUESTION
OUTLINE CONT’D

B. CONTRASTING TYPES OF DISCOURSE (PART I)

1. THE NATURE OF DISPUTES
• VERBAL DISPUTE
• SUBSTANTIVE DISAGREEMENT
 PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS

• A definition is a statement that presents the meaning of a

word
ASPECTS OF MEANING

CONNOTATION: Characteristics or features or properties of something which is

associated with a word that refers to that sort of thing
• It represents the descriptive meaning of a word
Example
Bank: 1. A financial institution licensed to receive deposits and make loans.
2. The land alongside or sloping down to a river or lake.
Connotation
ASPECTS OF MEANING

DENOTATION: Is the collection of all the things in the world that has ever existed and
which exist now and which will exist in future which are correctly called out by the word
• It refers to the definition that conveys the meaning of a word by giving examples.
Example
Bank: 1. Zenith Bank, UT Bank, Capital Bank, Ecobank
2. Stream bank or River bank
Denotation
ASPECTS OF A WORD’S MEANING

MULTIPLE CONNOTATIONS
BANK: 1. A financial institution licensed to receive deposits and make loans
2. The land alongside or sloping down to a river or lake
CHAIR: 1. A piece of furniture made for one person to sit upon with a back support
2. The person in charge of a meeting or institution
COMPONENTS OF A STANDARD DEFINITION

DEFINIENDUM: (from Latin: that which is to be defined) the word being defined/subject of the
definition.
DEFINIENS: the rest of the definition/ sentence that gives the word’s meaning/predicate of a
definition (from Medieval Latin: defining). It gives the word’s connotation.
Example
Chair (is) a piece of furniture made for one person to sit upon with a back support
Definiendum Definiens
TYPES OF DEFINITION
• LEXICAL DEFINITION
• OSTENSIVE DEFINITION
• OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
• THEORETICAL DEFINITION
• STIPULATIVE DEFINITION
• IDEAL DEFINITION
LEXICAL DEFINITION

(Also known as Dictionary definition) Refers to meanings of words found in dictionaries. Lexical
definition mostly describes the word’s connotation. That is, the definition states the set of features
or properties possessed by a thing to which the term applies.
Example
• Water is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, fluid that is the chief constituent of streams, lakes, urine,
saliva due to appetite, and amniotic fluid.
Lexical definition is the simplest and the most common source of meaning or usage of a word.
Lexical definitions have limitations. They are often simplistic and can generate some degree of
vagueness. Consider the following definition adapted from the Collins Dictionary:
• Adult is a mature, fully developed person.
OSTENSIVE DEFINITION

It is this type of definition that is provided by demonstration in real life, not by using other
words, but by giving an example, showing or pointing out what in real life is referred to by the
word being defined. Ostensive definition gives the word’s denotation.
Example
• An even number is 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.
Ostensive definitions are important for language learning and for establishing a link between
words and the objects the words represent. Useful as it is, ostensive definition has limitations.
Sometimes, the attention is directed to the wrong object. It may be further limited when no
object of the right type is available or when the object is abstract, such as ‘love’ or ‘Gross
Domestic Product’.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

In addition to ostensive definition, one other type of definition that involves demonstration is
operational definition. It is usually a list of instructions or a sequence of steps or an operation or
a procedure which, when followed, will reveal or demonstrate the meaning of the word.
Example
• The meaning of ‘water soluble’ is determined by taking a clean beaker, adding 50 cc of
unsaturated water at room temperature; then adding ¼ teaspoon of a substance to the beaker,
and stirring with a sterile stick five to ten times. If the substance dissolves, then it is called ‘water
soluble’.
Operational definitions are especially useful to scientific studies but are limited in terms of
offering the meaning of abstract terms such as ‘beautiful’ or ‘faithfulness’.
THEORETICAL DEFINITION

It specifies the meaning of a word as it is used in some area of study or meanings that come
from generally accepted theories in specific fields of scientific study.
Example
• Work is the product of force and distance.
Here, the term ‘work’ is being defined by means of another term in the theory ‘force’. So a
complete understanding of the theoretical meaning of work is gained only through an
understanding of ‘force’. Theoretical definition thus connects the term being defined with other
terms in the theory. However, the limitation to this definition is that, where the theory upon which
we are trying to explain the meaning of the term is flawed, the definition becomes problematic.
STIPULATIVE DEFINITION

It is a definition that is established through consensus or deliberation and agreement

for the purpose of debate, or analysis or policy making. It may also arise when we
need to introduce a new word into a language.
Example
• ‘Staycation’ is a holiday spent at home and involving day trips to local attractions.
Stipulative definition may be useful when used among members of a special interest
group but might not be helpful when communicating with people outside that group.
IDEAL DEFINITION

(Also known as Essential or Real definition) It is a definition that presents the core meaning or the
essential meaning of a word. It provides all and only those features that correctly belongs to the word’s
denotation. Ideal definition is only achievable for words which are ‘well-defined’.
Example
• An even number is a whole number that is divisible by 2
It is also known as eliminative definition because when obtained, the definiendum can be replaced by
the definiens in every context of the word’s use without changing the truth of the statement.
Ideal definition clarifies the meaning of terms and makes them more precise. It eliminates vagueness
or ambiguities surrounding the use of the word.
TO SUM UP…

Some of the types overlap;

1. Theoretical definitions, in particular, often appear as lexical (dictionary)
definitions.
2. A stipulative definition can also be derived from the dictionary.
3. Finally, some operational definitions are also theoretical.
WELL-DEFINED TERMS

When a word is well-defined, it means the definition makes completely clear,

which objects, properties or individuals in the world are correctly called out by
the word.
Most mathematical terms, such as triangle, square, a set, even number are well-
defined. But outside of pure sciences like mathematics, it is difficult to find well-
defined terms.
OPEN-TEXTURED WORDS

(Also known as Open Class Concepts or Essentially Contestable Concepts) Are

concepts that are open to several interpretations.

Examples of open textured words include marriage, family, love, justice, life,
and other terms in the humanities.
PROBLEMS ARISING WITH DEFINITIONS

A word's definition may be flawed in one way or the other. Poor or flawed definitions can be
diagnosed and classified as: Too narrow, Too broad, Vague or Circular.
Too broad: the definiens covers things that do not correctly belong in the word’s denotation. Eg. A
knife is an instrument for cutting.
Too narrow: the definiens does not cover all the things that correctly belong in the denotation of the
word. Eg. A table is a piece of furniture consisting of a flat top set horizontally on four legs.
Vague: the definiens does not specify adequately to determine what belongs in the word’s
denotation. Eg. Youth is the period between childhood and adult age.
Circular (begging the question): the definiens repeats the definiendum. Eg. A full-time student is a
person who is enrolled full time in school.
PROBLEMS ARISING WITH DEFINITIONS CONT’D

A faulty definition can be correctly criticized as having more than one type of
fault.
Example
Spirituality is a characteristic exhibited by a person who attends some form of
church service on a regular basis.
 CONTRASTING TYPES OF DISCOURSE

THE NATURE OF DISPUTES

• VERBAL DISPUTE
• SUBSTANTIVE DISAGREEMENT
DISPUTE: A DISAGREEMENT OR DIFFERENCE IN OPINION
BETWEEN TWO OR MORE PEOPLE.
 VERBAL DISPUTES AND
SUBSTANTIVE DISAGREEMENTS
A verbal dispute is a disagreement which rests upon an inconsistency in the way disputants are using the
same words.
It is a disagreement that has to do with different understandings of the meaning of a key concept or term.
A verbal dispute can be resolved by coming to an agreement on how the key word or phrase is to be
understood.

Example
• Ama: My mother is the best cook in the whole of Ghana.
• Effe: No, she is not. My mother is a better cook than your mother because she can cook many continental
dishes.

• Ama: No, my mother is the best cook because her food is more nutritious than anyone else’s.
• Effe: You are wrong. My mother is the best cook.
• Ama: You are wrong. My mother is the best cook.
 VERBAL DISPUTES AND
SUBSTANTIVE DISAGREEMENTS
A substantive disagreement is a disagreement that has to do with different opinions
about facts and values, not meaning.
It is a disagreement which exists where each side has in view different facts or
subscribes to different values.
Example
A: The Head of State is not really a Ghanaian since he is half Scottish.
B: No, he is a Ghanaian since he is our leader and he is a Ghanaian citizen with a Ghanaian
passport.
 VERBAL DISPUTES AND
SUBSTANTIVE DISAGREEMENTS
Disagreements may also arise out of the shifting tide of our feelings and
emotions. They are often characterized by emotional utterances and the use of
polemic or rhetorical ploys.
NEXT LESSON….

CONTRASTING TYPES OF DISCOURSE PART II