CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

CHAPTER I
MATTER AND MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION
Chemistry is an active, evolving science that has vital importance to our world, in both the realm of nature
and the realm of society. Its roots are ancient, but as we will see, chemistry is every bit a modern science. It is central
to our fundamental understanding of many science-related fields. It is central to our way of life; without it, we would
be living shorter lives in what we would consider primitive conditions, without automobiles, electricity, computers,
CDs, and many other everyday conveniences. But the true impact of chemistry extends more in our daily life. The
truth is that the most profound biological and environmental questions ultimately have chemical answers.
In this chapter, fundamental concepts about matter and energy and their changes will be discussed. Units
for mass, length, volume, density, and temperature will be and apply systematic chemical problem solving to unit
conversions. We see that data collection always includes some uncertainty and examine the distinction between
accuracy and precision.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this chapter, the students must be able to:
1. Distinguish between observable (qualitative) and numeric (quantitative) data. 2. Explain the scientific method
and describe the difference between hypothesis and theory as scientific terms.
3. Discuss the classifications of matter and differentiate a pure substance from a mixture and an element from
a compound.
4. Explain the different states of matter based on the organization of its particles. 5. Differentiate physical
properties from chemical properties and physical change from chemical change and give examples of each.
6. Identify common metric prefixes.
7. Demonstrate the use of significant figures, scientific notation and SI units in calculations. 8. Attach appropriate
SI units to defined quantities, and employ dimensional analysis in calculations.
9. Differentiate accuracy and precision.

GENERAL CONCEPT
Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter undergoes, and the energy
associated with those changes. Matter is the “stuff” of the universe: air, glass, planets, students—anything that has
mass and volume. Chemistry is often called the central science, because a basic knowledge of chemistry is essential
for students of biology, physics, geology, ecology, and many other subjects.

1
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

The Scientific Method

Scientific method is a systematic approach to research. This approach is not a stepwise checklist, but rather a flexible
process of creative thinking and testing aimed at objective, verifiable discoveries about how nature works.
 Figure 1.1. The

scientific approach to understanding nature. (Silberberg, 2017)

• Observation are the facts that our ideas must explain. It is the basic to scientific thinking. The most useful
observations are quantitative because they can be compared and allow trends to be seen. Pieces of quantitative
information are data. After a large amount of data has been collected, it is often desirable to summarize the
information in a concise way, as a law. In science, a law is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a
relationship between phenomena that is always the same under the same conditions.
• Hypothesis is a proposal made to explain an observation. A sound hypothesis need not to be correct, but it must
be testable. It is often the reason for performing an experiment. • Experiment is a clear set of procedural steps that
tests a hypothesis. It is the connection between our hypotheses about nature and nature itself. It contains at least
two variables, quantities that can have more than a single value.
• Model describes how the observed phenomenon occurs. Hypotheses that survive many experimental tests of
their validity may evolve into theories. A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or
those laws that are based on them. Theories, too, are constantly being tested. If a theory is disproved by
experiment, then it must be discarded or modified so that it becomes consistent with experimental
observations.

EXERCISE 1. Using the Scientific Method

Virtual Lab. Visit https://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/scientific_method_plant_exp.html and do a simulation

experiment on the growth of a plant as affected by soil type and addition of soap.

The States of Matter

Chemists want to know the composition of matter, the types and amounts of simpler substances that make it
up. A substance is a type of matter that has a defined, fixed composition.

2
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

Matter occurs commonly in three physical forms called states: solid, liquid, and gas. • Solid has a fixed shape that
does not conform to the container shape. Solids are not defined by rigidity or hardness: solid iron is rigid and
hard, but solid lead is flexible, and solid wax is soft.
• Liquid has a varying shape that conforms to the container shape, but only to the extent of the liquid’s volume;
that is, a liquid has an upper surface.
• Gas also has a varying shape that conforms to the container shape, but it fills the entire container and, thus, does
not have a surface.
 Figure 1.2. The Physical States of Matter (Silberberg, 2017)

Classifications of Matter

Figure 1.3

Classifications of Matter (Chang, 2013)

• Substance. It is a form of matter that has a definite (constant) composition and distinct properties. Examples:
Water, Ammonia, Table Sugar, Gold, Oxygen Gas. • Mixture. It is a combination of two or more substances in
which the substances retain their distinct identities. It does not have a constant composition. Examples: Air, Milk,
Cement, Seawater

3
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

Mixtures can either be homogenous or heterogenous. Homogenous mixture has a composition in which it is
the same throughout. Example are brine (salt solution), coffee, alcohol, and sugar solution. Heterogenous
mixture, on the other hand, has no uniform composition. Example: Sand with iron filings, sand with gravel,
Tropicana orange juice and river water. Both mixtures can be created and then be separated by either physical
means into its pure components. Example: we can separate sand from gravel by picking up the gravel manually or
by using sieve. Sand with iron filings can be separated by a magnet. Sugar can be separated to water by means of
evaporation.

• Element. It is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. Example:
Hydrogen, Carbon, Silver, Nitrogen, Copper and Zinc.
• Compound. It is a substance which is composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions. Unlike mixtures, compounds can be separated only chemical means into their pure components.
Example: NaCl, sodium chloride (combination of 1 mole of sodium and 1 mole of chlorine)
Physical Properties and Changes
Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. They are used
to observe and describe matter. Physical properties of materials and systems are often described as intensive and
extensive properties. This classification relates to the dependency of the properties upon the size or extent of the
system or object in question.
An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a physical property of a system that does not depend on
the system size or the amount of material in the system, i.e., it is a property that will be the same regardless of the
amount of matter.
Examples of intensive properties:
▪ Temperature (how hot or cold an object is)
▪ refractive index (describes how fast light travels through the material)
▪ density (ρ=m/v)
▪ hardness (measure of resistance of material to localized deformation)
An extensive property is additive for independent, non-interacting subsystems. The property is proportional to the
amount of material in the system, i.e., the property will change if the amount of matter changes.
Example of extensive properties:
▪ mass: how much matter in the sample
▪ volume: How much space the sample takes up
▪ length: How long the sample is.

QUESTION: Is color, an intensive or extensive property?

4
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

ANSWER: In most cases, color is an intensive property. However, when you are dealing with nanoparticles or thin
films, that is not the case any more. Once your systems get within the same size as the wavelengths of light, then
color becomes dependent on the geometry of the system.

Figure 1.4. Gold nanoparticle suspension (Silberberg, 2017)

A physical change takes place without any changes in molecular composition. The same element or compound is
present before and after the change. The same molecule is present throughout the changes. Physical changes are
related to physical properties since some measurements require that changes be made.
Example: Freezing of water (liquid water freezes into solid ice; there is a change in appearance and state but there is
no change in the composition of molecule)

Chemical Properties and Changes

Chemical properties of matter describes its "potential" to undergo some chemical change or reaction by
virtue of its composition.
Example: Ignition potential of Hydrogen
Explosive potential of ammonium nitrate (Think of Lebanon Explosion)

Chemical change results in one or more substances of entirely different composition from the original
substances. The elements and/or compounds at the start of the reaction are rearranged into new product compounds or
elements. A CHEMICAL CHANGE alters the composition of the original matter. Different elements or compounds are
present at the end of the chemical change. The atoms in compounds are rearranged to make new and different
compounds. Example: Corrosion of iron (Produces new product which is rust or Iron Oxide) Burning of leaves
(Produces carbon dioxide and water)

5
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

EXERCISE 2
1. Milk turns sour. This is a ________________
a. Chemical Change
b. Physical Change
c. Chemical Property
d. Physical Property
2. HCl being a strong acid is a __________, Wood sawed in two is ___________ a. Chemical Change,
Physical Change
b. Physical Change, Chemical Change
c. Chemical Property, Physical Change
d. Physical Property, Chemical Change
3. Salt dissolved in water is
a. Chemical Change
b. Physical Change
c. Chemical Property
d. Physical Property
4. Aluminum Phosphate has a density of 2.566 g/cm3
a. Chemical Change
b. Physical Change
c. Chemical Property
d. Physical Property
5. Which of the following are examples of matter?
a. A Dog
 b. Carbon Dioxide
c. Ice Cubes
d. copper (II) nitrate
6. The formation of gas bubbles is a sign of what type of change? _____________ 7. True or False:

Bread rising is a physical property.

8. True or False: Dicing potatoes is a physical change.

9. True or False: Moth ball is a substance that can undergo physical change. 10. The mass of lead

is a _____________property.

6
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

MEASUREMENT
Scientists throughout the world have adopted a standardized system of units known as the International
System of Units (SI). This system is based on the seven fundamental base units shown in Table 1.
Table 1.1 SI Base Units

In chemistry, we often determine the amount of chemical species from mass measurements. For such
measurements, metric units of kilograms (kg), grams (g), milligrams (mg), or micrograms (μg) are used. Volumes of
liquids are measured in units of liters (L), milliliters (mL), microliters (μL), and sometimes nanoliters (nL). The liter,
the SI unit of volume, is defined as exactly 10-3 m3. The milliliter is defined as 10-6 m3, or 1 cm3.

Table 2. Common SI-English Quantities

Mass vs Weight
It is important to understand the difference between mass and weight. Mass is an invariant measure of the
quantity of matter in an object. Weight is the force of at- traction between an object and its surroundings, principally
the earth. Because gravitational attraction varies with geographical location, the weight of an object depends on
where you weigh it.

7
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

Table 3. Prefixes for Units

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A person’s average daily intake of sugar is 0.0833 pound. What is this mass in grams? Solution: Note that

the conversion factor is 1pound = 453.6 grams

Therefore: 0.0833 pound x ! !"#.% '

( )*+,-." = 37.78 grams
 2. Bauan to Batangas City is approximately 7 kilometers. How long is the distance in inches?

Solution: 1 kilometer = 1000 meters and 1 meter = 39.37 inches. Alternatively, 1 meter = 100 cm, and 1 inch
= 2.54 cm.

7 km x !(/// 0
( 10 " !#2.#3 4,
(0 " = 275, 590 ℎ or

7 km x !(/// 0
( 10 " !(// 50
(0 " ! ( 4,56
7."! 50" = 275, 590. 55 ℎ

• the small discrepancy between the two solution can be omitted.

3. A water tank contains 100 gallons of water. How many cubic centimeters (cm3) of water is present in the tank?
Solution: 1 mL = 1 cm3 (cc, as commonly known in hospitals) and 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 =1L 1 gallon = 3.785
dm3 = 3.785 L
100 gallons x ! #.38" 9 (9 " !( 50!
(/// 09 #
( ':;;*," ! ( 09 " = 378, 500

8
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

4. Liquid nitrogen is obtained from liquefied air and is used to prepare frozen goods and in low-temperature
research. The density of the liquid at its boiling point is 0.808 g/cm3. Convert the density to units of kg/m3

Solution: Two separate conversions are required for this problem:

a. Grams to kilograms (g 🡪 kg)
b. Cubic centimeter (cm3) to cubic meter (m3)

Take note that : 1 kg = 1000 g and 1 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3 or 1 x106 cm3

Therefore: 0.808 '
!
0

(/// '" !(,///,/// 50!

! EXERCISE 3.
(0 " = 808 1' !
50 ! ( 1'

1. Gold is a precious metal that is chemically unreactive. It is used mainly in jewelry, dentistry, and electronic
devices. A piece of gold ingot with a mass of 301 g has a volume of 15.6 cm3. Calculate the density of gold.

2. The density of the lightest metal, lithium (Li), is 5.34 x 102 kg/m3. Convert the density to g/cm3.

3. A roll of aluminum foil can be stretched up to 5 meters. What is its distance in miles and inch?
Significant Figures
All measuring devices - balances, pipets, thermometers, and so forth- are made to limited specifications, and
we use our imperfect senses and skills to read them. Therefore, we can never measure a quantity exactly; put another
way, every measurement includes some uncertainty. The device we choose depends on how much uncertainty is
acceptable. When you buy potatoes, a supermarket scale that measures in 0.1-kg increments is acceptable:

Measured mass: 2.0 ± 0.1 kg ⟶ actual mass: between 1.9 and 2.1 kg

The “± 0.1 kg” term expresses the uncertainty in the mass. Needing more certainty than that to weigh a substance, a
chemist uses a balance that measures in 0.001- kg increments:

Measured mass: 2.036 ± 0.001 kg ⟶ actual mass: between 2.035 and 2.037 kg

The greater number of digits in this measurement means we know the mass of the substance with more certainty than
we know the mass of the potatoes.

9
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

We always estimate the rightmost digit of a measurement. The uncertainty can be expressed with the ± sign,
but generally we drop the sign and assume an uncertainty of one unit in the rightmost digit. The digits we record, both
the certain and the uncertain ones, are called significant figures. The number of significant figures is the minimum
number of digits needed to write a given value in scientific notation without loss of precision.

Guidelines for Using Significant Figures

In general, it is fairly easy to determine how many significant figures a number has by following these rules:
1. Any digit that is not zero is significant. Thus, 845 cm has three significant figures. 2. Zeros between
nonzero digits are significant. Thus, 606 m contains three significant figures.
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. Their purpose is to indicate the placement of
the decimal point. For example, 0.08 L contains one significant figure. 4. If a number is greater than 1, then all
the zeros written to the right of the decimal point count as significant figures. Thus, 2.0 mg has two significant
figures, and 40.062 mL has five significant figures.
5. If a number is less than 1, then only the zeros that are at the end of the number and the zeros that are
between nonzero digits are significant. This means that 0.090 kg has two significant figures, and 0.3005 L
has four significant figures.
6. For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the trailing zeros (that is, zeros after the last nonzero digit)
may or may not be significant. Thus, 400 cm may have one significant figure (the digit 4), two significant
figures (40), or three significant figures (400). We cannot know which is correct without more
information. By using scientific notation, however, we avoid this ambiguity. In this particular case, we can
express the number 400 as 4 × 102 for one significant figure, 4.0 × 102 for two significant figures, or 4.00
× 102 for three significant figures.

Exact Numbers. Exact numbers have no uncertainty associated with them. Some are part of a unit
conversion: by definition, there are exactly 60 minutes in 1 hour, 1000 micrograms in 1 milligram, and 2.54
centimeters in 1 inch. Therefore, unlike measured quantities, exact numbers do not limit the number of
significant figures in a calculation.
 EXERCISE 4
1. Determine the number of significant figures.
a. 453 f. 3.40
b. 3002 g. 20.03
c. 0.00329 h. 100.
d. 600 i. 0.0360
e. 101,020 j. 0.0005680

10
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

Significant Figures in Arithmetic

Rule of thumb: Rounding should only be done on the final answer (not intermediate results), to avoid
accumulating round-off errors.
Adding and Subtracting
Express all numbers with the same exponent and align all numbers with respect to the decimal point. Round
off the answer according to the number of decimal places in the number with the fewest decimal places.

Multiplication and Division

In multiplication and division, we are normally limited to the number of digits contained in the number with
the fewest significant figures:

Rules for Rounding Off

The general rule for rounding is that the least certain measurement sets the limit on the certainty of the
final answer. Here are detailed rules for rounding off:
1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number increases by 1: 5.379 rounds to 5.38 if you need
three significant figures.
2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number remains the same: 0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if you
need three significant figures.
3. If the digit removed is 5, the preceding number increases by 1 if it is odd and remains the same if it is even:
17.75 rounds to 17.8, but 17.65 rounds to 17.6.
4. If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is followed; if the 5 is followed by non-zeros, rule 1 is followed:
17.6500 rounds to 17.6, but 17.6513 rounds to 17.7.
5. Always carry one or two additional significant figures through a multistep calculation and round off the
final answer only.

EXERCISE 5
1. Perform the following calculations and round the answers to the correct number of significant figures:
 11
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

Accuracy and Precision

Precision
Precision is the closeness of results to others obtained in exactly the same way. It describes the reproducibility
of measurement. It is readily determined by simply repeating the measurement on replicate samples.
Three terms are widely used to describe the precision of a set of replicate data: standard deviation, variance, and
coefficient of variation. These three are functions of how much an individual result xi differs from the mean, called
the deviation from the mean di. di = |xi – x|
Accuracy
Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measurement to the true or accepted value and is expressed by the
error. Note that accuracy measures agreement between a result and the accepted value. Precision, on the other hand,
describes the agreement among several results obtained in the same way. We can determine precision just by
measuring replicate samples. Accuracy is often more difficult to determine because the true value is usually unknown.
An accepted value must be used instead. Accuracy is expressed in terms of either absolute or relative error.
▪ Absolute Error. The absolute error of a measurement is the difference between the measured value and the
true value. The sign of the absolute error tells you whether the value in question is high or low. If the
measurement result is low, the sign is negative; if the measurement result is high, the sign is positive.

▪ Relative Error. The relative error of a measurement is the absolute error divided by the true value. Relative
error may be expressed in percent, parts per thousand, or parts per million, depending on the magnitude of
the result.

Types of Error
The term error has two slightly different meanings. First, error refers to the difference between a measured
value and the “true” or “known” value. Second, error often denotes the estimated uncertainty in a measurement or
experiment.
1. Random, or indeterminate, causes data to be scattered more or less symmetrically around a mean value. In
general, random errors affect measurement precision.
2. Systematic (or determinate) error, causes the mean of a data set to differ from the accepted value. In general,
a systematic error in a series of replicate measurements causes all the results to be too high or too low. An
example of a systematic error is the loss of a volatile analyte while heating a sample.

12
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE
 Figure 5. Precision

and accuracy in a laboratory calibration.

✔ Systematic errors give values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value. ✔ Random errors
give some values that are higher and some that are lower than the actual value.
✔ Precise measurements have low random error; accurate measurements have low systematic error and
low random error.
✔ Asystematicerrorisoftencausedbyfaultyequipmentandcanbecompensatedforbycalibration.

13
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

CHAPTER TEST.
Encircle the letter of your answer,

1. Which of the following is a physical property of an element?

 a. Color
b. Ability to rust
c. Flammability
d. Ability to tarnish
2. A measurement of the amount of matter in an object is its ______.
a. Mass
b. Density
c. Volume
d. Length
3. A(n) ______ is an example of a homogeneous mixture that is very evenly mixed. a. Compound
b. Element
c. Pure substance
d. Solution
4. Which of the following is an example of a chemical change?
a. Melting of butter
b. Mixing milk and chocolate syrup
c. Breaking glass
d. Burning fuel
5. A pure substance made of two or more elements that are chemically combined is a(n) ______. a. Substance
b. element
c. compound
d. mixture
6. All of the following are steps in the scientific method except
a. observing and recording data
b. discarding data inconsistent with the hypothesis
c. forming a hypothesis
d. developing a conclusion based on experimental results
7. A numerical result is said to have good precision if
a. it agrees closely with an accepted value
b. repeated measurements agree closely
c. it has a small number of significant figures
d. it is a large whole number
8. A theory is best described as a
a. series of experimental observations
b. scientifically proven fact
c. generalizations that explains a body of known facts of phenomena
d. testable statement
9. The symbols for units of length in order from [LARGEST, ....., SMALLEST] are a. m, cm, mm, km
b. km, mm, cm, m
c. mm, m, cm, km
d. km, m, cm, mm
10. A woman has a body mass of 53 kg. What is her mass in grams?
a. 5.3

14
CHEM 104 GENERAL CHEMISTRY MODULE

b. 53
c. 0.053
d. 53000
11. What is the density of a sample of mineral oil if 250 mL has a mass of 230 g ? a. 20 g/mL
b. 1.09 g/mL
c. 0.92 g/mL
d. 57500 g/mL
12. A student conducts an experiment to determine the effects of adding salt on the boiling temperature of water.
The results are shown below.
 What is a reasonable hypothesis for the experiment shown above?
a. Salt makes water boil
b. Adding salt to the water will cause it to boil at higher temperature
c. If water is boiling, then it must have salt added to it.
d. If salt is added to water, then the water will get cloudy.
13. How many significant figures are there in 0.00450080?
a. 9
b. 8
c. 5
d. 6
14. The accepted value is 29.35. Which correctly describes this students experimental data? Trial 1, 29.35; Trial
2, 29.36; Trial 3, 29.34
a. Accurate but not precise
b. Both accurate and precise
c. Precise but not accurate
d. Neither accurate nor precise
15. Solve the following and express the result in correct number of significant figures. 4.5632 + 2.432 +
45.1 = xxxxx
a. 52.0952
b. 52.1
c. 52.095
d. 52

REFERENCES

Chang, Raymond, Kenneth A. Goldsby, (2017). Chemistry, (12th International Edition), New York: McGraw-Hill.
Silberberg, M.S. (2013). Principles of General Chemistry (3rd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill. Silberberg, (2017).
Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change. Advanced Topics (8th edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

15