CHAPTER 10

TRAINING IN SPORTS

TALENT INDENTIFICATION
Concept of Talent Identification

Talent Identification is to ensure that the appropriate players are being selected. Selection
must be done fairly and equitably. This requires a better understanding of player
identification and the adoption of a suitable selection policy. Selectors need to ensure that
they are assessing the correct qualities and attributes, and to ensure consistency in
selection.

Talent identification is the process of recognising current players that have the potential to
excel. It involves an attempt to predict the future capacity of performance of an individual.

Talent identification is based around a number of areas, these being physical attributes,
physiological skills, technical skills, psychological skills, cognitive skills and social skills

Sports Training Cycle

Sports training cycle also known as Periodized Training works on the concept of overload
and adaptation; by stressing the body over time, allowing it to recover, and then stressing it
again, athletes can gradually build fitness.

Periodization is the process of dividing an annual training plan into specific time blocks,
where each block has a particular goal and provides your body with different types of
stress.

This allows you to create some hard training periods and some easier periods to facilitate
recovery.

To develop an effective training program, it is important to understand the foundation of

periodization. This foundation consists of three cycles: macrocycles, mesocycles and
microcycles.

Macrocycle

A macrocycle refers to your season as a whole. It is the longest cycle which incorporates all
52 weeks of annual plan and it also includes all four stages of a periodized training program
(e.g., endurance, intensity, competition and recovery).

Macrocycle could be displayed as 4 periods;

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Preparation, Pre-competition (optional), Competition and Transition.

Preparation phase

It is further broken up into general and specific preparation. General preparation builds an
aerobic base for an endurance athlete. Specific preparation would be to work on the proper
form to be more efficient and to work more on the final format of the sport

Competitive phase

It can be several competitions, which lead to the main competition.

Transition phase

It is important for psychological reasons, a year dedicating time towards training means
some time off

It provides a bird’s-eye view of your training regimen and allows you to facilitate long-range
planning, e.g. if you want to prepare for a national championship event one year from now.

You can mark that date on your calendar and work to create a program that allows you to
come to your peak at that time. You can make changes to your macrocycle throughout the
year because of its length.

Mesocycle

A mesocycle refers to a particular training block within that season; e.g. the endurance
phase. The mesocycle represents a specific block of training that is designed to accomplish
a particular goal. This mesocycle may include three weeks of threshold intervals followed
by a week of recovery.

Two very common mesocycles consist of 21 and 28-day training blocks. For example, a 25-
year old experienced competitor might use a 23/5 training pattern (i.e., a 28day
mesocycle). This consists of 23 days of relatively hard work followed by 5 days of recovery.
Conversely, an older or less experienced athletes may opt for a 16/5 training pattern (i.e., a
21day mesocycle) that includes 16 days of hard training followed by 5 days of recovery.

Microcycle

A microcycle refers to the smallest unit usually a week of training.

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It is the shortest training cycle, typically lasting a week with the goal of facilitating a focused
block of training. It consists of very hard workouts for two or three consecutive days
followed by an equal amount of recovery.

Here the goal is to improve key physiological abilities such as lactate threshold (the highest
intensity a fit cyclist can maintain for 60 minutes) and aerobic capacity (the maximum
amount of oxygen the body can consume during high intensity exercise). Three or four
microcycles are tied together to form a mesocycle.

You can get the most out of your training by having a good understanding of each of the
three cycles of periodization and then using these cycles to create a plan that allows you to
peak for your most important events throughout the year.

TRAINING

 It means the process of preparation for some task.

 Preparation is a complex process and directly influences the sportsman’s
development and ensures the necessary degree of readiness for success.

STRENGTH

 It is the ability of muscles to overcome resistance.

 Acc to Barrow and Mc Gee,” Strength is the capacity of the whole body or any of its
part to exert force.

TYPES OF STRENGTH

 DYNAMIC STRENGTH
 Can be called isotonic strength because it is related to movements
 In pull ups and push ups we require dynamic strength..
 After sometimes, muscles refuse to do work.
 At this juncture, man is not able to do even one extra pull or push up.
 Movements are clearly visible when some uses dynamic strength.

Strength can be divided into three parts:

a) Maximum strength :
 It is the ability to work against maximum resistance
 In other sports maximum strength is required for a short period.

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  Eg : starting and accelerating phases in sprinting events, take off in long
jump etc.
b) Explosive strength
 It can be defined as the ability to overcome resistance with high speed.
 It is a combination of strength and speed abilities.
 It is usually used in sprint starts, weight lifting, hammer throw , triple
jump etc.
c) Strength endurance :
 It is the combination of strength and endurance abilities
 It can be defines as the ability to overcome resistance or to act against
resistance under the state of fatigue.
 It is commonly used in long distance races, swimming, road cycling etc
 STATIC STRENGTH
 It is also called isometric strength.
 It is the ability of muscles to act against resistance.
 It can be measured by dynamometer.
 This type of strength is not seen directly.
 Static strength is not usually applied in sports but in weightlifting it is used in
phases.

METHODS OF IMPROVING STRENGTH

a) Isometric Exercises
b) Isotonic Exercises
c) Isokinetic Exercises.

ISOMETRIC EXERCISES

 These exercises are not visible.

 No direct movements
 In these exercises work is performed but is not seen directly.
 In these exercises a group of muscles carry out tension against the group of
muscles.
 When these exercises are done muscles do not change their length.
 They remain fixed or constant although muscles do not remain constant or still
completely.
 Muscles feel slight tremor if exercise is done for some time.
 For eg : if we push a concrete wall, we will be unable to move it from its place. So
we should not consider it as work. Our muscles exert force, while pushing a wall
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 but we see that work is not done. Because work is said to be done when the point
of application of a force moves, or we can say that :
Work done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of force.
 If we perform these exercises, muscles will be changes in relation to size and
shape.
 These exercises are used for the development of strength.
 These exercises need less time and can be performed anywhere because no
equipment is required to do these exercises.
 These exercises are valuable for rehabilitation purposes.
 These exercises can be done by a person who is injured.
 Should not be performed by children and untrained persons.

ISOTONIC STRENGTH

 Movement can be seen directly.

 Work is done in these exercises.
 Muscles become flexible.
 Length of the muscles can be increased by isotonic exercises.
 These exercise of much value in field of sports.
 Best for strength development.
 Calisthenics exercises, running , jumping on the spot, weight training exercises
etc are the examples of it.
 These exercises can be done with or with out technical equipment.

ISOKINETIC EXERCISES

 Performed on specially designed machines.

 These exercises were developed by Perrine in 1968.
 Involve a specific type of muscle contraction, which is usually not applicable in sports
& games except in water sports like rowing and swimming.
 In Isotonic exercises contraction of muscle applies maximum foce only at a particular
angle during a range of movement.
 In isokinetic exercises, contraction of muscle applies maximum force throughout the
complete range of movement.
 With the help of these, explosive strength and strength endurance can also be
improved.

ENDURANCE

 Ability to sustain an activity

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  Barrow and McGee define Endurance as the result of a physiologic capacity of an
individual to sustain movement over a period of time.

TYPE OF ENDURANCE

Type of endurance according to the nature of activity :

a) Basic Endurance
- Also called aerobic endurance
- Basic endurance is the ability to perform movements in which large number
of body muscles are involved and the activity is performed at a slow pace
for a long duration such as jogging, walking and slow running etc
b) General endurance
- It is the ability to resist fatigue satisfactorily caused by different type of
activities.
- These activities may be aerobic or anaerobic in nature
- These activities may be low or high intensity but for a longer duration.
- This duration is much shorter than required for basic endurance.
- In other words general endurance enables a sports person to perform
different types of activities fo a longer duration without getting tired.
c) Specific endurance :

It is the ability to resist fatigue caused by a specific or a particular sports activity.

As a nature of fatigue is different for different sports the specific endurance is also different
respectively
For example specific endurance of a wrestler is to combat effectively in the three rounds of
6 minutes where as it is a rounds for a boxer.

Types of endurance according to the duration of activity

a) Speed endurance : it is the ability to resist fatigue in activities lasting up to 45
seconds.The event of 400m sprint is the most suitable example of speed
endurance
The speed endurance is mainly dependent on the Power capacity of energy
production.
b) Short term endurance
Short term entrance is needed to resist fatigue in sports activities lasting from 45
seconds to 2 minutes.
This endurance also depends to a large extent on strength endurance and speed
endurance
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The endurance needed for 800m race is the most suitable example for short term
endurance.
c)Middle term endurance
The middle term endurance is needed for such sports activities which last from 2
to 11 minutes. It also depends on strength endurance and speed endurance but to
a limited degree
Endurance needed for 1500 m race and steeple chase race by runner is a more
suitable example of middle term entrance

METHOD TO DEVELOP ENDURANCE

1. Continuous training method
Continuous training is a one of the best method for improving endurance
In this method of training and exercise is perform for a long duration without any
break.
In this method intensity remains low because the exercise is done for a longer.
Cross Country race is the best example of continuous method
In this method the rate of Heartbeat remains in between 140 to 160 beats per
minute.
Total duration of the exercise should not be less than 30 minutes.
This duration of exercise can be increased according to the endurance ability of the
sports person or athlete.
ADVANTAGES
a)It increases glycogen in muscles and liver
b)It increases the number and size of Mitochondria
c)It also increases the efficiency of heart and lungs
d) Improves the willpower
e) For better Result intensity can be increased
f) It makes the individual self discipline and self confident.

INTERVAL TRAINING METHOD

It is a training of heart through endurance training,If you run your heart beats at a
faster rate.
Bikilla the famous athlete coach of a finland introduced this training method in
1920.
Stress on the importance of Rhythm between work and rest in the method and
called a terrace training.
He was the greatest coach an athlete of his time
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Used to run 400m 10 to 20 times daily instead of running 10 to 20 miles daily.
This training method is based upon a effort and recovery principle.
During interval training recovery period is given to the athlete after each speedy
workout.
Recovery period can be adjusted according to the efficiency of athlete.
The load can be increased by reducing the recovery period of increasing the
workout.
For an athlete of 400m the following example can be applicable for his
training.400m race with 80% speed. Walking or jogging until his heart rate comes
down to 120 to 140 approx. 400m race with 80% speed.

ADVANTAGES
a) More workout can be performed in a shorter duration.
b) It is more beneficial for respiratory and circulatory system
The progress of the athlete can be measured easily
It gives a better result in a short time
c) Athlete gets fair judgment easily. Suggestion can be given by a coach during
recovery phase regarding any fault. Patience can be increased in athletes

DISADVANTAGES
a) Top performance comes before competition and cannot remain up to the
competition time
b) There are more chances of injuries
c) Regular training can lead to heart diseases

FARTLEK TRAINING METHOD

Used for developing endurance
Gosta Holmer develop fartlek training in 1937
The word fartlek is a Swedish word mean speed play
It is such a  training method that blends continuous training with interval training.
This training method Lays emphasis on both aerobic and anaerobic systems. 
In this method pace of speed is not pre planned does it is left to the discretion of
an individual.
He can change the speed according to the surroundings hills rivers forest Muddy
roads etc.
The rate of Heartbeat ranges between 140 to 180 per minute
The duration of training depends upon the experience of athlete minimum 45
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 minutes.
Example of this training
Warm up jogging or slow running for 5 to 10 minutes
steady hard Speed for 1.5 to 2.5 km. Easy running with three or four quick steps
now and then Full speed Uphill for 175 to 200 m
Fast pace for 1 minute start of speed work
The above-mentioned routine is repeated under the total time prescribe on
training schedule has elapsed.
ADVANTAGES
a) It keeps our heart rate up along an athlete to get good cardiovascular endurance
b) It is good for aerobic and anaerobic fitness
c) Due to sprinting intervals it makes the body versatile
d) It is not rigid but flexible in nature.
e) easy Adaptable to the athlete
f) no Equipment is required

DISADVANTAGES
a) It is difficult to see how hard the trainee is making efforts. Sometimes the
athlete is likely to drop effort
b) May cause accidents because it is not pre planned
c) An appropriate check on trainees cannot be maintained

Speed
>Johnson and Nelson define speed as the rate at which a person can propel his
body of parts of his body.
>It is ability to move from one place to another in the shortest possible time..
For example the movement of a smashes in volleyball has the maximum speed of
the velocity at the time of smashing the volleyball.

TYPES OF SPEED

 Reaction ability
1.It depends completely on coordinative processes.
2.Reaction abilities ability react effect lying quickly to any action on signal
3.Games and sports signals can be of various types as a visual .
4.In games and spots reaction ability is not only significant to react quickly to a

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 signal but the reaction should also be accurate according to the situation

 Simple reaction ability

It is the ability to react quickly in already determined manner to know signal.
Example the reaction of a racer in the start of sprint races is already known to the
racer.

 Complex reaction ability

It is the ability to react quickly and accurately to undermined or unexpected
signals .These signals are unexpected for the sports person because he doesn't
know when and which signals he has to react such as facing a ball in cricket by a
batsman.

 Acceleration ability
It is ability to achieve maximum speed from a stationary position of from low speed
state. Sprinters achieve their maximum speed after approximately 6 seconds. This
ability mainly depends upon the explosive strength technique and flexibility. This
ability is important in all games and sports in which maximum speed are to be
achieved quickly as such as sprint races, swimming, hockey, football etc

 Movement speed
It is the ability to do a woman in a minimum time it depends upon the technique
explosive strength flexibility and coordinative abilities it plays a vital role in boxing
wrestling throws jump gymnastic
It can be measured by the time taken to complete the movement

 Locomotor ability
It is the ability to maintain maximum speed for maximum time or distance very
significant in all of you sports events such as 100M 200m 400m races short sprints
in track cycling, speed skating swimming, football hockey etc.

 Speed endurance

It is the ability to perform movements with the high speed under conditions of
fatigue
Speed endurance is a very complicated ability which depends upon explosive
strength speed and endurance. It also depends upon the technique local muscular
endurance and lactic acid tolerance ability
METHODS TO DEVELOP SPEED

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Acceleration runs

- Usually adopted to develop speed, specially in attaining maximum speed

from stationery position.
- It should be kept in mind that the technique of any event should be kept
learnt in the beginning.
- Only then we can switch over to acceleration runs.
- For example in 100 m sprint race, we should lay stress on the technique of
start and complete running action, we should practice at slow speed.
- After learning we should practice at a higher speed.
- After good amount of practice of complete technique, we may switch over
to acceleration runs.
- For acceleration run, an athlete is required to run a specific distance.
- He takes start from the starting line and tries to attain maximum speed as
soon as possible and finishes the distance specified at that speed.
- Accelerated runs are repeated again and again with sufficient intervals
between runs.
- Before acceleration runs, proper warm up must be done.
- After acceleration runs, there should be proper interval so that he may start
the next run without any fatigue.
- Generally he should take rest of 4 to 5 minutes in between the runs.

PACE RUNS OR RACES :

- It means running the whole distances of a race at a constant speed.

- In this athlete runs the race with uniform speed.
- Generally 800 m and above races are included in pace races.
- As a matter of fact an athlete can run a distance of 300 m at full speed.
- So in longer races such as 800 m or above races he must observe his energy
by reducing his speed.
- For example if there is a runner of 800 m race and his best time is 1 minute
40 seconds. So he should run the first 400 m in 49 seconds and the next 400
m in 51 seconds.This procedure is called pace race or pace run.

FLEXIBILITY

- Range of movements of joints.

- In other words, it means the range of motion available in a joint.
- An individual who has flexibility, can move his body joints through a full
range of motion in work and play.
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TYPES OF FLEXIBILITY

 Passive flexibility : The ability to do movements with greater distance with external
help is called Passive Flexibility. Eg : stretching exercises with the help of a partner.
Passive flexibility is more than active flexibility .In fact, passive flexibility is the
foundation for active flexibility.
 Active flexibility :Active flexibility is the ability to do movement for a longer distance
without external help eg : to do stretch without the help of a partner.Active
flexilibility can be divided into two parts :
- Static flexibility : It is usually required by a sportsperson when he remains
in static position eg : in diving, sitting, lying and starting position in various
sports.
- Dynamic flexibility : It is needed for doing movements with a greater
distance when an individual is in motion.

Methods to Improve Flexibility :

 Ballistic Method :
 In this movement is performed with a swing in a rhythmic way.
 The related joint is stretched with a swing.
 The stretching exercises can be performed rhythmically with a count.
 At each count, the joint is stretched to the maximum limit and then it
is again flexed.
 Before performing such exercise the appropriate warm up is essential
because there are maximum chances of over stretching of a joint.
 Static Stretching Method :
 It involves gradually easing into the stretch position and holding the
position.
 The amount of time a static stretch is held depends on one’s purpose.
 If it is a part of cool down, then the stretch should be held for 10
seconds.
 If it is to improve the range of flexibility then hold it for 30 seconds.
 In static stretching, it is advised to move further into stretch position
as the stretch sensation comes to lower level.
 Dynamic Stretching Method :
 Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that
take you gently to the limit of your range of motion.

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  Where the event requires a dynamic movement it is appropriate to
conduct dynamic stretching exercises.
 Start with the movement at half speed for a couple of repetitions and
then gradually work up to full speed.
 Proprioceptive Neuro Muscular Facilitation Technique :
 This technique or method is used by advanced sportspersons for
gaining flexibility.PNF involves the use of muscle contraction before
stretch in an attempt to achieve maximum muscle relaxation.
The following procedure is used for PNF technique :
1) You move into the stretch position so that you may feel the stretch sensation.

2) Your partner holds the limb in this stretched position.

3) You then push against your partner by contracting the antagonistic muscles for 6 to
10 seconds and then relax. During the contraction your partner aims to resist any
movement of the limb.

4) Your partner then move the limb for the into the stretch until you feel the stretch
sensation.
Then again go back to number second to repeat the same procedure repeat the
whole procedure for 3 to 4 times.

COORDINATIVE ABILITIES
Coordinative abilities depend on the central nervous system the coordinator
abilities are possibilities of an individual which enables the individual to do various
related activities property as well as efficiently.
Our accuracy, Rhythm, flow and constancy depend on our coordinative abilities.
It is not easy to define co-ordinate ability going to the complex nature

TYPES OF COORDINATIVE ABILITIES

 ORIENTATION ABILITY
It is the ability to determine the position of the body and its parts in time and space
in relation to gravity moving objects like ball that opponent partner Playing field etc.

 COUPLING ABILITY
It is the ability to combine the movements of the different body parts for
performing perfect sports movement.
This ability is very significant for approximately all sports but especially in

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 team games gymnastics and combative boxing and wrestling etc for
example in boxing the movement of hands head crowns and feet are
essential to couple to achieve a certain goal.

 REACTION ABILITY
It is ability to react immediately off quickly and effectively to a signal .
There are two types of reaction ability
Simple reaction ability : It is ability to react immediately quickly in already
determined manner to a well-known signal. Example the reaction of a runner in the
start of sprint races is already known to the Runner.
Complex reaction ability :It is the ability to act immediately or quickly and
accurately to undetermined or unexpected signals. The signals are unexpected for
sports person because he doesn't know when and to which signal he has to react
such as facing ball in cricket by a batsman

 BALANCE ABILITY
It is ability to maintain balance during the complete body movements and
to regain balance quickly after the balance disturbing movements.
It can also be defined as the ability to control the body position either in
stationary position or while moving .

 RHYTHM ABILITY
It is the ability to observe of perceive the rhythm of a movement and to do
the movement with the required rhythm.
In gymnastic or figure skating the sports person has to observe an external
rhythm, given in the form of Music and to express it in his movements.

 ADAPTATION ABILITY
It is ability to adjust or change the movement effectively on the basis of
changes or anticipated changes in the situation. The changing situation can
be expected one of can be sudden or unexpected one.

 DIFFERENTIATION ABILITY
It is the ability to achieve high degree of accuracy and economy of separate
body movements and movement faces in a motor action.

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