MEV442: Introduction to Robotics

Robotic Actuators and Sensors

Dr. Mohan Santhakumar

National Institute of Technology Calicut
Robotic Sensors
y Sensors are divided into two main categories:
y physical and logical.
◦ Physical sensors handle the raw processing of data. Logical
sensors then
h extract data
d forf modules
d l to interpret.
i
◦ Logical sensors are a type of sensor that supplies the robot with
a particular percept. It consists of the signal processing from the
physical sensor and the software processing needed to extract
the percept.

y Sensor data may be gathered from several sensor devices in

parallel and processed in a multitude of ways. A complex
hierarchy of processing is possible
possible. Varying characteristics of
sensors include accuracy and repeatability.
Robotic Sensors - Physical Sensors
There are two categories of physical sensors,
sensors active and
passive.
y Active sensors
◦ Th
The sensor emits some form
f off energy and
d then
h measures the h
impact as a way of understanding the environment.
These sensors often have restricted environments.
◦ Some examples of active sensors include ultrasonic, laser, and IR
sensors.
y Passive sensors
◦ The sensor receives energy already in the environment. These
sensors consume less energy, but often have signal and noise
problems.
problems
◦ An example of a passive sensor is a camera; it uses the energy in
the environment to capture a snapshot.
y Robots
R b t utilized
tili d sensors iin one off th
three
ways:
y
y Proprioceptive Sensors
◦ Internal
I l state sensors
y Exteroceptive
p Sensors
◦ External state sensors
y Exproprioceptive Sensors
◦ Combined
Proprioceptive Sensors - Monitoring
Internal Status
y The robot measures a signal originating from within using
proprioceptive sensors. These sensors are responsible for
monitoring self maintenance and controlling internal status.
y Common uses of proprioceptive measurements are for battery
monitoring, current sensing, and heat monitoring.
Examples of Proprioceptive Sensors:
◦ Gl
Global
b lPPositioning
iti i SSystem
t (GPS) - The
Th d drawbacks
b k off GPS sensors
include a slow refresh rate and sensitivity to blackouts.
◦ Inertial Navigation System (INS) - The drawbacks of INS include the
tendency to drift over time and with temperature.
temperature
◦ Shaft Encoders - A shaft encoder, also known as a rotary encoder, is an
electro-magnetic device that works as a transducer to convert the
angular position of a shaft or axle to an analog or digital code.
code
◦ Compass - A compass sensor is used to detect direction and accurately
correct motion.
◦ Inclinometer - An inclinometer sensor measures the tilt or angle of an
axis.
Exteroceptive Sensors - Measuring
Proximity
y Exteroceptive
p sensors determine the measurements of objects
j relative to a robot's frame
of reference. These sensors are categorized as a proximity sensors.
y Proximity sensors enable a robot to tell when it is near an object. These sensors keep the
robot from colliding with other objects.They can also be used to measure distance from
the robot to another object.

There are three main types of exteroceptive sensors.

y Contact Sensors: Contact sensors are typically simple mechanical switches that send a
signal when physical contact is made.
made Contact sensors are used to detect the positive
contact between two mating parts and/or to measure the interaction forces and torques
which appear while the robot manipulator conducts part mating operations. Another type
of contact sensors are tactile sensors. These measure a multitude of parameters of the
touched object surface.
y Range Sensors: Range sensors measure the distance to objects in their operation area.
A range sensor can also be a distance detection devices that provides a simple binary
signal
g when a particular
p threshold is detected. Range
g sensors are used for robot
navigation, obstacle avoidance, or to recover the third dimension for monocular vision.
Range sensors are based on one of the two principles: time-of-flight and triangulation
y Vision Sensors: Robot vision is a complex sensing process. It involves extracting,
characterizing and interpreting information from images in order to identify or describe
objects in environment.
Exproprioceptive Sensors -
Directional Sensors
y Exproprioceptive sensors use a combination of
proprioceptive and exteroceptive monitoring.
y These sensors measure the pposition of the robot
body or parts relative to the environment.
y Exproprioceptive measuring is characterized by the
use of directional sensors whose direction relative to
the robot is not fixed. It also includes relative readings
suchh as measuring
i theh iinternall hheat off a robot
b versus
the external heart.

Examples of exproprioceptive monitoring devices are

ppanningg sonar sensors and force sensors.
Types of Robotic Actuators
y An actuator is a mechanism for activating process
control equipment by use of mechanical, pneumatic,
hydraulic,
y , or electronic signals.
g
y There are several types of actuators in robotic arms.
Some of the main categories are as:
◦ Electrical Actuators
x Synchronous
x Asynchronous
y
◦ Hydraulic Actuators
◦ Pneumatic Actuators
◦ Other Actuators
x Special Actuators like Shape memory alloy, piezoelectric, eddy
current, magnetostriction, ultrasonic etc.
Electrical Actuators
y Synchronous - The motor contains a rotor that rotates in
synchrony with the oscillating field or current.
y There are three main types of synchronous electrical
actuators are as follows:
◦ Brushless DC Servo
◦ Stepper
pp Motor
◦ Brushed DC Servo
y Asynchronous - This motor is designed to slip in order to
generate torque.
torque
y There are two main types of synchronous electrical
actuators are as follows:
◦ Traction motors
◦ AC Servo motors
Electrical Actuators
y Advantages of Electrical actuators
◦ Electricity is easily routed to the actuators; cables are simpler
than pipe work.
◦ Electricity is easily controlled by electronic units
◦ Electricity is clean
◦ Electric
El ffaults
l are often
f easier to diagnose
d
y Disadvantages of electric actuators
◦ Fire hazard
◦ Poor torque – speed characteristics
◦ Basically Rotary motion and complicated mechanism needed for
linear motion
◦ Power to weight ratio is inferior to hydraulic motors

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Brushless DC Servo
y This synchronous electric motor features permanent magnet
poles on the rotor, which are attracted to the rotating poles
of the opposite magnetic polarity in the stator creating
torque.
y It is powered by a DC current that has an electronically
controlled commutation system instead of a system based on
brushes.
y Current, torque, voltage, and rpm are linearly related.
y Th advantages
The d off a brushless
b hl motor include
i l d higher
hi h efficiency
ffi i
and reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush
erosion),), elimination of ionizingg sparks
p from the commutator,,
and an overall reduction of electromagnetic interference
(EMI).
Stepper
y A type of brushless servo motor,
motor this motor is generally
electric and moves or rotates in small discrete steps.
y Stepper motors offer many advantages, such as dual
compatibility with both analog and digital feedback signals.
They can be used to easily accelerate a load because the
maximum dynamic torque occurs at low pulse rates.
y Drawbacks of their use include low efficiency; much of the
input energy is dissipated as heat and the inputs must be
matched
h d to the
h motor and d load.
l d The
Th load
l d should
h ld bbe carefully
f ll
analyzed for optimal performance. Damping may be required
when load inertia is exceptionally
p y high
g to prevent
p oscillation.
Brushed DC Servo
y The classic DC motor generates an oscillating current in a rotor
with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent
magnet stator. A coil is wound around the rotor, which is then
powered by a battery.
battery
y The rotational speed is proportional to the voltage applied to it
and the torque is proportional to the current.
y S d controll can be
Speed b achieved
hi d byb applying
l i tape to the
h battery,
b
varying the supply voltage, resistors, or electronic controls.
y The advantage to using a brushed motor over a brushless is cost.
The brushless motor requires more complex electronic speed
controls; however a brushed DC motor can be regulated by a
simple
p variable resistor, such as a potentiometer
p or rheostat.
y This is not efficient, but proves satisfactory for cost-sensitive
applications.
y Traction Motor - A type of electric motor that is used to
power the driving wheels of a vehicle.
◦ The availability of high-powered semiconductors has now made
practical
i l the
h use off muchh simpler,
i l higher-reliability
hi h li bili AC iinduction
d i
motors known as asynchronous traction motors.
y AC Servo Motors - Used in applications that require a
rapid and accurate response, these motors are basically two-
phase, reversible induction motors that are modified for
servo operation.
operation
◦ AC Servo motors have a small diameter and high resistance
rotors. This design provides low inertia for fast starts, stops, and
reversals.
l
◦ AC Servo Motors can also be classified as asynchronous or
synchronous.
Stepper motor
y A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts
electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements.
y The stepper motor is a discrete (incremental) positioning
device that moves one step at a time for each pulse
command input.
y Since they accept direct digital commands and produce a
mechanical motion, the stepper motors are used widely in
industrial control applications.
y Th are mostly
They l used d in
i fractional
f i l horsepower
h applications.
li i
With the rapid progress in low cost and high-frequency
solid-state drives,, theyy are findingg increased applications.
pp

Santhakumar Mohan, Assistant Professor,

MED, NITC 15
Why Stepper Motor?
y Relatively inexpensive
y Ideal for open loop positioning control
◦CCan bbe implemented
i l t d without
ith t feedback
f db k
◦ Minimizes sensing devices
◦ Just count the steps!
y Torque
◦ Holds its position firmly when not turning
◦ Eliminates mechanical brakes
◦ Produces better torque than DC motors at
lower speeds
y Positioning applications
Santhakumar Mohan, Assistant Professor,
MED, NITC 16
 Types of Stepper Motor
Permanent Magnet (PM) type V b e reluctance
Variable e uc ce (VR)
(V ) type
ype
Magnetic Rotor Non Magnetic, Geared Rotor

Hybrid type from PM and VR

Magnetic, geared rotor

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MED, NITC 17
 Stepper motor: Principle of
operation
Variable Reluctance Type

Permanent Magnet Type

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MED, NITC 18
Comparison of different types

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MED, NITC 19
 Stepper motor characteristics
1. Stepper motors are constant power devices.
1 devices
2.As motor speed increases, torque decreases.
3. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers
and increasing the driving voltage.
4. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the
discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another.
another
5. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the
motor to lose torque.
6. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the
problem speeds range, physically damping the system, or using a
micro-stepping
micro stepping driver.
driver
7. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother
operation than those with fewer phases.

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MED, NITC 20
 Torque vs. speed characteristics
y Holding torque
The maximum torque produced by
the motor at standstill.
y Pull-In Curve
The pull-in curve defines a area
referred to as the start stop region.
y Maximum Start Rate
The maximum starting step
frequency with no load applied.
y P ll O C
Pull-Out Curve
The pull-out curve defines an area
referred to as the slew region.
y Maximum Slew Rate
The maximum operating frequency
pp
of the motor with no load applied.

Santhakumar Mohan, Assistant Professor, MED, NITC 21

Step angle and Stepping mode
For Permanent Magnet type
Step angle = 360º / (Nr × Ns )
For Variable Reluctance type
360º / (Nr × Ns )
Step angle = (Nr - Ns ) 360
where, Nr number of rotor poles and Ns
number of phases
The following are the most common drive
(stepping) modes.
◦ Wave Drive (1 phase on)
◦ Full Step Drive (2 phases on)
◦ Half Step
p Drive ((1 & 2 pphases on))
◦ Micro-stepping (Continuously varying motor
currents)

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MED, NITC 22
Advantages of stepper motors
y Low cost
y Can work in an open loop (no feedback
required)
i d)
y Excellent holding torque (eliminated
b k / l h )
brakes/clutches)
y Excellent torque at low speeds
y Low maintenance (brushless)
y Veryy rugged
gg - anyy environment
y Excellent for precise positioning control
y No tuningg required
q
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MED, NITC 23
Disadvantages of Stepper Motors
y Rough performance at low speeds (unless
you use micro-stepping)
y C
Consume currentt regardless
dl off load
l d
y Limited sizes available
y N
Noisy
y Torque decreases with speed (you need an
oversized motor for higher torque at higher
speeds)
p )
y Stepper motors can stall or lose position
runningg without a control loopp
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MED, NITC 24
 Servo Motors
y A servomotor (servo) is an electromechanical device in
which an electrical input determines the position of the
armature of a motor.

Santhakumar Mohan, Assistant Professor, MED, NITC 25

Types of Servo motors
y AC servo motors,
motors based on induction motor designs;
y DC servo motors, based on dc motor designs;
y AC brushless servo motors, based on synchronous motor designs.

Servo motors are special category of motors, designed for applications

involving position control,
control velocity control and torque control.
control

These motors are special in the following ways:

1. Lower mechanical time constant.
2. Lower electrical time constant.
3. Permanent magnet of high flux density to generate the field.
4. Fail-safe electro-mechanical brakes.

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MED, NITC 26
Difference between Stepper and Servo
y The basic difference between a traditional stepper and a servo
servo-
based system is the type of motor and how it is controlled.
Steppers typically use 50 to 100 pole brushless motors while
typical servo motors have only 4 to 12 poles. A pole is an area of a
motor where a North or South magnetic pole is generated either
byy a ppermanent magnet
g or byy passing
p g current through
g the coils of a
winding.
y Steppers don't require encoders since they can accurately move
b
between their
h i many poles
l whereas
h servos, with
i h few
f poles,
l require
i
an encoder to keep track of their position.
y Steppers
pp simply
p y move incrementallyy usingg pulses
p [open
[ p loop]p] while
servo's read the difference between the motors encoder and the
commanded position [closed loop], and adjust the current required
to move.
move
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MED, NITC 27
 Difference between Stepper and Servo
y Stepper motors have many more poles than servo motors. One rotation
of a stepper motor requires many more current exchanges through the
windings than a servo motor. The stepper motor's design results in
torque degradation at higher speeds when compared to a servo. Using a
higher driving bus voltage reduces this effect by mitigating the electrical
time constant of the windings.
windings Conversely,
Conversely a high pole count has a
beneficial effect at lower speeds giving the stepper motor a torque
advantage over the same size servo motor.
y Traditional steppers operate in the open loop constant current mode.
This is a cost savings, since no encoder is necessary for most positioning
applications. However, stepper systems operating in a constant current
mode creates a significant amount of heat in both the motor and drive,
which is a consideration for some applications. Servo control solves this
by only supplying the motor current required to move or hold the load.
It can also provide a peak torque that is several times higher than the
maximum continuous motor torque for acceleration. However, a stepper
motor can also be controlled in this full servo closed loop mode with
the addition of an encoder.

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MED, NITC 28
Difference between Stepper and Servo
y Steppers are simpler to commission and maintain than servos. They are
less expensive, especially in small motor applications. They don't lose
steps or require encoders if operated within their design limits.
Steppers are stable at rest and hold their position without any
fluctuation, especially with dynamic loads.
y Servos are excellent in applications requiring speeds greater than
2 000 RPM and for high torque at high speeds or requiring high
2,000
dynamic response. Steppers are excellent at speeds less than 2,000
RPM and for low to medium acceleration rates and for high holding
torque.
torque
y Servo control systems are best suited to high speed, high torque
applications that involve dynamic load changes. Stepper control
systems are less expensive and are optimal for applications that require
low-to-medium acceleration, high holding torque, and the flexibility of
open or closed loop operation.

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MED, NITC 29
y Pneumatic Actuators
◦ Powered by the conversion of compressed air, these actuators
are used to control processes that require a quick and accurate
response but not a large amount of force.
response, force
◦ These compact and lightweight actuators are less energy
efficient than electric motors.
y Hydraulic
i Actuators
◦ With the ability to convert hydraulic pressure and flow into
torque
q and rotation, these actuators can be used when a large g
amount of force is needed.
◦ The most common example is a piston. This motor uses
hydraulic fluid under pressure to drive machinery.
◦ The energy comes from the flow and pressure, not the kinetic
energy of the flow.
Fluid power actuators
y Use of fluids to transmit power:
◦ Pumps are power generators
◦ Inverse pumps or cylinders are power drain
◦ Valves used for control
y Types
ypes o
of fluid
u power
powe actuato
actuatorss
◦ Hydraulic (oil as the fluid)
x Linear actuators (cylinders)
x Rotary
R actuators (motors)
( )
◦ Pneumatic (air as the fluid)
x Linear actuators (cylinders)
x Rotary actuators (motors)

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MED, NITC 31
Hydraulic Cylinder
y A Hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear
hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator
that is used to give a unidirectional force
g a unidirectional stroke.
through
y Types of cylinders
◦ Single acting cylinder
◦ Double acting cylinder
x Single rod end
x Double rod end
◦ Telescopic
p cylinder
y

32
Hydraulic Motor
y A hydraulic
yd c motor
oto iss a mechanical
ec c actuator
ct to tthatt
converts hydraulic pressure and flow into torque and
angular displacement (rotation). The hydraulic
motor is the rotary counterpart of the hydraulic
cylinder.
y Conceptually, a hydraulic motor should be
interchangeable with a hydraulic pump because it
performs the opposite function - much as the
conceptual DC electric motor is interchangeable
with a DC electrical generator.
y However, most hydraulic pumps cannot be used
as hydraulic motors because they cannot be back
driven. Also, a hydraulic motor is usually designed
for the working pressure at both sides of the
motor.

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MED, NITC 33
Types of Hydraulic motor
y G
Gear motor
t
◦ Internal gear
◦ External gear
y Vane motor
y Lobe and gerotor motor
y Piston type motor
◦ Axial piston type
◦ Radial piston type

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MED, NITC 34
Gear motor

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MED, NITC 35
Vane motor

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MED, NITC 36
Axial piston type motor

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MED, NITC 37
Lobe and Radial piston motor

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MED, NITC 38
Internal gear and Gerotor motor

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MED, NITC 39
 Gear pump External type
(Fixed displacement
• Low cost
• Low contaminant
sensitivity
• Compact, low weight
• Good suction performance
• 250cm³/rev, 250bar
Vane Fixed displacement
• Low noise
• Good serviceability
• 200cm³/rev, 280bar
Piston Fixed and variable displacement
p
• High efficiency
• Good serviceability
• Wide range of displacement controls
• Up to 1000 cm³/rev., 350/400bar
Internal type Other features
In-line assembly for multi-
• Low noise pump units
• Low contaminant
sensitivity
• 250cm³/rev, 250bar
Variable displacement
In-line assembly for multi-
• Low noise pump units
• Low cost
• Good serviceability
• Displacement controls
• 100cm³/rev, 160bar
• Integral boost pump and
multipurpose assemblies
(not bent axis0
• Can use most types in
hydrostatic transmissions
40
 Advantages and disadvantages of Hydraulic
Actuators
Advantages:
va tages: Disadvantages:
y infinitely variable control of gear-ratio in a y efficiency of a volumetric hydraulic
wide range and an opportunity to create the actuator is a little bit lower, than
big reduction ratio; efficiency of mechanical and electric
y small specific weight, i.e. the weight of a t
transfers,
f and
d during
d i regulation
l ti it iis
hydroactuator is in ratio to transmitted reduced;
capacity (0,2...0,3 kg / kW); y conditions of operation of a
y opportunity of simple and reliable protection hydraulic
y actuator (temperature)
( p )
of the engine from overloads; influence its characteristics;
y small sluggishness of the rotating parts, y efficiency of a hydraulic actuator is a
providing fast change of operating modes little reduced in the process of
(
(start- up, dispersal,
di l a reverser, a stop);
) exhaustion of its resource owing to
the increase in backlashes and the
y simplicity of transformation of rotary increase of outflow of liquid (falling
movement into reciprocating one; of volumetric efficiency);
y opportunity of positioning a hydraulic engine y sensitivity to pollution of working
on removal (distance) from an energy source liquid and necessity of high culture
and freedom in making configuration. service.

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MED, NITC 41
 Advantages and disadvantages of Pneumatic
Actuators
Ad
Advantages: Disadvantages:
y simplicity of realization relatively to small y compressibility of the air ;
back and forth motions;
y impossibility to receive uniform
y sophisticated transfer mechanisms are not
required; and constant speed of the
y low cost;
working bodies movement ;
y high speed of moving; y difficulties in performance at
y ease at reversion movements;
slow speed;
y tolerance to overloads
overloads, up to a full stop; y limited conditions - use of
y high reliability of work; compressed air is beneficial up
y explosion and fire safety;
to the definite values of
pressure;
y ecological purity;
y ability to accumulation and transportation.
y compressed air requires good
preparation.

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MED, NITC 42
FACTOR AIR ELECTRICITY HYDRAULICS
Reliability Poor Good Good

Weight Light Heavy Light

Installation Simple Simple Simple

Control Mechanism Valves Switches and solenoids Valves

Difficult, requiring skilled

Maintenance Constant attention necessary
personnel
Simple

High pressure bottle

dangerous; broken lines
Safe; broken lines cause
Vulnerability cause failure and danger Good
failure
to personnel and
equipment
i

Slow for both starting and

Response stopping
Rapid starting, slow stopping Instant starting and stopping

Controllability Poor Fair Good

Quietness of
Poor Poor Good
Operation

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