CELLULAR LEVEL

CELL THEORY

• The classical cell theory was proposed by Theodor Schwann in 1839. There are three
parts to this theory.

FIRST: States that all organisms are made of cells.

SECOND: States that cells are the basic units of life.
THIRD: States that cells come from preexisting cells that have multiplied, was
described by Rudolf Virchow in 1858, when he stated omnis cellula e cellula (all cells come from
cells).
EUKARYOTIC CELL VS PROKARYOTIC CELL
• Eukaryotic cell
-Multicellular
-contains nucleus
• Prokaryotic cell
• -Single-celled and smaller than eukaryotic
- does not contain nucleus but have nucleoloid.
CELL PHYSIOLOGY

CELLULAR TRANSPORT
• DIFFUSION
• OSMOSIS
• FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• FILTRATION
• PHAGOCYTOSIS
• PINOCYTOSIS
DIFFUSION
• Movement of molecules from an area of greater concentration to an
area of lesser concentration.
• The concentration difference between two points, divided by the distance between the
two points, is called the concentration gradient.
• Diffusion occurs because molecules have free energy.
• Effective transport mechanism across microscopic distances.
• HIGH OXYGEN CONCENTRATION – Alveoli
• LOW OXYGEN CONCENTRATION- Pulmonary capillaries
DIRECTION OF DIFFUSION!!!!
Each moving from where there is MORE to where there is LESS.
OSMOSIS
• Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
• MORE water TO LESS water
• Water will move to an area with MORE dissolved solutes from area with LESS dissolved
solutes.
Example:
2% NaCl Solution- LESS CONCENTRATED
6% NaCl Solution- HIGH CONCENTRATED
Therefore, water will move from 2% NaCl Solution TO 6% NaCl Solution.
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
• Concentration of solutes in a fluid, thus
determine the movement of water through
membrane.
ISOTONIC- solution with the same salt concentration as in cells.
HYPOTONIC- solution with a lower salt concentration than in cells.

➢ SWELLING OF THE CELL

HYPERTONIC- solution with a higher salt

concentration than in cells.

➢SHRINK OF THE CELL

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• FACILITATE- “assist or help”
• Movement of molecules from HIGH to LOW concentration BUT with they need some
help.
TRANSPORTER/CARRIER ENZYME- proteins that are part of the cell
membrane.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Requires the energy of ATP to move molecules from an area of lesser concentration to
an area of greater concentration.
• ATP-powered pumps
• Movement against a concentration gradient.
P- Potassium
I- Inside the cell
S- Sodium
O- Outside the cell

SECONDARY TRANSPORT
• Tendency for the ions to move back into the cell (down their concentration gradient)
provides the energy necessary to move a different ion or some other molecule into the cell.
FILTRATION

• Requires energy, but the energy needed does not come directly from ATP.
• Energy coming from mechanical pressure. Ex. Filtration process in the kidney; capillaries

VESICULAR TRANSPORT
•movement of larger volumes of substances across the plasma membrane through the
formation or release of vesicles, membrane- bound sacs, in the cytoplasm.
•An active membrane transport
•Does not require concentration gradient.

3 TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS
A. ENDOCYTOSIS-uptake of material through the plasma membrane by the formation of a
vesicle.
a.1 PHAGOCYTOSIS- “cell-eating,” solid particles are ingested and
phagocytic vesicles are formed.
Ex. WBC engulfment of bacteria.
a.2 PINOCYTOSIS- “cell-drinking,” is distinguished from phagocytosis in that smaller
vesicles form and they contain molecules dissolved in liquid rather than particles
a.3 RECEPTOR- MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS- uptake of materials to the cell by means of
plasma specific receptor recognizing substances.
GENETIC CODE & SYNTHESIS

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

• DNA is a double strand of nucleotides in the form of a double helix, very much like a
spiral ladder.
• The uprights of the ladder are made of alternating phosphate groups and deoxyribose
sugar molecules
• The ladder are made of the four nitrogenous bases, always found in complementary
pairs

DEFINITION OF TERMS

GENOME - the term for the total genetic information in a particular species.
GENES- Sequence of the nitrogenous bases that is
the code for one protein.
CHROMOSOME- Organized discrete structure of DNA and other proteins
CODON- Triplet of bases
MUTATION- Any changes in nucleotide sequence of a chain.
HISTONES- Responsible for structural organization of DNA.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
• Single Strand
• Gene Expression- process of using information from a gene to produce products.

CENTRAL DOGMA
• The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into
a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure of
DNA.
• The central dogma suggests that DNA contains the information needed to make all of
our proteins, and that RNA is a messenger that carries this information to
the ribosomes.
• The central dogma of molecular biology explains the flow of genetic information, from
DNA to RNA, to make a functional product, a protein.
TRANSCRIPTION VS TRANSLATION
• TRANSCRIPTION
- process of copying the DNA template to form mRNA
-occurs inside the nucleus.
3 STEPS IN TRANSCRIPTION

 INITIATION
 ELONGATION
 TERMINATION

• TRANSLATION
-Occurs within the cytoplasm
-mRNA (Messenger RNA) contains the codon
-tRNA (Transfer RNA) contains the anticodon

CELL DIVISION
•process by which a cell reproduces itself.

 Mitosis
 Meiosis
INTERPHASE
- Time wherein DNA replicates itself.
- Before mitotic division.
- Resting stage
MITOSIS
• division of a cell’s chromosomes into two new
nuclei
• One cell with the diploid number of chromosomes (the usual number, 46 for people)
divides into two identical cells, each with the diploid number of chromosomes.
• Cells must have two complete sets of chromosome.

MITOTIC CHROMOSOME
PARTS OF CHROMOSOME
• CHROMATIDS- Two copies of
chromosome.
• CENTROMERE- Chromatids point of attachment.
• KINETOCHORE- Protein structure binds the centromere and provides a point of
attachment for microtubules that will separate and move the chromatids during mitosis.
• TELOMERE- End of the chromosomes.

PROPHASE
• During prophase the chromatin condenses to form mitotic chromosomes. The
chromosomes are visible with a light microscope and it is evident that each has replicated. Also
the centrioles divide and migrate to each pole of the cell and microtubules called spindle fibers
extend from the centrioles to the centromeres of the chromosomes. In late prophase, the
nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.

METAPHASE
• Alignment of chromosome near the center.

ANAPHASE
Beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate. At this point, one of the two identical sets of
chromosomes are moved by the spindle fibers toward the centrioles at each of the poles of the
cell.At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell,
and the cytoplasm begins to divide.

TELOPHASE

 During telophase , nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes to form two
separate nuclei. The chromosomes begin to uncoil and resemble the genetic material
characteristic of interphase.

CYTOKINESIS

 Division of cells cytoplasm.

 Starts during anaphase and continues through telophase.
 Cleavage furrow- indentation of plasma membrane that forms midway between the
centrioles.

HOW MANY DAUGHTER CELL PRODUCED DURING MITOSIS?

Two identical daughter cell.

MEIOSIS
• Gametes are produced during meiosis.
• From diploid number of chromosomes divides twice to form four haploid number of
chromosome.
• OVARIES- Site of meiosis in female and the process is called oogenesis.
• TESTES- Site of meiosis in male and the process is called spermatogenesis.
AGING AND CELLS
• Cellular aging involves the inevitable deterioration of membranes and cell organelles.
• Chaperones- Proteins responsible for the proper folding of many other proteins.