02 DIS2 Course Notes

CSWIP 3.
2U - NDT Inspection Diver
DIS2
Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
Copyright © TWI Ltd
CSWIP 3.2U - NDT Inspection Diver
Contents
Section Subject
Preliminary Pages
1 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
1.1 History of magnetism
1.2 Types of magnetism
1.3 Theory of magnetism
1.4 Electromagnetism
1.5 Magnetic Hysteresis
1.6 Definition of Terms
1.7 Flux leakage
1.8 Methods of magnetisation
1.9 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques
1.10 Detecting media, UV light and other equipment
1.11 Demagnetisation
1.12 Alternative forms of electric current applied in MPI
1.13 Verification of magnetisation
1.14 MPI test procedure
1.15 Recording indications
1.16 Factors affecting MPI sensitivity
2 Inspection Methods Available to Inspect Underwater
Structures
2.1 Visual inspection
2.2 Videography
2.3 Photography
2.4 Ultrasonic techniques
2.5 Flooded member detection (FMD)
2.6 Crack detection techniques
2.7 Taking measurements underwater
2.8 Crack depth measurement
2.9 Cathodic potential (CP) measurement
3 Corrosion
3.1 Energy considerations in corrosion
3.2 The corrosion process
3.3 Electric theory
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Contents Copyright © TWI Ltd
4 Types of Corrosion
4.1 Corrosion cells
4.2 Dissimilar metal corrosion cell (galvanic corrosion)
4.3 Concentration cell corrosion
4.4 Pitting
4.5 Intergranular corrosion
4.6 Grain boundary corrosion
4.7 Stress corrosion cracking
4.8 Corrosion fatigue
4.9 Erosion corrosion
4.10 Fretting corrosion
4.11 Biological corrosion
4.12 Other factors affecting corrosion rates
5 Corrosion Protection
5.1 Cathodic protection
5.2 Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) system
5.3 Using coatings to protect the structure
5.4 Inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte)
6 Corrosion Protection Monitoring
6.1 Inspection requirements
6.2 Calibration procedures for hand-held CP meters
6.3 Operating procedures
7 Welding and Welding Defects
7.1 Joining metal components
7.2 Fabricating offshore structures
7.3 Welding processes
7.4 Types of welded joint
7.5 Types of weld
7.6 Welding metallurgy
7.7 Reporting defects in welds
7.8 The Welding Institute measuring gauge
7.9 Welding Institute leg length gauge
8 Ultrasonic Inspection
8.1 Physics of ultrasound
8.2 Wavelength
8.3 Further effects of ultrasonic properties in materials
8.4 The direction of propagation of an ultrasonic wave
8.5 Generating ultrasound
8.6 Types of transducers (probes)
8.7 The sound beam
8.8 Principles of ultrasonic testing
8.9 Ultrasonic test systems
9 Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
9.1 Cleaning
9.2 Profile grinding
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Contents Copyright © TWI Ltd
The Certification Scheme for
Personnel
Organisation and Examination
The Certification Scheme for Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Government’s Board of

Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent organisation
for TWI Certification.
Company profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at Great
Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with engineering
solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated technologies
(surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through:
 Information.
 Advice and technology transfer.
 Consultancy and project support.
 Contract R&D.
 Training and qualification.
 Personal membership.
Single source of expertise

TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials – metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
Non-profit company
TWI is one of Europe’s foremost independent not-for-profit research and
technology organisations, employing 740 scientists, technologists,
administrative and support staff world-wide (540 in the UK and Europe) and
with annual (2012) group sales of £75million (€88 million) and UK/Europe
annual (2012) sales of £61 million (€72 million).
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Prelims Copyright © TWI Ltd
Global benefits
TWI works across all industry sectors with expertise in key aspects of materials,
materials joining, structural integrity, static and dynamic testing and non
destructive testing (NDT)/non destructive evaluation (NDE).
TWI has a large, fee-paying industrial membership of around 800 members,

over 3000 locations from 65 countries, centred mainly in energy related
business sectors such as oil & gas, petrochemical, process plant, power
generation and their support industries (eg pressure vessel and component
manufacture and fabrication) and also in the transportation industry sector of
aerospace/air-transport, marine/shipping, rail and automotive and their support
manufacturing and maintenance organisations.
The majority of TWI’s activities (65%) are contract research, funded by industry
and built around the development of advanced technologies. TWI is also an
active participant in collaborative research programmes in Europe and the UK.
Confidential consultancy
TWI undertakes contract R&D in confidence for both industry and governments.
As a consultant it can offer individual experts or teams able to help solve
problems of all kinds related to materials joining. It will send its specialists
anywhere in the world at short notice on troubleshooting missions.
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TWI Certification Ltd
This is a TWI Group company formed in 1993.
Certification management board

The body with overall responsibility for the activities of TWI Certification Ltd is
the Certification Management Board.
Professional Board of Certification Management Board

TWI (TWI Certification Ltd)
Membership, Education Membership, Education & Registration

& Registration Committee
Committee
CSWIP Welding Specialists & Practitioners

Management Committee
CSWIP Plastics Welders Certification

Management Committee
Welding Fabricator Certification Management

Committee
Certification Scheme for Welder Training

Organisations
CSWIP In-Service Inspection Management

Committee
Responsibilities of the board

Thus the Certification Management Board:
 Acts as the governing board for certification in keeping with the

requirements of the industries served by the scheme.
 In turn, appoints specialist management committees to oversee specific
parts of the scheme.
 The certification management board comprises 12 representatives of
industry and other parties with a valid interest in the certification schemes,
for example, fabricators, client organisations, design authorities and training
associations. This ensures that the certification schemes truly reflect the
needs of industry.
The management committees:
 Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the examinations.

 Recommend changes where they are needed if it means that the
examinations can be improved to meet the requirements of industry.
 Discuss new certification ideas.
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It can, therefore, be seen that CSWIP is a comprehensive scheme, which
provides for the examination and certification of individuals seeking to
demonstrate their knowledge and/or experience in their field of operation. The
scope of CSWIP includes welding inspectors, welding supervisors, welding
instructors and underwater inspection personnel.
CSWIP certification for underwater inspectors
Requirement documents
All CSWIP examination requirements documents are available free of charge
and may be downloaded from the website www.cswip.com.
Inspector categories
There are four categories of certification in the underwater inspector scheme:
1 3.1U Diver Inspector.

2 3.2U Diver Inspector.
3 3.3U ROV Inspector.
4 3.4U Underwater Inspection Controller.
(This is an approved course for preparation for the 3.2U examination)
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The CSWIP 3.2U examination
The examination itself consists of two main elements, a theoretical examination
and a practical assessment.
Theory examination
This consists of two separate papers, with a total of 100 multi-choice questions.
One paper:
 Contains 50 sector specific questions on 3.2U subjects relating to sub-sea
applications.
The other paper:

 Contains 50 general theory questions including subjects from 3.1U and 3.2U
courses.
The pass mark is 70% for each paper and the time allowed is 75 minutes per
paper.
Practical examination
This will consist of the following parts:
 Magnetic particle assessment of three welds using various magnetisation

techniques with fluorescent inks and ultraviolet light.
 Practical weld-toe grinding of 150mm length of weld to a specific
requirement.
 Maximum in water time is 3 hours.
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28/08/2015
Introduction
DIS2 CSWIP 3.2U

NDT Inspection Diver
Introduction
Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd
Introduction Introduction
Introduction End of Course Examination
You MUST pass an end of course examination

before being eligible to take the CSWIP certification
examination.
 This consists of:
 50 multiple choice questions.
 Time allowed: 1 hour.
 Pass mark: 60%.
 You are allowed ONE re-test
only should you fail this examination.
Copying of any course material

without permission by whatever
means is strictly forbidden
1
28/08/2015
CSWIP 3.2U Certification CSWIP 3.2U Certification

Theory Examination Practical Examination
Theory Examination
Practical examination consists of the following parts.
This consists of:
Magnetic particle assessment of three welds using
 2 papers of 50 multiple various magnetising techniques with fluorescent
choice questions each. inks and ultraviolet light.
 Time Allowed: 75 minutes
per paper.
 Pass mark: 70% (per paper). Practical weld toe grinding of a 150mm length of
weld to a specific requirement.
The 3.2U theory exam will
contain questions from the Maximum water time is 3 hours.
3.1U syllabus.
Any Questions?
2
Section 1
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

1 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
1.1 History of magnetism
In very early times it was known that magnetite (an iron ore Fe3O4) attracted
small pieces of iron and if it was shaped into a shaft and suspended, it would
rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction. This gave rise to its
name Lodestone, derived from the Anglo-Saxon word meaning way, or course.
The directive property of magnetite was utilised in early navigational devices.
In 1600, the Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an

artificial magnet. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar produced a
power within the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This power, named
after him, was called magnetism.
A couple of centuries later, in 1819, the Danish Physicist Øested, observed a

relationship between electricity and magnetism. He noticed that when a
compass was placed near a current-carrying wire, the compass needle showed
a deflection. This phenomenon is now known as electromagnetism.
1.2 Types of magnetism

There are three types of magnetism:
1 Ferromagnetism
This is shown by materials which can be strongly magnetised and which
show good magnetic properties.
2 Paramagnetism
This is shown by materials which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic
fields.
3 Diamagnetism
This is shown by materials that are repelled by a strong magnetic field. Any
externally applied magnetic field induces a like magnetic field within the
material and repulsion occurs.
For a list of some common materials and their magnetic properties see Table
1.1.
Table 1.1 Magnetic properties of a selection of materials.

Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic
Iron Platinum Bismuth
Nickel Palladium Antimony
Cobalt Most non-ferrous metals Most non-metals
Steel Oxygen Concrete
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Magnetic Particle Inspection 1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
1.3 Theory of magnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups called
domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting as a north
pole, the other as a south pole. This magnetic moment is created by the
combined effort of the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and
by electron spin, which is the rotation of the electron around its own axis.
When the material is un-magnetised the domains lie distributed randomly and
their magnetic effects cancel each other see Figure 1.1.
e.g
Figure 1.1 Domains in an un-magnetised state.
When an external magnetic field is introduced the domains align themselves

north to south in a common direction see Figure 1.2.
Magnetic field
Figure 1.2 Magnetised state: Domains orientate in an external magnetic field.
When all the domains in a material are fully aligned the material is said to be in
the magnetically saturated state see Figure 1.3.
Magnetic field
Figure 1.3 Saturated state: Domains fully orientated in a strong external field.
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Even after the external magnetic field is removed there will be some residual
magnetism left in the material as the domains will not be totally randomised
see Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4 Residual state: Domains remain orientated in the absence of

external field.
1.3.1 Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These poles
are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to be
concentrated at these points. The north or north seeking pole of a magnet is
said to be the pole pointing towards the Earth’s North Pole; the south seeking
pole pointing towards the Earth’s South Pole.
Magnetic poles show attraction and repulsion. Like poles repel one another,
unlike poles attract one another see Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5 Like poles repel: Unlike poles attract.
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1.3.2 Magnetic field
This is described as the area surrounding a magnet in which the magnetic
forces exist. Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent the magnetic
field. These lines are purely imaginary and were introduced by Michael Faraday
as a means of visualising the distribution and density (flux density) of a
magnetic field. The SI unit used to measure the flux density is the Tesla (T).
For practical MPI the minimum flux density required is 1.0(T).
Figure 1.6 The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet.
Characteristics of the magnetic lines of force

Magnetic lines of force are considered to:
 Have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs.

 Travel from North Pole to South Pole externally.
 Travel South Pole to North Pole internally.
 Form a closed loop.
 All have the same strength.
 Not cross each other.
 Seek the path of least resistance.
 Be in constant tension.
 Decrease in density with increasing distance from the poles.
 Decrease in density (spread out) when moving from an area of high
permeability to an area of lower permeability.
 Prefer to travel in materials that easily accept magnetic fields.
1.4 Electromagnetism
The type of magnetism produced in a bar magnet is known as longitudinal
magnetism. In electromagnetism, when an electric current flows through a
conductor (copper wire or rod), a magnetic field is set up around the conductor
in a direction at 90o to the electric current. This is explained by the Right Hand
Rule.
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Figure 1.7 The Right Hand Rule.
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in the direction in which the current
is flowing, then the direction of the magnetic field is represented by the fingers.
When a conductor carries an electrical current, strong magnetic flux lines are
created (in the direction of the fingers as with the Right Hand Rule see Figure
1.7), this is called circular magnetism.
Circular magnetism is not polar and cannot be detected externally on a round

symmetrical specimen. However, if the original conductor carrying the current is
bent into a loop, the magnetic field around the conductor will pass through the
loop in one direction.
Figure 1.8 Coiled conductor.
The field within the loop has direction: one side will be a north pole and the
other a south pole. By increasing the number of loops, a coil, or solenoid, is
created and the strength of the field passing through the coil is proportional to
the current passing through the conductor in amperes multiplied by the number
of turns in the solenoid.
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When a ferromagnetic specimen is placed in an energised coil, the magnetic
field is concentrated in the specimen. One end of the specimen is a north pole
and the other a south pole. This is called longitudinal magnetism; it has polarity
and is, therefore, readily detectable.
1.5 Magnetic Hysteresis

When a ferromagnetic material is influenced by an alternating magnetising
force (H), the variation of magnetic flux density (B) in it is related to a
phenomenon known as magnetic Hysteresis.
The word, Hysteresis, is derived from the Greek word for delayed and is used to
describe one quantity lagging behind another. The variation of B-H follows a
Hysteresis loop and is characteristic to a particular ferromagnetic material.
The figure below is a typical Hysteresis loop where the co-ordinates represent
magnetising force (H) on the horizontal axis and flux density (B) on the vertical
axis.
Figure 1.9 Hysteresis loop.
When an un-magnetised ferromagnetic material is exposed to a gradually

increasing magnetising force, the corresponding flux density can be plotted
along the dotted line (o-a). The level of flux density is increased until point (a)
is reached and a further increase of magnetising force produces no increase in
flux density. The specimen is saturated with flux and indeed, point (a) is called
the Saturation Point.
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The dotted line (o-a) is often referred to as the Virgin Curve. Point (a) towards
point (b) is where the hysteresis loop begins. As the Magnetising Force is
reduced the flux density does not fall back to zero but follows the line (a-b). So,
at (b) there is a zero magnetising force but a flux density (o-b) remains. The
flux is lagging behind the force and this is what gives ferromagnetic materials
their permanent magnetism.
To reduce the flux density to zero, or demagnetise the specimen, a negative

magnetising force (c) has to be applied and maintained. So as the force
increases to produce the relationship of B-H, it follows the line (b-c). The force
(o-c) required to demagnetise the specimen is called the Coercive Force.
Increasing the negative magnetising force still further produces a B-H

relationship along the curve (c-d). Point (d) is exactly opposite point (a) and
represents negative saturation.
As the negative force is reduced, point (e) is reached, exactly opposite point (b)
and reversal to a positive magnetising force achieves a zero flux density at
point (f), exactly opposite point (c).
The loop is completed by increasing the magnetising force, giving a B-H ratio
along curve (f-a). Note: Once the Virgin Curve is produced, the Hysteresis loop
does not pass through (o) again. The specimen will not be demagnetised until
special steps are taken to achieve this.
1.5.1 Hard and soft ferromagnetics

As stated earlier, a Hysteresis loop is characteristic to a particular ferromagnetic
material.
The inner of the two curves shown is characteristic of materials such as low
carbon steel defined as a soft ferromagnetic, whilst the outer would be typical
of a hard ferromagnetic material such as high carbon steel. Modern permanent
magnets are generally made from the latter and are of low permeability/high
retentivity alloys that have been subjected to large magnetising forces.
Hard
ferromagnetic
Soft
ferromagnetic
Figure 1.10 Hysteresis loops for hard and soft ferromagnets.
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Table 1.2 Soft and hard ferromagnetic material properties.
Soft Ferromagnetic Hard Ferromagnetic
Typically low carbon steel Typically high carbon steel
High permeability Lower permeability
Easy to magnetise More difficult to magnetism
Low residual magnetism High levels of residual magnetism
1.6 Definition of terms

Knowledge of some of the physical terms related to magnetisation is essential.
The following definitions are not meant to be exhaustive but only those which
are considered relevant to understanding the practice of MPI.
Flux density The number of magnetic flux lines per unit area.
Symbol = B
SI unit = Tesla = T
Magnetising force The total force tending to set up a magnetic flux in

a magnetic circuit.
Symbol = H
SI unit = Ampere-turns per metre = Amps per
metre.
Permeability The ease with which a material can be

magnetised.
Saturation The stage, at which any increase in the

magnetising force H applied to a specimen,
produces no significant gain in flux density B.
Effectively this is at point (a) on diagram of the
Hysteresis loop.
Coercive force The reverse magnetising force required to remove

residual magnetism from a material. On the
diagram of the Hysteresis loop it is represented by
(o-c).
Remanence The magnetic flux density remaining in a material

after the magnetising force has been removed. On
the Hysteresis diagram it can be any value of B,
between (b) and (e), when, H = zero.
Residual magnetic field The magnetic field remaining in a material after

the magnetising force has been reduced to zero.
Reluctance A measure of the degree of difficulty with which a

component can be magnetised that is analogous
to resistance in an electrical circuit. It is the
opposite of permeability.
Retentivity The magnetic flux density remaining in a material

after the magnetising force has been removed,
synonymous to remanence.
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1.7 Flux leakage
A flux leakage is a break or a discontinuity in a magnetic circuit. Any abrupt
change of permeability within a magnetic specimen will change the number of
flux lines that can flow and thus, there will be a diversion of the field.
Figure 1.11 Magnetic field and flux leakage.
Magnetic particle inspection relies on flux leakage fields being seen on the
surface of a ferromagnetic specimen under test. All defects produce flux
leakage but not all flux leakage fields are created by defects.
Magnetic particle inspection relies on:
 Magnetising the specimen to an adequate flux density.

 Applying fine ferromagnetic particles over the surface of the specimen.
 Being able to see the magnetic particles that gather at flux leakage fields.
The magnetic field must run in a direction so that it can be interrupted by the
defect, thus producing a flux leakage field. Also the degree of distortion at the
leakage must allow the magnetic particles to provide an adequate degree of
contrast between the leakage and the adjacent material surface, so that it is
readily visible.
Flux lines will take the path of least resistance, hence the highest permeability.
The figure below shows flux lines flowing in a ferromagnetic bar, but having to
divert around an air gap, creating a flux leakage.
However, if ferromagnetic particles are sprinkled on the bar they will start to
form a magnetic bridge across the flux leakage and a highly preferred path.
If the flux leakage is strong, such as a surface-breaking crack in the optimum

direction, then the visual indication will be clear.
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Figure 1.12 Magnetic flux leakage turns the edges of the crack into
consequential poles.
Whether a flux leakage is made into a visual indication depends on a number of

factors, such as:
 Size of defect.
 Shape of defect.
 Volume of defect.
 Orientation of defect.
 Depth below surface.
 Permeability of material (hard or soft ferromagnetic).
1.7.1 Indications
Indications are any particle indications that are seen on the specimen under
test. Just as not all flux leakage fields are defects, not all indications are due to
flux leakage.
Indications can be further subdivided into:
 Relevant.
 Non-relevant.
 Spurious.
1.7.2 Relevant indications

Relevant indications are discontinuities or flaws which in turn are unwanted
imperfections.
When it is considered that a relevant indication will affect the fitness-for-

purpose of a test specimen, then it is classified as a defect but not all defects
are cracks.
Defects are categorised by their:
 Size.
 Position.
 Orientation.
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1.7.3 Non-relevant indications
Non-relevant indications are true magnetic particle patterns formed and held in
place by leakage fields. However, they are caused by design features and the
structure of the specimen and only in exceptional cases will they affect the
fitness-for-purpose of the specimen.
Below is a non-exhaustive list:
 Tool marks.
 Abrupt changes of geometry.
 Dissimilar magnetic material (HAZ or heat-treated material).
 Forging flow lines.
 Grain boundaries.
 Cold working.
Figure 1.13 Flux leakage due to geometry.
1.7.4 Spurious indications

Indications that are not held on the surface by a flux leakage are termed
spurious this could be due to scale or dirt.
However, there is one spurious indication called magnetic writing that is a little
different. If two pieces of steel touch when one of them is in a magnetised
condition, local poles are created at the areas of contact. If magnetic particles
are then sprayed on the surface, the local poles become visible as fuzzy lines.
1.7.5 Longitudinal field

It has already been stated that magnetic flux lines must run in a direction so
they can be interrupted at a defect causing a flux leakage. So, to detect
defects, the flux lines should, ideally, be at 90o to the direction of potential
defects.
Figure 1.14 below shows, the magnetic lines of force are longitudinal in a bar
and thus the bar has magnetic poles. Transverse flaws will easily show; but
longitudinal defects such as seams, which are very straight, will not show.
However, it is accepted that flaws up to 30o from the flux lines will also be
shown. In fact, longitudinal flaws having a transverse component, such as
jagged cracks, will almost certainly show.
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(Eg Bench mag flow, yoke and coil)
Figure 1.14 Longitudinal field.
1.7.6 Circular field

The longitudinal magnetising field in the bar is now replaced by a longitudinal
current, which creates a magnetic field at 90o to itself. In fact, the current has
produced a circular, non-polar field around the bar.
Under normal circumstances, the circular field is not detected due to it having
no external poles, but a longitudinal surface flaw at 90o creates a flux leakage,
creating miniature poles (consequential poles) and is thus detectable with
magnetic particles. Figure 1.15 shows the effect of flaw orientation in a
circularly magnetised bar.
Magnetising current
(Eg Axial current flow, threader bar)
Figure 1.15 Circular magnetism.
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1.8 Methods of magnetisation
The equipment used for MPI can be divided according to size and purpose. The
magnetising force may be supplied by anything from a small permanent magnet
to a highly sophisticated fixed installation, utilising high values of rectified
current and finely calibrated meters.
When electricity is introduced into a specimen in order to magnetise, it is

usually transformed into a low voltage, high amperage supply. Therefore, there
is no danger from electrocution; however, specimens do get hot due to
electrical resistance if the supply is applied for more than a couple of seconds.
Magnetising equipment must meet the requirements of and be used in
accordance with BS EN ISO 9934-3.
Equipment falls into two categories: portable and fixed.
1.8.1 Portable equipment - permanent magnets

Permanent magnets produce a longitudinal magnetic field between the poles.
Modern variants of the horseshoe magnet have adjustable arms and may have
variable-geometry, removable pole ends. The optimum defect detectability is at
90o to the poles.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders, good contact between the
pole pieces and the work piece is easily obtained by having shaped pole pieces,
flat for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work pieces. For more
complicated shapes, for example, when examining the weld at 12 ’clock on the
joint of a vertical diagonal member on a node, the pole pieces need to rotate as
well as being shaped in order to make good contact.
BS EN ISO 9934-1 states that a lift test should be carried out before a magnet
is used for MPI. The lift test should confirm that the magnet can lift 18kg with a
pole spacing of between 75-150mm. The inspection area is between the poles
and half the pole spacing either side.
N S
Figure 1.16 Permanent magnet.
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Table 1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of permanent magnets.
Advantages Disadvantages
No power supply needed Direct longitudinal field only
Cling to vertical surfaces Deteriorate with wear
No electrical contact problems Have to be pulled from test surface
Cheap and ready available No control over field strength
No damage to test piece Magnetic particles attracted to poles
Lightweight Poles must have good contact
1.8.2 Electromagnets
Electromagnets are made from soft iron laminates to reduce eddy current
losses, if powered by alternating current (AC). The yoke laminates are encased
in a multi-turn coil usually powered by mains electricity, which has been
stepped down to 6 or 12V. The legs of modern equipment are normally
articulated to allow area contact on uneven surfaces.
Figure 1.17 Electromagnet/yoke.
Electromagnets produce a longitudinal field with the test area being a circle
inscribed by the poles. Defect orientation is the same as when using a
permanent magnet. BS EN ISO 9934-1 states that a lift test should be carried
out prior to using for MPI. The lift test should confirm that the electromagnet
can lift 4.5kg with a pole spacing of up to 300mm.
Table 1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of electromagnets.

AC, or rectified DC operation Needs power supply
Controllable magnetic field strength Longitudinal field only
Can be switched off allowing easy Poles attract magnetic particles
removal
No harm to test piece
Lightweight Poles must have good contact
Can be used to demagnetise on AC
1.8.3 Prods
Prods induce a circular magnetic field by sending a high amperage current
(typically 1000A) through the test piece. The high amperage can cause arcing
between the electrodes and test surface. Contact points must be carefully
cleaned, and electrode materials chosen to prevent contamination of the test
piece.
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Prods produce a distorted circular magnetic field with defects showing at a
maximum when orientated along a line between the prod tips.
Figure 1.18 Current Flow Prod Technique.
As with all Current Flow Inspection techniques, particular care has to be taken
to avoid surface damage of the component under test due to arcing or
contamination.
OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a composite MPI unit that is
purpose designed and built for underwater use, see Figure 1.19.
Figure 1.19 OIS mark 2 subsea MPI unit and Current Flow Prods.
Table 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of Current Flow Prods.

Either AC or DC may be used Good prod contact required
Low voltage used (typically 3V) Heavy duty transformer required
Field strength can be adjusted Danger of arcing on test piece
If arcing does occur metal inclusions
No collection of indicating from the prod tips may result
medium around the prods
Danger of overheating the equipment
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1.8.4 Flexible Coil
In this technique the current-carrying cable is wound tightly around the
component. It is a longitudinal magnetisation method and will find defects lying
parallel to the cable. The area to be tested is considered to lie between the
turns of the coil.
Figure 1.20 Longitudinal magnetism inside a coil.
A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and touching

the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve to
show how the technique may be applied.
Evenly Spaced Coil

A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under inspection
is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of the coil being
spaced equidistant to each other, see Figure 1.21.
Figure 1.21 Evenly Spaced Coil.
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The current requirement for this technique is determined from the formulas:
Y2
I dc = 7.5 T+
4T
Where:
I = Required current (DC). T = Wall thickness of the work piece.

Y = Coil spacing. 4 = Constant.
7.5 = Constant.
If AC is to be used the formula is modified to:
Y2
I ac = 7.5 10+
40
Where:
I = Required current (AC). 10 = Constant.
Y = Coil spacing. 7.5 = Constant.
As AC will produce magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece, the
thickness of the material is of no consequence, therefore another constant, 10
replaces T.
Close Wrapped Coil

In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the encircling
coils. However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the ends of the coil
to ensure an adequate flux density in this area see Figure 1.22.
Figure 1.22 Close wrapped coil.
The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula:
16  r
Ipeak ac
ac  
N
Where:
Ipeak = Peak current value (AC).
r = Radius of the coil (mm).
N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3).
16 = Constant.
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The distance either end of the coil where minimum field strength of 1.0 Tesla
should be present, is given by the formula:

30
Where:
d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 1.0T).
N = Number of turns in the coil.
I = Peak current (Amps).
30 = Constant.
It is also possible to produce a transverse magnetic field by looping the

conductor into a configuration called parallel loops see Figure 1.23.
Figure 1.23 Parallel loops.
This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The loop has
to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is moving in the same
direction, otherwise the magnetic fields will tend to cancel instead of reinforce.
Furthermore, the return cables not forming the parallel loops must be a
minimum of 10d away from the inspection area, as shown in Figure 1.23. The
direction of the field may be ascertained by applying the Right Hand Rule. The
required current may be found by applying the formula:
Ipeak (ac) = 30 x d
Note: This is the coil end effect formula transposed.
The OIS mark 2 sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique. Current up to
1000 amps can be used see Figure 1.24.
This method of magnetising ferromagnetic materials offers development

potential for producing adequate magnetic fields for inspecting structures that
have complicated shapes, like nodes and pipe intersections.
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Table 1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of coils.
Cables can be positioned relatively Relatively weak field is produced
easily
Large areas can be inspected with Large, heavy step-down transformers
one placement of the coil or loop are required
Field strength and thus flux density Isolating transformers are required
can be adjusted on deck
Demagnetising is easily achieved Long cables required
Flexible cables
connected that
may be used as
parallel
conductors or
encircling coils.
Figure 1.24 OIS mark 2 sub-sea MPI unit.
1.9 Continuous and Residual Magnetisation Techniques

Both techniques are used for land base inspections but the continuous
technique is used almost exclusively for underwater applications because of the
possibility of wash out or dilution of the indicating medium in the water.
1.9.1 Continuous Magnetisation

This technique entails magnetising the work piece at the same time as the
indicating medium is applied. The area under inspection is then examined while
the magnetic field is maintained. This method is generally regarded as being
the more sensitive, but indications of defects other than actual damage; such
as cracks, can be given.
For example, leakage fields from the coil wrapped around the work piece and
flux leakage in the vicinity of a prod from spurious indications, such as grain
boundaries, due to high flux density in these regions. The closer the magnetic
field is to saturation the more sensitive it is to flux leakage due to small order
inhomogeneities in the material, see Figure 1.25. The recommended flux level
for satisfactory crack detection is between one third and full saturation.
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Figure 1.25 Variation of types of defects giving indications as the field strength
increases.
1.10 Detecting media, UV light and other equipment

The effectiveness of the magnetic particle inspection is determined by the
sensitivity with which it is possible to detect the change in the magnetic field
due to the presence of a defect causing flux leakage. Underwater this is done by
visual observation using an indicating medium to show the distortion.
1.10.1 Visual detection

Visual detection is achieved by observing the distortion of the magnetic field as
shown by the patterns in magnetic particles distributed over the test surface.
These magnetic particles are available in dry powder form, liquid slurry or fully
mixed with water and ready to use.
The particles used are fine ferrous-oxides that are much lighter than iron filings
and will go into suspension in water more easily while remaining suspended
much longer. A fluorescent powder (usually green coloured) is mixed with the
particles so that they will fluoresce under ultraviolet light making them easier to
see.
The method of use is to apply the magnetic field and while the test surface is
magnetised the ink is applied. Any flaws cause flux leakage with a resultant
build-up in flux density. The ferrous-oxide in the ink will be attracted to this
strong magnetic field and will collect there. Using a suitable ultraviolet light the
indication can be viewed, interpreted and reported.
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Ink properties
Ink properties are required to meet a certain standard. The current standard for
MPI ink is BS EN ISO 9934-2. This standard states that inks must be non-toxic,
free from contaminants, not cause discomfort to users and be non-corrosive to
the work piece. Additionally, the ink should have the following properties:
 The ink grains should be fine enough to reduce gravitational effects, go

easily into suspension but not be so fine as to coagulate in the liquid.
 The grains should have elongated shape to facilitate polarisation.
 The grains must have high permeability to be easily magnetised.
 The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate removal after the test.
 The ink should have good contrast against the test background to ensure
good visibility and greater sensitivity.
The concentration of ferrous-oxide particles, additives and fluorescent powder is

specified in the standard, as is the method for testing the correct concentration
of any ink.
The ink or powder must be supplied as certified manufactured to the ISO

standard with a batch number that should be recorded.
 The correct quantity of powder as per the manufacturer’s instructions should

be measured and put into a suitable mixing vessel.
 Inks are available which include wetting agents (a chemical that lowers the
surface tension of the water), however it is more common to add such an
agent at this stage.
 Enough liquid is added to the mixing vessel to make it up into a slurry which
is then put into a measuring bucket and made up to the correct quantity
with water.
 Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to ensure the
suspension is maintained and a 100ml sample should be drawn off.
The sample is required to undergo a settling test to confirm the ink has been
made up to the correct concentration.
Settling test
The test is completed to the following procedure:
 Draw off a 100ml sample into a calibrated settling flask (called a Sutherland
or thistle Flask) see Figure 1.26.
 Allow the sample to settle for 60 minutes.
 Read off and record the quantity of solids that will have collected in the
bottom of the flask.
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Figure 1.26 Settlement flask.
Of paramount importance is the maintenance of the ink strength. The solid

content must be constantly monitored as detailed in control checks and the ink
must be constantly agitated to keep the solid content in suspension. Although
not stated in current standards, previous standards stated that the solid content
levels should be between 0.1-0.3% by volume for fluorescent ink and 1.25-
3.5% for visible (black) ink, and no more than 10% by weight of other solids.
1.10.2 Lighting and viewing conditions

As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision, the ambient light
conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct
levels. The standards for adequate lighting are stated in BS EN ISO 3059. The
minimum requirements for ambient light and ultraviolet light as stated in the
standard are summarised below:
Visible light inspection (using non-fluorescent inks)

There must be a minimum of 500lux of white light in the viewing area. This
light should be provided by a diffuse light source if possible. An 80 watt
fluorescent light tube gives 500lux at 1 metre distance.
Background and ultraviolet light levels (using fluorescent inks)

The background light level must be dark with ambient light not exceeding 20lux
so that the fluorescence from the ink particles has sufficient contrast to be
easily seen.
The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of 1000µW/cm2. The wavelength of

the light should be between 365-400nm (a nanometre (nm) is 1 millionth of a
mm).
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Safety considerations with ultraviolet light
Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health causing burns, cataracts and cancer if
not used under controlled conditions.
As can be seen from the electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet light covers a

range of frequencies. These have been split into UVA and UVB with UVA being
the less harmful wavelengths at 365-400nm, which is why they are used for
MPI.
Mercury vapour spotlight bulbs, which produce light by discharging an arc in

mercury vapour contained in the bulb, produce a large amount of ultraviolet
light along with visible white light.
This type of bulb is put into a housing and a Wood’s Filter is placed in front of it,
which blocks the harmful wavelengths of UV light while allowing UVA at 365-
400nm to pass through.
Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to avoid looking into it
or shining it into anyone else’s eyes.
Testing the ultraviolet light

There are a number of reasons to test ultraviolet lights used in MPI.
 The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient fluorescence in the

ink to make identification of flaws possible.
 The wavelength must be in the correct part of the spectrum for operator
safety.
 The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and produce less UV light as
they age. They must be checked regularly because of this.
 The requirements stated in the standard must be met.
The procedure for testing the ultraviolet light is completed as follows:
Ultraviolet light test procedure
 Switch on the lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes.

 Lamps designed for underwater use must be immersed in cooling water
during this test otherwise the heat generated will damage the seals.
 Shine the light onto a Photometer (black light meter) holding it at a distance
of about 400mm.
 Read the meter and record the results.
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Figure 1.27 OIS underwater black light with attached Burmah Castrol Strip.
Residual magnetic field

At the end of a Magnetic Particle Inspection when the magnetising force is
removed a residual field will remain, the strength of this field will depend on the
retentivity of the material. Applying a field strength indicator to the work piece
will assess the magnitude of the residual field.
Field Strength Indicators

These are devices used to check residual magnetism prior to and after magnetic
particle testing, they are also known as gauss meters or magnetometers. They
are small mechanical devices that utilise a small soft iron vane that is deflected
by a magnetic field. The vane is attached to a needle which rotates and moves
a pointer set on a graduated scale. Field indicators can be adjusted and
calibrated, so that quantitative information can be obtained. Generally, the
greater the deflection of the needle, the greater the residual magnetic force.
Figure 1.28 Magnetic field indicators.
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It must be emphasised that these meters are only for measuring residual field
strength. They are far too sensitive to measure the magnitude of the induced
field applied for inspection and will be damaged if they are used for such.
Any residual field should be removed:
 Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of vector fields that would reduce the
sensitivity of the inspection. A vector is the result of an opposing or
differently oriented field interfering with the applied field.
 On offshore structures because they are fixed in the Earth’s magnetic field,
subject to constant vibration and may be weakly magnetic.
 After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive electronic
equipment.
 Prior to welding so as to avoid arc blow.
1.11 Demagnetisation
Looking at a typical Hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material, after the initial
magnetising force is applied and then removed, it is virtually impossible to end
the test with a zero flux density. Even if a negative coercive force is applied it
will only keep the flux density at zero, as long as it continues to be applied.
Figure 1.29 shows that the key to demagnetisation is that a reversing and
reducing magnetising force must be applied, so that the Hysteresis loop reduces
until all the parameters achieve zero. There are a number of ways to achieve
this.
Field strength
Figure 1.29 Collapsing the Hysteresis loop to demagnetise.
1.11.1 Coils: reducing AC current

The process is illustrated in Figure 1.29 above and only requires that the
Hysteresis loop be collapsed. This can be achieved quite easily by reducing the
magnetising force to zero over a short period of time, as indicated in the
diagram. This is accomplished by using a rheostat to wind down the current as
opposed to just switching it off, which would leave a residual field.
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1.11.2 Electromagnetic yoke
A most useful way to remove local residual fields on components in situ, on a
structure that cannot easily be moved or removed, is by means of a portable AC
powered electromagnet. The energised yoke is pulled over and off the
component, to a distance of about 450mm and then switched off. If the level
achieved is not adequate, the operation is repeated in the same way and
direction until the residual field is removed.
Approximately
450mm
then switch off
AC yoke
Figure 1.30 Demagnetising with an AC yoke.
1.12 Alternative forms of electric current applied in MPI

Inducing a magnetic field into a work piece was examined earlier where it was
stated that either AC or DC may be used. The type of current must be
considered further as the induced magnetic field strength and characteristics
are determined by this current.
First, consider measuring electricity. Either current or voltage may be measured

and for the purpose of inducing a magnetic field, the amperage is the more
important value. In underwater inspection, the voltage is kept as low as
possible for safety reasons and typically, only about 4 volts potential is applied
to the coils or prods. However up to 1000amps may well be used.
1.12.1 Direct Current (DC)

Is an electrical current flowing in one direction only and effectively free from
pulsation. Therefore, after a small build-up period, the current is at a constant
peak value and this is what the meter reads.
Figure 1.31 Direct Current.
Direct current is either supplied from a permanent magnet, a battery pack or a

DC generator. In the early days of MPI, DC was almost universally used. This is
not so today.
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Table 1.7 Advantages and disadvantages of DC current.
Can find sub-surface defects No agitation
Availability from batteries Less sensitive to surface defects
Field Strength
Distance
Flux Leakage
Figure 1.32 Magnetic flux distribution for Direct Current.
1.12.2 Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating current is a form of electricity which, after reaching a maximum
value in one direction, decreases, reverses direction and reaches a maximum in
the opposite direction before returning to zero. It is cyclic and the cycle is
repeated continuously. In the UK, 50Hz is the commercial norm but 60Hz is
common in many countries.
Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it

for MPI. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic
materials; the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface of
the component. This is known as the Skin Effect and it occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does
not allow the domains down in the material time to align.
Figure 1.33 Alternating Current.
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As the current is constantly reversing, no single value for the current can be
measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC current the root
mean square (RMS) value, as seen in Figure 1.33, is calculated. To calculate the
RMS value, all that is required is to divide the peak value by the constant
1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage reading indicates the current
being applied. The meter will be indicating an RMS value. Therefore, to obtain
the peak value, multiply the meter reading by 1.414.
strength
Field
Skin
Distance
Flux Leakage
Figure 1.34 Magnetic flux distribution for AC current.
Table 1.8 Advantages and disadvantages of AC current.

Availability Will not detect sub-surface
Sensitivity to surface defects defects
Agitation of particles
Demagnetisation
1.13 Verification of magnetisation

BS EN ISO 9934-1 specifies that the adequacy of the surface flux density should
be established.
Portable flux indicators, such as the Burmah Castrol Strip are common and
simple to use, giving a clear visual indication of the direction of the surface
field. They provide only a guide to the magnitude and direction of the tangential
field strength and as such, should not be used to verify the acceptability of the
field strength.
They are a rough guide to the magnitude of the surface field. (This is only true
if the flux indicator abuts intimately with the test specimen).
Flux indicators consist of a magnetic material that is interrupted by non-

magnetic spacers. When the flux indicator is placed on the surface of a
magnetised specimen, flux is induced in it. The non-magnetic spacers behave
as artificial flaws. If the magnetic field at the surface of the specimen is
sufficiently high, flux leakage above the artificial flaws can be detected by the
application of a magnetic particle ink or powder.
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Flux indicators are made with high permeability magnetic materials with low
coercivity and low remanence so that a flux can be easily induced into them,
yet without permanently magnetising them. Opinion differs on their efficacy
when used with permanent magnets and DC electromagnets. In every case
when a permanent magnet or electromagnet is used, good area contact of the
poles is imperative or the flux indicator is useless. Results may be misleading
when indicators are used in a coil.
Flux indicators may be divided into two main types:
 Segment type.
 Foil type.
1.13.1 Segment type

Four or eight identical segments of ferrous metal are joined with non-magnetic
compound of even thickness into the shape of a flat disc. One surface of the
disc is covered with non-magnetic foil to prevent magnetic particles getting to
the surface and giving misleading indications.
The eight segment type, with a fixed foil is popular in the US.
A Berthold Penetrameter is a four section indicator with an adjustable foil,

giving a varying air gap between them. This device has been designed to
indicate flux direction and sensitivity (field strength). The central, cylindrical
iron piece is cut into quadrants to provide indications at 0 and 90 degrees. This
piece is capped with a thin, non-magnetic foil that is mounted on an adjustable
screwed spacer, allowing the surface of the penetrameter to be raised off the
surface of the item being inspected.
When the penetrameter is placed on a magnetised test surface, magnetic lines

of flux will pass through the cut quadrants of the iron cylinder. These cut lines
will then be visible, when using either wet or dry MPI testing media. Maximum
indication direction can be achieved by rotating the penetrameter about its axis,
so that the cut lines in the penetrameter will be at right angles to the direction
of the magnetic field. The sensitivity of the testing media can be determined by
slowly turning the outside knurled ring of the penetrameter, increasing the
distance off the test surface. The amount of lift off at the point where the
indication just appears, gives a measure of the magnetic field test sensitivity.
Figure 1.35 Berthold Penetrameter.
1.13.2 Foil type

The most common foil type indicator is the Burmah Castrol Strip or as it is more
correctly now called a Magnetic Flux Indicator. These indicators consist of a
magnetic foil containing linear slots of different widths to simulate
discontinuities, sandwiched between non-magnetic foils. Non-magnetic foils are
either brass or stainless steel depending on whether they are for general or
aerospace use.
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The simulated discontinuities in a magnetic flux indicator are arranged in three
parallel lines. These foils are less than 0.2mm thickness and flexible, which
gives them a significant advantage over the segment type.
They are placed on the test object as it is being inspected, ideally at 90o to the
possible defect orientation. The number of linear indications and thickness of
the slot indications produced on the strips, gives the Inspector a general idea of
the magnetic field strength in that particular area.
They are relatively easily applied to the component and can be successfully
used with both wet and dry inspection media, using the continuous method of
magnetisation. The results are fairly repeatable as long as the same orientation
of the magnetic field is applied and maintained.
Disadvantages of these strips are that they cannot be bent to complex shapes
and are not suitable for multi-directional field systems since they only indicate
defect indications in one direction only.
Figure 1.36 Burmah Castrol Strip.
1.13.3 Gauss meter

This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly from
the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a digital
readout in Tesla, see Figure 1.37.
Figure 1.37 Combined Gauss Meter, white light and black light meter.
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1.14 MPI test procedure
General procedure that may be applied or adapted for offshore use would be:
1.14.1 Surface checks:

 Obtain the necessary work permits (hot work may be required).
 Ensure that an isolating transformer is in the circuit.
 Test all circuit breakers or residual current devices (RCD).
 Check all electric cables for integrity.
 Confirm rigging and buoyancy is correct.
 Ensure the ultraviolet light is to BS EN ISO 3059:2001 specifications.
 Ensure the ink is to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002 (settling test).
 Confirm the ink distribution system is functioning correctly.
 Calculate the required current.
 Function test all the MPI equipment.
 Ensure the Gauss Meter is functioning and ready for deployment.
 Ensure all ancillary equipment is available, (tapes, hammer and punch).
 Confirm that the personnel are qualified and briefed.
 Prepare the recording equipment (CCTV, camera, data sheets).
1.14.2 In-water preparation:

 Establish the down lines and working lines on the correct site.
 Clean the inspection site to the specifications (SA2½ for 75mm).
1.14.3 Pre-inspection:
 Establish the datum and place tape measure, mark up the weld.
 Complete a close visual inspection (CVI). Identify any areas that may cause
spurious indication during the MPI.
1.14.4 Magnetic Particle Inspection:

 Rig the transformer safely as close as possible to the test site.
 Switch on the ultraviolet light.
 Confirm that ambient light is less than 20lux.
 Rig and lay out the coils, parallel loops, prods or magnet on the test site.
 Demagnetise the work site.
 Confirm the ink is constantly agitated.
 Position the Gauss Meter ready to monitor the induced field strength.
 Switch on the current on the diver inspector’s command, record current.
 Read out the indicated field strength on the Gauss Meter (1.0T minimum).
 Apply ink as required to the weld and complete the inspection.
 As the inspection progresses confirm adequate field strength at each clock
position.
 If any indications are identified, re-inspect to confirm the findings.
 With confirmed indications record:
- Location (distance from datum).
- Length.
- Orientation and position on weld.
- Continuous or intermittent.
- Branching or not.
- Weak or strong indication.
 Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure.
 Retest after grinding.
 Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if required.
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1.14.5 Post inspection
 Demagnetise.
 De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface.
 Wash all equipment with fresh water.
 Flush out the ink system.
 Report the results to the client.
 Cancel work permits.
Figure 1.38 Underwater MPI system.
1.15 Recording indications

The actual MPI indications can be recorded in a number of ways.
1.15.1 Ultraviolet photography

A conventional photograph can be taken using either:
 An ultraviolet lamp with a long exposure time on the camera.

 An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash.
1.15.2 Foil packets (Magfoil)

These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that
are separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is applied
to the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles and the
mixing liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A triangular wire
flux indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
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The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents
by manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the contents
will take on a grey colour.
 Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100
seconds.
 Apply the magnetising force during this period.
 The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet.
 Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5 minutes).
 The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth can
be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect length and
depth.
1.15.3 Video
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles
when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on
disc.
1.15.4 Rubberised Tape Transfer

An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The magnetic
particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This cannot be
applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding habitat.
1.15.5 MPI data report sheet

All MPI inspections will be recorded on a data report sheet see Figure 1.39.
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Figure 1.39 An example MPI data report sheet.
1.16 Factors affecting MPI sensitivity

The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which
the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will
depend in the main on three factors:
1 Diver inspector.
2 Equipment being used.
3 Conditions on site.
For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as
being comfortable and well equipped for the dive as possible:
 Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test.
 Be confident in his ability to detect defects with it.
 Be sure of the value of his contribution to the efficiency and safety of the
plant or structure he is inspecting.
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These last three points are obtained from the competence and confidence
imparted to the inspector by good training and an active involvement in the
inspection function.
The sensitivity of the MPI test will depend on several factors, some of which will
be within the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity of
detection depends ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between the
defect and its surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape and
orientation of the defect.
Figure 1.40 Sensitivity of an MPI test.
Figure 1.40 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance. Like a
chain, it will only be as good as its weakest link.
An explanation for each of the numbered points from Figure 1.40 that affect the
sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection follows.
1.16.1 Surface condition (1)

The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an
important factor. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic particles
were being used.
1.16.2 Lighting (2)

If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the
surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The
diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp to
detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the efficiency of
detecting defects.
1.16.3 Ink condition (3)

Important factors here include the best colour to attract the attention of the
inspector and the right size of particle. This is tightly controlled by the
appropriate standard, there could be some consideration given to larger size
particles that may give better contrast. The physical condition of the ink is also
important. It should be a finely divided suspension of particles that is delivered
to the work piece and so the diver inspector should check to see that the
agitator is working continuously. This should be a regular part of the routine.
1.16.4 Field strength (4)

This must be high enough to hold the ink to the surface of the defect.
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1.16.5 Factors affecting definition
The following factors are important when considering definition.
1.16.6 Ink condition (5)

As can be seen from the chart the ink condition has an effect on both contrast
and definition. The definition can be improved if the defect outline is picked out
by fine magnetic particles.
1.16.7 Geometry of the work piece (6)

In the main, MPI has to be carried out by diver inspectors on welds that are
parts of complicated nodes in very difficult position in a hostile environment.
This might be the most significant weakness in the system and methods of
improving the procedures, back up for divers at the work position and redesign
of the equipment with this in mind will bring about a marked improvement in
defect detection.
1.16.8 Efficiency of the magnetic field conditions (7)

The effectiveness with which the inspector can set up the magnetic field
condition is the heart of the magnetic particle inspection. Factors like current
flow, field direction, electrical contact of the prods, coil fill factor, need to be
considered carefully.
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28/08/2015
History of Magnetism
The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first

method of forming an ‘artificial’ magnet in 1600.
He found that heating and hammering an iron
bar produced a ‘power’ in the bar that enabled it
to attract pieces of iron. This power, named after
CSWIP 3.2U Course him, was called magnetism.
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) In 1819, the German Oested observed a
relationship between electricity and magnetism.
He noticed that when a compass was placed
near a current-carrying wire, the compass
needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is
now known as electro-magnetism.
Magnetism Ferromagnetism
There are three types of magnetism:
1. Ferromagnetism.
2. Paramagnetism.
3. Diamagnetism.
Materials which can be strongly magnetised

and which show good magnetic properties
Paramagnetism Diamagnetism
Materials which are weakly attracted by strong Materials that are repelled by a strong magnetic field.
magnetic fields
An externally applied magnetic field induces a like magnetic
field within the material and repulsion occurs.
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Examples Theory of Magnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups

Ferromagnetic Paramagnetic Diamagnetic called domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end
acting as a north pole, the other as a south pole.
This magnetic moment is created by the combined effort of the motion

Iron Platinum Bismuth
of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and by electron spin,
which is the rotation of the electron about it’s own axis.
Nickel Palladium Antimony Electron spinning

on its own axis Nucleus
Most non-ferrous Most non-

Cobalt
metals metals
Effective
magnetic
Steel Oxygen Concrete moment Domain
Domain distribution within a ferromagnetic material
Polarity Magnetic Poles
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These Magnetic poles show attraction and repulsion
poles are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism
seems to be concentrated at these points.
The north or north seeking pole of a magnet is said to be the pole that
Like poles repelling
points towards the Earth’s North Pole. The south pole of the magnet
pointing towards the Earth’s South Pole.
Unlike poles
attracting
Domains aligned due to application of Material in a magnetised state
external magnetic field
Characteristics of Magnetic Lines of

Magnetic Field
Force
This is the area surrounding the magnet in which Considered to:
the magnetic forces exist.
 Have direction as if flowing, though no actual
Lines of force or lines of magnetic flux represent movement occurs.
the magnetic field.
 Travel from the north pole to the south pole
These lines are purely imaginary and were externally.
introduced by Michael Faraday as a means of  Travel from south pole to north pole internally.
visualising the distribution and density (flux  Form a closed loop.
density) of a magnetic field.  All have the same strength.
 Decrease in density with increasing distance
The Tesla is the unit of flux density used in from the poles.
practical MPI.
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Characteristics of Magnetic Lines of

Magnetic Field
Force
Considered to:
 Not cross.
 Seek the path of least resistance.
 Be in constant tension.
 Decrease in density (they spread out) when Magnetic field
they move from an area of higher permeability surrounding a
bar magnet
to an area of lower permeability.
 Prefer to travel in materials that easily accept
magnetic fields.
Magnetic Field Surrounding a

Longitudinal Magnetism
Conductor
N S
Magnetic field around a bar magnet

produces longitudinal magnetism
Magnetic Flux Density Flux Density (B)
Magnetic flux density describes the 10cm The unit of flux density (B) is defined as the
amount of magnetism within a specimen
and is abbreviated by the letter B. ....... density of a magnetic field in which a conductor
....... 10cm
carrying 1 ampere at right angles to that field
When a magnetising force is applied, has a force of 1 Newton per metre acting on it.
lines of force of magnetism will be This unit is called a tesla (T).
created within the specimen, the number Low flux density
of lines depends on the size of the
magnetising force.
When a magnetic field is induced in a work piece
1cm by an electric current flowing in a cable,
These lines represent the magnetic force .......
arranged either as a coil or parallel conductors,
and the flux density is the term applied .......
1cm the input electrical force is called the
to the quantity of them that emerge per magnetising force (H).
unit cross section of the specimen. High flux density
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Relative Permeability Relative Permeability
In a magnetic material, B and H can vary

independently and the coefficient of B/H is called
the relative permeability.
Relative permeability is not a constant value, it

varies with B and H. The following diagram gives
an indication of the relative permeability for a
selection of ferromagnetic materials including
steel.
Variations in Relative Permeability With Magnetising Force
Flux Density (B) Flux Density (B)
When magnetising a piece of steel using and electrical The previous graph shows the flux density
magnetising force, there is not a uniform increase in values for a magnetising current for a field being
flux density with a uniform increase in magnetising set up in one direction by a DC supply.
force.
If the field is set up by an AC supply then the
magnetic field will experience a complete
reversal of direction for each cycle and
successive cycles will trace out a loop for the
relationship between the magnetising force and
DC Supply flux density.
The flux density rises rapidly to point A and thereafter rises less rapidly This is known as the hysteresis loop.
as the condition approaches saturation of the magnetic field.
Hysteresis Loop More New Words
Permeability:
The ease with which a material can be
magnetised.
Retentivity:
Virgin curve
A measure of a material’s ability to retain
magnetism when the magnetising force is
removed.
Coercive force:
A measure of the amount of reverse magnetic
force needed to return a material’s magnetic
field to zero.
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More New Words Permeability
Reluctance: B B
 Describes the opposition that a ferromagnetic

material shows to the establishment of a
magnetic field.
H H
Residual magnetism or remanence:

 The magnetic flux density remaining in a
material when the magnetising force is zero.
Low permeability High permeability
Permeability Measuring the Residual Field
B B Applying a field strength indicator to the work piece

will assess the magnitude of the residual field
H H
Low permeability High permeability

(Difficult to magnetise) (Easily magnetised)
High retentivity Low retentivity
High remanence/residual Low remanence/residual

magnetism magnetism
High reluctance Low reluctance
High coercivity to demagnetise Low coercivity to demagnetise
Demagnetising AC Demagnetising Coil
Collapsing the hysteresis

loop to demagnetise a
material
AC magnetising source
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Reversing DC Coil Demagnetising with an AC Yoke
Other Methods to Demagnetise Producing Magnetic Fields
Demagnetising can be accomplished by heating MPI is based on the phenomenon that the path
the component up to the curie point (700– of the magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material
720oC). is distorted because inhomogeneities like cracks,
blowholes, inclusions and grain boundaries have
This method is not applied offshore. different magnetic properties to a greater or
lesser degree than the surrounding material.
It is possible to demagnetise by vibrating or
beating the component but this has no practical All systems of MPI need some method of
application. detecting this distortion of the magnetic flux,
most often called flux leakage.
Of course all such systems need a method for

producing the magnetic field in the first instance.
Permanent Magnets and

Producing Magnetic Fields
Electro-magnets
The magnetic field can be set up in a magnetic material in the A U shaped magnet is used with the work piece
following ways:
completing the magnetic path or circuit between
 Align the test piece north/south in the earth’s magnetic
field. the poles. The lines of flux that normally exist
 Heat the test piece to the curie point and align north/south. between the poles are concentrated in the work-
 Induce magnetism by the use of a permanent magnet. piece instead of returning through the air.
 Induce magnetism by passing an electric current directly
through the work piece. The maximum disturbance to the magnetic field
 Induce magnetism by passing an electric current through a and hence the maximum flux leakage is caused
conductor close to the work piece. by defects that are at right angles to the field.
The first two methods are only of interest in a laboratory and are
of no further interest. This is of course true no matter how the
The last three methods are applied underwater mainly by diver magnetic field is produced.
inspectors but some also by ROV.
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Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet
Strength required for MPI permanent magnets:
The strength for a permanent magnet used in

MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001. This
replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current.
The requirement is that the permanent magnet

must be able to lift at least 18 kilograms with a
pole spacing of between 75-150mm.
The area that can be inspected lies between the

poles and extends to half the pole spacing at
right angles to this dimension.
Permanent Magnet Permanent Magnet
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 All permanent magnets loose strength with age.
 Magnets are cheap and readily available.  They only produce a direct longitudinal field.
 No power supply is required for permanent magnets.  There is no skin effect.
 There are no contact problems with the poles and  The magnet will have to be physically removed from
the work piece, thus arcing or damage to the surface the work piece.
is avoided.  There is no control over field strength, the magnet
 They will be self-supporting and can be used only has one value.
overhead easily.  The magnetic poles on the magnet may attract the
 They are relatively lightweight. iron particles in the indicating medium.
 Good pole contact is extremely desirable to ensure
maximum flux density in the work piece.
Right Hand Rule Electro-magnet
Flexible pole electro-magnet
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Strength Required for MPI

Electro-magnet
Electro-magnets
The strength for an electro-magnet used in MPI is
stated in BS EN ISO 9934-1:2001.
The electromagnet must lift 4.5kg with pole spacing

of up to 300mm.
As with permanent magnets the inspection area

should be between the poles.
Electro-magnet Electro-magnet
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the

 A power supply is required.
magnetic field.
 The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux  Only longitudinal magnetisation can be generated.
density.  Mains voltage is carried directly in the yoke, only
 The magnetising current can be switched off for easy applies with topside units.
removal from the metal surface.  There must be good pole contact on the metal
 Mains power can be used there is no need for a surface to ensure adequate flux flow in the work
transformer, only applies with surface units. piece.
 Subsea unit’s supply is transformed OIS = 5v
RSL = 12v.
 Will not damage the work piece.
 Lightweight.
 AC electromagnets can be used to demagnetise.
Current Flow Prods Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction fifty times a

second in the UK. Since AC is readily available in most
facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for MPI.
However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in

ferromagnetic materials the magnetic field will be limited
to a narrow region at the surface of the component.
This phenomenon is know as the skin effect and it occurs

because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the
rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains down
 Passing a current through the work piece produces a in the material time to align.
circular field in accordance with the right hand rule.
 The current required is 100amps per one-inch prod
separation.
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Alternating Current Current Flow Prods
Advantages:
 Either AC or DC may be used.

 Low voltage may be used typically 3V.
 Adjusting current output will control field strength.
 There will be no collection of indicating medium
around the prods.
Current flow prods on OIS Mark 2 sub-sea unit
Current Flow Prods Coils
Disadvantages:
 Without good prod contact there will be no induced

magnetic field.
 A heavy transformer must be used to drop the
voltage.
 There is always the danger of arcing on the metal
surface.
 There is a danger of overheating the equipment.
 If arcing does occur inclusions from the prod tips
may result.
Longitudinal magnetisation produced inside a coil
Evenly Spaced Coil Close Wrapped Coil
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Parallel Loops OIS Mark 2 Unit with Coils
Coils Continuous Magnetisation
Advantages: Disadvantages: This technique entails magnetising the work

piece at the same time as the indicating medium
 Flexible cables can be  A relatively weak field is applied.
positioned relatively is produced.
easily.  Long cables are The area under inspection is then examined
 Large areas can be required. while the magnetic field is maintained.
inspected with one  Large, heavy step-
placement of the coil down transformers
or loop.
This method is generally regarded as being the
are required.
 The field strength and
more sensitive.
 Isolating transformers
thus flux density can are required on deck.
be adjusted. Indications of defects other than actual damage
 Demagnetising is such as cracks can be given.
easily achieved.
Residual Magnetisation Flux Leakage
In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and

the indicating medium is still applied at the same time.
The actual inspection is completed with the magnetising

force removed and the work piece is examined with only
any residual field producing the flux leakage at any
discontinuities.
These fields are much weaker than those produced by the

continuous method thus much lower in sensitivity.
Underwater it could be used to re-inspect any suspect area

where the suspicion is that a false indication has been
identified.
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Flaw Orientation Flux Indicators
Test devices called flux indicators are available which

are designed specifically to detect magnetic fields.
The field strength is 1 Tesla

orientated at 90 degrees
Burmah castrol strip
Berthold Gauge Gauss Meter
Adjustable top plate

This is an electric powered meter that will read the
field strength directly from the input of a probe
that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a
digital readout in Tesla.
Flux lines drawn out of the material
Combined Gauss
meter with white
light and black light
Berthold gauge meter
Visual Detection Ink Properties
Visual detection is achieved by observing the distortion of Ink properties are required to meet standards for
the magnetic field as shown by the patterns in magnetic composition, content, safety and toxicity. The current
particles distributed over the test surface. These magnetic standard for MPI inks is BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002.
particles are available as a liquid suspension these water-
based inks are the type used underwater. This standard states that inks must be non-toxic, free of
contaminants, not cause discomfort to users, and be non-
The particles used are fine ferrous oxides that are much corrosive to the work piece.
lighter than iron filing and therefore will go into suspension
in the water more easily and remain suspended much  The ink grains should be fine enough to reduce
longer. gravitational effects to go easily into suspension but not
be so fine as to coagulate in the liquid.
For underwater use a fluorescent powder is mixed with the
particles so that they will fluoresce under ultra-violet light.  The grains should have an elongated shape to facilitate
polarisation.
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Testing MPI Ink to

Ink Properties Continued
BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002
 The grains must have high permeability so as to be  The ink or powder must be supplied as certified
easily magnetised. manufactured to the ISO standard with a batch number
that should be recorded.
 The grains must have low retentivity to facilitate
removal after the test.  The correct quantity of powder as per manufacturers
instructions should be measured and put into a suitable
 The ink itself must have a good contrast against the mixing vessel.
test background to ensure good visibility and greater
sensitivity.  Inks are available which include wetting agents
however, it is more common to add such an agent at
 The concentration of ferrous particles, additives and this stage. The standard does not allow the addition of
fluorescent powder is specified in the standard, as is more than 10% by weight of any additives to the ink.
the method for testing the correct concentration in any
ink.
Testing MPI Ink to

Settlement Test
BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002
 Enough water is added to the mixing vessel to make it Draw off the 100ml
up into a slurry which is then put into a measuring sample into a
bucket and made up to the correct quantity with water. calibrated settling
flask. Either a
 It is becoming increasingly common to have batches of sutherland or thistle
ink supplied in slurry form all ready to mix with water to type flask is suitable.
the correct concentration.
Allow the sample to
 Once the ink is mixed it should be constantly agitated to settle for 60 minutes.
ensure the suspension is maintained and a 100ml
sample should be drawn off. Read off and record
the quantity of solids
 The sample is required to complete a settling test to that have collected in
confirm the ink has been made up to the correct the bottom of the
concentration. flask.
Settlement Test Lighting and Viewing Conditions
Fluorescent inks: The standards for adequate lighting is stated in

 Ferromagnetic particles 0.1-0.3% BS EN ISO 3059:2001. The minimum
(0.6-2.4gm l-1) by volume in the ink. requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as
 Other solids 10% by weight. stated in the standard are:
Non-fluorescent inks: Visible light inspection using non-

 Ferromagnetic particles 1.25-3.5% fluorescent inks
(6-24gm l-1) by volume in the ink. There must be a minimum of 500lux white light
 Other solids 10% by weight. in the viewing area. This light should be
provided using a diffused light source if possible.
Carrier fluid: An 80-watt fluorescent light tube gives 500Lux
 Water or paraffin. at 1m distance.
 Soluble additives no more than 10% by weight.
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Safety Considerations with

Lighting and Viewing Conditions
Ultraviolet Light
Background and ultraviolet light levels using Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health.
fluorescent inks
The electromagnetic spectrum shows ultraviolet
The background light level must be dark with ambient light covers a range of frequencies. These have
light not exceeding 20lux so that the fluorescence from
the ink particles has sufficient contrast to be easily
been split into UVA and UVB with UVA being the
seen. less harmful wavelengths.
 The ultraviolet light must be a minimum of Wavelengths between 365-400nm produce UVA
1000mW/cm2. which is why they are used for MPI testing.
 The wavelength of the light should be 365-400nm.
Safety Considerations with

Testing the Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light can be harmful to health: There are a number of reasons to test the ultraviolet lights
used for MPI:
 Mercury vapour spot light bulbs which produce light by  The intensity must be high enough to create sufficient
discharging an arc in mercury vapour contained in the bulb fluorescence in the ink to make identification of flaws
produce a large amount of ultraviolet light along with visible possible.
white light.
 The wavelength of the light must be in the correct
 This type of bulb is put into a housing and a woods filter is part of the spectrum for operator safety.
placed in front of it. The woods filter blocks the harmful
wavelengths of UV light while allowing UVA at 365-400nm to
 The mercury vapour bulbs degenerate with use and
pass through.
produce less ultraviolet light as they age. They must
be checked regularly for this reason.
 Care should still be exercised when using ultraviolet light to
avoid either looking into it directly or shining it into anyone
 The requirements stated in the standard must be met.
else’s eyes.
Ultraviolet Light Test Procedure Testing Light Output
 Switch on the lamp and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes.

 Lamps designed for underwater use must be immersed in
cooling water during this test otherwise the heat generated
will damage the seals. UV/A light aimed at the
 Shine the lamp onto a photometer (black light meter), photometer from a
holding it at the viewing distance from the meter. viewing distance of
 The viewing distance is typically 30-40cm. 400mm
 Read the meter and record the result.
 The reading must be 1000µW/cm2 or the lamp must be 1000 W/ cm2
changed.
UV sensor
 The lamp should be checked before every inspection and at
least monthly when not in constant use.
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Alternative Forms of
Cleaning Standard Electric Current Applied in MPI
 The inspection area must be cleaned to a minimum  Direct current.
SA2½.  Alternating current.
 Half wave rectified alternating current
 For a weld this must be for at least 75mm either side (HWAC).
of the weld.
 Full wave rectified alternating current (FWAC):
Single phase.
 Additionally sufficient general cleaning (SA1) must
be completed to allow intimate contact for
 Three phase full wave rectified alternating
magnetising apparatus. current.
Direct Current Alternating Current
Rectified Alternating Current MPI Test Procedure
Surface checks:
 Obtain the necessary work permits, hot work may
be required.
 Ensure that an isolating transformer is in the
circuit.
 Test all circuit breakers or residual current devices
(RCD).
 Check integrity of all electric cables.
 Confirm rigging and buoyancy is correct.
 Ensure the ultraviolet light is to BS EN ISO
3059:2001 specifications.
 Ensure the ink is to BS EN ISO 9934-2:2002
(settling test).
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MPI Test Procedure MPI Test Procedure
Surface checks: In water preparation

 Confirm the ink distribution system is functioning Establish the down lines and working lines on
correctly. the correct site.
 Calculate the required current.
 Function test all the MPI equipment. Clean the inspection site to the specifications,
 Ensure the gauss meter is functioning and ready for SA2½ for 75mm.
deployment.
 Ensure all ancillary equipment available: Tapes, Pre-inspection
grinder, hammer, punch. Establish the datum and place tape measure,
 Confirm that the personnel are qualified and briefed. mark up the weld.
 Prepare the recording equipment: CCTV, camera,
data sheets. Complete a close visual inspection (CVI) identify
areas that may cause spurious indication during
the MPI.
MPI Procedure MPI Procedure
 Rig the transformer safely as close as possible  Position the gauss meter ready to monitor
to the test site. the induced field strength.
 Switch on the ultraviolet light.  Switch on the current on the diver
 Confirm that ambient light is less than 20lux. inspector’s command, record current.
 Rig the coils, parallel loops, prods or magnet  Read out the indicated field strength on the
on the test site. gauss meter, 1T minimum.
 Demagnetise the work site.
 Confirm the ink is constantly agitated.  Apply ink as required to the weld and
complete the inspection.
 As the inspection progresses confirm
adequate field strength at each cardinal
clock position.
MPI Procedure Post Inspection
If any indications are identified re-inspect to confirm the  Demagnetise.

findings.
 With confirmed indications record:
− Location, distance from datum.  De-rig and recover all equipment to the surface.
− Length.
− Orientation and position on weld.
− Continuous or intermittent.  Wash all equipment with fresh water.
− Branching or not.
− Weak or strong indication.
− Complete remedial grinding as per the procedure.  Flush out the ink system.
 Retest after grinding.
 Mark the ends of the feature with a punch mark if
required.  Report the results to the client.
 Cancel work permits.

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Magnetic Particle Inspection

Interpretation of Indications
There are three types of indications that may result from an

MPI:
1. Relevant indications: These are produced by defects.

2. Spurious or non-relevant: Caused by sharp changes in
geometry.
 The toe of the weld.
 Brazed joints because of the difference in permeability.
 Changes in permeability caused by heat treatment.
The parent plate, the HAZ, the weld itself.
 Magnetic writing caused by two different metals rubbing
together.
3. False indications: Caused by other factors such as gravity.
Spurious or Non-relevant Indications Typical Report Sheet
Recording Indications Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a The sensitivity of MPI is primarily dependent on:
number of ways  Operator ability.
 Equipment used.
 Ultra violet photography.  Environmental conditions.
 Foil packets, trade name: Magfoil.
 CCTV. For maximum efficiency the diver inspector should be
 Rubberised tape transfer, only useful in a habitat. comfortable and as well equipped as possible for the
dive:
 Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment.
 Be confident in his ability to detect defects.
 Be sure of the value of his contribution to the
efficiency and safety of the structure he is
inspecting.
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Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The sensitivity of the MPI will depend on several

factors, some of which will be within the control of
the inspector. The sensitivity of detection depends
ultimately on the contrast that can be produced
between the defect and its surroundings which tells
the size, shape and orientation of the defect. Any Questions?
17
Section 2
Inspection Methods Available to Inspect

Underwater Structures
2 Inspection Methods Available to Inspect Underwater Structures
2.1 Visual inspection
Visual inspection is the most commonly used method of inspection. This is
because:
 It is cheap and readily available.

 Many features of engineering importance can be seen on the surface of the
material or structure.
 It generally precedes any non-destructive testing (NDT) that is to be carried
out on the component.
However, visual inspection cannot detect sub-surface features such as lack of

sidewall fusion within a weld – hence, often the requirement for NDT.
We have two approaches to conducting underwater visual inspections:
2.1.1 General visual inspection (GVI)

The aim of the GVI is to provide the client with a general impression of the
underwater state of the structure. The area inspected is often not cleaned as an
assessment of marine growth is commonly conducted as part of the GVI.
The datum for the GVI is given to the diver-inspector by the inspection
controller (by reference to the client’s procedure) and will comprise of a 12
o’clock datum for clock positioning and a reference datum for distance
positioning. The diver-inspector may then report the location of features
according to their clock position and an estimation of the distance from a
datum.
For example: At the 6 o’clock position, 3m from leg Charlie, there is an area of
impact damage. It is approximately 1m long by ½m wide and is 20mm deep.
Features that are likely to be reported during a GVI include:
 Structural features, eg welds, pad eyes, intersecting members, etc.

 Imperfections, eg impact damage, debris, tool marks, etc.
 Marine growth – type, thickness and extent.
 Paint coatings – type, condition and cover.
 Corrosion damage, etc.
DIS2-30815
Underwater Structures 2-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Figure 2.1 Diver conducting a GVI with helmet-mounted video and video
pointer.
2.1.2 Close visual inspection (CVI)

The aim of the CVI is to provide the client with an accurate report of detailed
features such as those seen on a weld. The area is cleaned prior to conducting a
CVI – the specific cleaning requirements will be detailed in the client’s
procedure, but for weld inspection these are generally; clean to a matt, bare-
metal surface finish (SA2½) the weld cap and to 75mm either side of the toes
of the weld.
Again, the datum for the CVI is given to the diver-inspector by the inspection
controller (by reference to the client’s procedure). It is often marked by three
punch-marks near the weld. The diver-inspector may then report the location of
features according to their start and stop positions on a tape laid with zero at
the datum. As such, distances are measured to the nearest millimetre (ie to +/-
½ mm accuracy).
For example: From 1330-1345mm we have porosity on the cap of the weld.
Features that are likely to be reported during a CVI include:
 Normal features, eg stop/start, other intersecting welds, etc.

 All imperfections, whether specified in the client’s CNC or not.
 Corrosion damage, etc.
DIS2-30815
Figure 2.2 A weld set for a CVI.
It is important to note that visual inspection does not generate a record of the
inspection – a separate recording technique must be employed. This could
simply be the diver’s memory or notes and sketches on a scratch-board. Most
often, videography and photography are used.
2.2 Videography
Videography is often used in conjunction with visual techniques to record their
results.
Generally, diver-inspectors may use either:
 Helmet-mounted cameras (HMTV).

 Hand-held cameras.
Offshore, IMCA guidance recommends that all divers wear HMTV cameras as a
matter of safety. Cameras may also be mounted on ROVs or have fixed
installations on the structure.
The video recording is accompanied by an oral commentary that may be

performed either by the diver-inspector or by the inspection controller. Still
images may be taken from a video stream by picture-grabbing the image.
2.3 Photography
There are two commonly used photographic techniques for underwater
inspection:
2.3.1 Close-up photography

Close-up photography is when the camera lens is within 1 metre from the
subject.
The optics of the camera can be used to magnify the subject to elicit greater
detail. Linear subjects, such as welds, will require multiple overlapping
photographs (30-50% overlap) to be taken to form what is termed a photo-
mosaic.
DIS2-30815
2.3.2 Stand-off photography
Stand-off photography is when the camera lens is more than 1 metre from the
subject.
This technique is used to capture images of large features such as flanges,

anodes, etc.
For reasons of picture quality, the maximum stand-off from the subject to the
camera lens is limited to one-third of the underwater visibility.
2.3.3 Other photographic techniques

If we combine two images within a computer programme, we may produce a
three-dimensional representation of the subject. This method is known as
Stereo-photography.
Photogrammetry is a technique for taking measurements from photographs.

This may be achieved using a Reseau plate or by stereo-photographic analysis,
photogrammetry photographs are computer analysed.
2.4 Ultrasonic techniques

Ultrasonic NDT utilises the behaviour of high-frequency sound waves. It is
particularly suitable for investigating two-dimensional (planar) features because
they have relatively flat surfaces. These surfaces will readily reflect the
ultrasonic beam and will be easily detected.
There are several ultrasonic techniques that may be used underwater:
2.4.1 Digital Thickness Meter (DTM)

The DTM is also known as the ultrasonic thickness meter (UT meter).
Figure 2.3 A Cygnus 1 Underwater Digital Thickness Meter.
DIS2-30815
The DTM filters out all minor signals and displays only the distance to the major
reflector on the digital display, making it relatively easy and quick to use. It is
commonly employed for wall thickness measurement and basic lamination
checking.
Figure 2.4 A Cygnus 1 DTM being used.
2.4.2 A-scan flaw detector

The A-scan flaw detector displays major and minor signals on a graphical
screen. Interpreting the display requires skill and can be time-consuming.
Typically used for thickness measurement, lamination checking and for

ultrasonic weld inspections. A frequency of 5MHz is commonly used (A-scan &
DTM).
Figure 2.5 The A-scan requires skilled interpretation.
DIS2-30815
2.5 Flooded member detection (FMD)
It is important to gauge whether the inside of a structural member is wet or
dry. If the member is wet, then further investigation as to the cause of the
flooding will be required.
Both diver-inspectors and ROVs can test for flooded members by using
ultrasonic FMD probes. The equipment makes use of the fact that an ultrasonic
beam is blocked by a gas – ie a dry space. A low frequency ultrasound of
0.5MHz is used.
An ROV may also be fitted with radiographic FMD equipment. This fires gamma
radiation, using Caesium 137, through the structural member and meters the
amount of radiation that passes through the enclosed space – a high reading
would indicate a dry void.
Note: Radiographic FMD is too hazardous for diver use.
2.6 Crack detection techniques

There are three crack detection techniques that can be used underwater:
2.6.1 Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)

MPI is a technique that involves magnetising the part that is to be inspected,
applying a detection ink and visually inspecting for indications that betray the
presence of surface imperfections. As such, it can only be performed on
ferromagnetic metals such as steel but not on non-ferromagnetic materials.
Also, the surface requires cleaning to a matt, bare-metal (SA2½) finish.
Underwater MPI is used to detect the presence of surface-breaking cracks but

will not give any indication of their depth.
2.6.2 Electromagnetic detection techniques

A major advantage of electromagnetic crack detection techniques is that, unlike
MPI, they do not require the removal of protective paint coatings. Also, they
can be used to detect cracks in non-ferromagnetic materials.
However, a disadvantage of electromagnetic detection techniques is that they

do not give visual indications of the locations of defects and they require skilled
operators to interpret the data.
There are two electromagnetic techniques that are used underwater:
Eddy current technique

Eddy current works by inducing a circular (eddy) current to flow in the surface
of the material. Any surface discontinuity will upset the symmetry of the eddy
current and be detected by the equipment.
Eddy current technique will detect the presence of a surface-breaking crack, but
will not give any indication of its depth.
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)

ACFM is a development of the eddy current technique but works in two
perpendicular planes. Thus, it has all the same features as eddy current
technique, but it can also indicate the depth of the cracks that it finds.
DIS2-30815
2.6.3 Radiography
Although X-ray radiation is used for topside inspections, the equipment is too
complex to use underwater - gamma radiation is employed instead. Gamma
radiation is produced by the radioactive decay of radioisotopes such as Iridium-
192.
Gamma radiography may detect planar defects within the material if the
radiation pathway is carefully aligned to the same expected orientation as the
defect. Volumetric defects are more easily detected by radiography as the user
does not need to align the radiation pathway.
As well as being an inspection technique, radiography also produces a

permanent recording – the radiograph. Measurements of the sizes of features
and defects within the material may be made from the radiograph, as can the
thickness of the material itself.
The main drawback in using radiographic inspection is that it is a potentially

hazardous technique. The costs of the equipment and safe management make
it relatively expensive.
Figure 2.6 A Radiographer unlocking the safety on the gamma source.
2.7 Taking measurements underwater

Many topside measuring tools may be used successfully underwater with little
or no modification.
2.7.1 Linear measurements

Vernier calipers may be used for measurements of typically up to 150mm. It
can measure both linear features and internal/external diameters.
DIS2-30815
Figure 2.7 A Vernier caliper used to measure weld width.
Weld gauges may be used to measure small scale linear features such as
undercut, excess weld material and fillet leg-length. They may also be used to
measure angles of up to 90 degrees.
Figure 2.8 A weld gauge.
A weld gauge is a practical and cost-effective small-scale measuring tool.
The Linear-Angular Measurement (LAM) gauge may be used to measure

many small scale linear and angular features as per the weld gauge. The LAM
gauge is superior to the weld gauge in that it may be used on a curved surface
and is particularly accurate when measuring the depths of remedial grinds.
DIS2-30815
Figure 2.9 A LAM gauge.
A LAM gauge is a more expensive precision measuring tool.
Rulers or tape-measures are simple and practical small-to-medium scale

measuring tools. Magnetic tape-measures are especially useful in underwater
close visual inspection.
For large scale linear measurements we may use an open reel tape-measure,
position referencing using underwater transponders or narrow-beam
ranging sonar that may be mounted on an ROV or hand-held by the diver-
inspector.
2.7.2 Circular measurements

Internal and external diameters may be measured using calipers and gauges.
Gauges possess a calibrated scale and are direct measurement tools. Calipers
are generally used as comparators and are an indirect measuring tool (an
exception being the Vernier calliper – Vernier referring to the type of scale
used).
2.7.3 Angular measurements

Angles may be measured using a protractor, weld gauge or LAM gauge.
Angles of large components such as mooring chains may be measured using an

inclinometer (pendulum gauge).
2.7.4 Special tools and jigs

Peculiar measurements may require the fabrication of a special tool or jig. For
example, an ovality jig is used for measuring circular distortion in structural
members.
DIS2-30815
2.7.5 Photogrammetry
Measurements may be obtained by computer analysis of photographs in a
technique termed photogrammetry. This is an especially useful method of
measuring marine growth, anode wastage, damage, etc.
2.8 Crack depth measurement

The depth of cracks may be gauged using one of three techniques:
2.8.1 Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)

ACFM can both detect the presence of a surface-breaking crack and give an
indication of its depth
2.8.2 Alternating current potential drop (ACPD)

Any conducting material will possess an electrical resistance. ACPD equates a
calibrated measurement of electrical resistance (measured in terms of a voltage
or potential drop) to the distance travelled by the electrical current.
The ACPD probe is calibrated and then placed so as to span the known crack
position. The potential drop measured by the equipment indicates the depth of
the crack. Thus, ACPD will not locate a crack in a material but it will indicate the
depth of a crack whose position is known.
Figure 2.10 ACPD probe is placed across a crack.
2.8.3 Investigation by hand grinding

The depth of a crack may be discerned by a careful sequence of shallow grinds
using a hand grinder.
2.9 Cathodic potential (CP) measurement

CP is a measurement of the electrical potential (voltage) at a certain location on
a structure. This is achieved by connecting a voltmeter between the structure
and a reference electrode (reference cell) – most commonly silver/silver
chloride. Both the voltmeter and the reference cell are built into the tool, called
a Bathycorrometer.
The CP value can imply the state of the corrosion protection being offered to the
structure.
DIS2-30815
Figure 2.11 A diver using a Bathycorrometer.
2.10 Recording shapes and surface profiles

On the microscopic-to-small scale, surface profiles may be recorded using a
casting material. These are pressed onto the surface of the material and
allowed to take up the shape of any defects present. The resulting cast is
removed and then analysed.
A carefully taken cast may be put into an electron microscope to reveal detail of
grain-sized features.
Small-to-medium scale surface features may be recorded by taking a series of

spot measurements with a Vernier caliper along an area of impact damage or
by using a profile gauge – see Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12 A profile gauge.
Used to build up a series of cross-sections and the results traced onto a dive
slate or scratch-board.
DIS2-30815
Small-to-large scale surface profiles may be recorded using stereo-
photography.
Large scale surface profiles may be recorded using a taut-wire survey. In this
technique, a wire is anchored at either end and stretched tight along eg a
damaged brace. Regular measurements are made along the wire to create a
profile of the deformation. If performed twice along perpendicular planes then a
three-dimensional representation of the deformation may be gained.
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code: Non-destructive Examination – Section
V, ASME International, Washington, D.C (2011), https://www.asme.org.
Bayliss M, Short D, Bax M, Underwater Inspection, CRC Press, 1990, ISBN 13:
9780419135401.
BS EN 13018: 2001 Non-destructive testing - Visual inspection - General

principles, https://www.bsigroup.co.uk.
Davey V S, Forli O, Raine A, Whillock R T, Non-Destructive Examination of

Underwater Welded Steel Structures, IIS/IIW Document V-1097-97, Abington
Publishing, 1999.
Porter L K, A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors, HMSO (Stationery Office

Books), 1988, ISBN 13: 9780114129118.
Standards for reference

BS EN ISO 9934-1 Non Destructive Testing - Magnetic particle testing
- Part 1: General Principle.
- Part 2: Characterisation of products.
- Part 3: Equipment.
BS EN 3059 Non Destructive Testing - Penetrant testing and
magnetic particle testing - Viewing conditions.
BS EN ISO 17638 Non-destructive testing of welds - Magnetic particle
testing.
BS EN ISO 23278 Non-destructive testing of welds - Magnetic particle
testing of welds. Acceptance levels.
BS EN 12084 Non-destructive testing - Eddy current testing -
General principles and guidelines.
BS EN 1711 Non-destructive examination of welds - Eddy current
examination of welds by complex plane analysis.
BS EN 1435 Non-destructive testing of welds - Radiographic testing
of welded joints.
BS EN 462-1 Non-destructive testing - Image quality of radiographs
- Part 1: Image quality indicators (wire type) -
Determination of image quality value.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Inspection Methods
Visual inspection is the most commonly used

method of inspection.
This is because:
• It is cheap and readily available.
CSWIP 3.1U Course • Many features of engineering importance can be seen
on the surface of the material or structure.
Inspection Methods Available • It generally precedes any non-destructive testing (NDT)
To Assess Underwater Structures that is to be carried out on the component.
However, visual inspection cannot detect sub-

surface features such as lack of sidewall fusion
within a weld – hence, often the need for NDT.
Copyright © TWI Ltd 2015 Copyright © TWI Ltd 2015
Inspection Methods Inspection Methods
We have two approaches to conducting underwater visual For example: At the 6o’clock position, 3m from leg Charlie,
inspections: there is an area of impact damage. It is approximately 1m
long by ½m wide and is 20mm deep.
1. General visual inspection (GVI)
The aim of the GVI is to provide the client with a general
Features that are likely to be reported during a GVI
impression of the underwater state of the structure. The
include:
area inspected is often not cleaned as an assessment of
marine growth is commonly conducted as part of the GVI.
• Structural features, eg welds, pad eyes, intersecting
members, etc.
The datum for the GVI is given to the diver by the
• Imperfections, eg impact damage, debris, tool marks,
inspection controller (by reference to the client’s
etc.
procedure) and will comprise of a 12 o’clock datum for
• Marine growth – type, thickness and extent.
clock positioning and a reference datum for distance
• Paint coatings – type, condition and cover.
positioning. The diver-inspector may then report the
• Corrosion damage, etc.
location of features according to their clock position and an
estimation of the distance from a datum.
2. Close Visual Inspection (CVI) • Distances are measured to the nearest mm (ie
The aim of the CVI is to provide the client with an accurate
report of detailed features such as those seen on a weld. The
to +/- ½ mm accuracy).
area is cleaned prior to conducting a CVI – the specific cleaning
requirements will be detailed in the client’s procedure, but for • For example: From 1330-1345mm we have
weld inspection these are generally; clean to SA2½ the weld porosity on the cap of the weld.
cap and 75mm either side.
Again, the datum for the CVI is given to the diver by • Features that are likely to be reported during a
the inspection controller (by reference to the client’s CVI include:
procedure). It is often marked by three punch-marks − Normal features, eg stop/start, other
near the weld. The diver may then report the intersecting welds, etc.
location of features according to their start and stop − All imperfections, whether specified in the
positions on a tape laid with zero at the datum. client’s CNC or not.
− Corrosion damage, etc.
1
28/08/2015
Video
Videography is often used in conjunction with visual techniques
to record their results.
Generally, diver-inspectors may use either:

• Helmet-mounted cameras (HMTV).
• Hand-held cameras.
Offshore, IMCA guidance recommends that all divers wear HMTV

cameras as a matter of safety. Cameras may also be mounted on
ROVs or have fixed installations on the structure.
The video recording is accompanied by an oral commentary that

may be performed either by the diver-inspector or by the
inspection controller. Still images may be taken from a video
stream by picture-grabbing the image.
A weld set for a CVI
Photography: Stand-off photography

There are two commonly used photographic Is when the camera lens is more than 1m from the
techniques for underwater inspection: subject.
This technique is used to capture images of large features

Close-up photography: such as flanges, anodes, etc.
Is when the camera lens is within 1m from the
subject. For reasons of picture quality, the maximum stand-off
from the subject to the camera lens is limited to one-third
of the underwater visibility.
The optics of the camera can be used to magnify the
subject to elicit greater detail. Linear subjects, such
as welds, will require multiple overlapping
photographs to be taken to form what is termed a
photo-mosaic.
Other photographic techniques Ultrasonic techniques

Ultrasonic NDT utilises the behaviour of high-frequency sound waves.
If we combine two images within a computer It is particularly suitable for investigating two-dimensional (planar)
program, we may produce a three-dimensional features because they have relatively flat surfaces. These surfaces will
representation of the subject. This method is readily reflect the ultrasonic beam and will be more easily detected.
known as stereo-photography. There are several ultrasonic techniques that may be used underwater:
Photogrammetry is a technique for taking Digital thickness meter (DTM)

The DTM filters out all minor signals and displays only the distance to
measurements from photographs. This may be the major reflector on the digital display, making it relatively easy and
achieved using a Reseau plate or by stereo- quick to use.
photographic analysis
The DTM is commonly employed for wall thickness measurement and
basic lamination checking.
2
28/08/2015
The A-scan flaw detector displays major and minor signals Flooded member detection (FMD)
on a graphical screen. Interpreting the display requires It is important to gauge whether the inside of a structural member is
wet or dry. If the member is wet, then further investigation as to the
skill and can be time-consuming. cause of the flooding will be required.
The A-scan is typically used for thickness measurement,
lamination checking and for ultrasonic weld inspections. A Both diver-inspectors and ROVs can test for flooded members by using
ultrasonic FMD probes. The equipment makes use of the fact that an
frequency of 5MHz is commonly used (A-scan & DTM). ultrasonic beam is blocked by a gas – ie a dry space. A low frequency
ultrasound of 0.5MHz is used.
An ROV may also be fitted with radiographic FMD equipment. This fires
gamma radiation, using caesium 137, through the structural member
and meters the amount of radiation that passes through the enclosed
space – a high reading would indicate a dry void.
Radiographic FMD is too hazardous for diver use.

The A-scan requires skilled
interpretation.
Crack detection techniques 2. Electromagnetic detection techniques

There are three crack detection techniques that can be A major advantage of electromagnetic crack detection
used underwater: techniques is that, unlike MPI, they do not require the
removal of protective paint coatings. Also, they can be
1. Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) used to detect cracks in non-ferromagnetic materials.
MPI is a technique that involves magnetising the part that
is to be inspected, applying a detection ink and visually However, a disadvantage of electromagnetic detection
inspecting for indications that betray the presence of techniques is that they do not give visual indications of the
surface imperfections. As such it can only be performed on locations of defects and they require skilled operators to
ferromagnetic metals such as steel, but not on non- interpret the data.
ferromagnetic materials. Also, the surface requires
cleaning to a matt, bare-metal (SA2½) finish.
Underwater MPI is used to detect the presence of surface-

breaking cracks but will not give any indication of their
depth.
There are two electromagnetic techniques that are used 3. Radiography

underwater: Although x-ray radiation is used for topside inspections,
the equipment is too complex to use underwater - gamma
1. Eddy current technique radiation is employed instead. Gamma radiation is
Eddy current works by inducing a circular (eddy) current to produced by the radioactive decay of radioisotopes such as
flow in the surface of the material. Any surface iridium-192.
discontinuity will upset the symmetry of the eddy current
and be detected by the equipment. Eddy current will Gamma radiography may detect planar defects within the
detect the presence of a surface-breaking crack, but will material if the radiation pathway is carefully aligned to the
not give any indication of its depth. same expected orientation as the defect. Volumetric
2. Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) defects are more easily detected by radiography as the
ACFM is a development of the eddy current technique but user does not need to align the radiation pathway.
works in two perpendicular planes. Thus, it has all the
same features as eddy current technique, but it can also
indicate the depth of the cracks that it finds.
3
28/08/2015
As well as being an inspection technique, radiography also

produces a permanent recording – the radiograph.
Measurements of the sizes of features and defects within

the material may be made from the radiograph, as can the
thickness of the material itself.
The main drawback in using radiographic inspection is that

it is a potentially hazardous technique. The costs of the
equipment and safe management make it relatively
expensive.
Taking Measurements Underwater Taking Measurements Underwater
Many topside measuring tools may be used Weld gauges may be used to measure small
successfully underwater with little or no scale linear features such as undercut, excess
modification. weld material and fillet leg-length. They may
Linear measurements also be used to measure angles of up to 90°.
Vernier calipers may be used for

measurements of typically up to
150mm. The Vernier caliper can
measure both linear features and
internal/external diameters.
The linear-angular measurement (LAM) gauge may be Rulers or tape-measures are simple and practical
used to measure many small linear and angular features small-to-medium scale measuring tools.
as per the weld gauge. The LAM gauge is superior to the
weld gauge in that it may be used on a curved surface and
Magnetic tape-measures are especially useful in
is particularly accurate when measuring the depths of underwater close visual inspection.
remedial grinds.
For large scale linear measurements we may use
an open reel tape-measure, position referencing
using underwater transponders or narrow-beam
ranging sonar that may be mounted on an ROV
or hand-held by the diver-inspector.
4
28/08/2015
Circular measurements Special tools and jigs

Internal and external diameters may be measured using Peculiar measurements may require the fabrication of a
calipers and gauges. Gauges possess a calibrated scale special tool or jig. For example, an ovality jig is used for
and are direct measurement tools. Callipers are generally measuring circular distortion in structural members.
used as comparators and are an indirect measuring tool
(an exception being the Vernier caliper – Vernier referring Photogrammetry
to the type of scale used.) Measurements may be obtained by computer analysis of
photographs in a technique termed photogrammetry. This
Angular measurements is an especially useful method of measuring marine
Angles may be measured using a protractor, weld growth, anode wastage, damage, etc.
gauge or LAM gauge.
Angles of large components such as mooring chains may

be measured using an inclinometer (pendulum gauge).
Crack depth measurement Alternating current potential drop (ACPD)

Any conducting material will possess an electrical
The depth of cracks may be gauged using resistance. ACPD equates a calibrated measurement of
one of three techniques: electrical resistance (measured in terms of a voltage or
potential drop) to the distance travelled by the electrical
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) current.
ACFM can both detect the presence of a surface-breaking
crack and give an indication of its depth. The ACPD probe is calibrated and then placed so as to
span the known crack position. The potential drop
measured by the equipment indicates the depth of the
crack. Thus, ACPD will not locate a crack in a material, but
it will indicate the depth of a crack whose position is
known.
Investigation by hand grinding

The depth of a crack may be discerned by a careful
sequence of shallow grinds using a hand grinder.
Cathodic potential (CP) measurement

Cathodic potential is a measurement of the electrical
potential (voltage) at a certain location on a structure. This
is achieved by connecting a voltmeter between the
structure and a reference electrode (reference cell) – most
commonly silver/silver chloride. Both the voltmeter and
the reference cell are built into the tool, called a
bathycorrometer.
The cathodic potential value can imply the state of the

corrosion protection being offered to the structure.
5
28/08/2015
Recording shapes and surface profiles Small-to-medium scale surface features may be recorded
On the microscopic-to-small scale, surface profiles may be by taking a series of spot measurements with a Vernier
recorded using a casting material. These are pressed onto caliper along an area of impact damage or by using a
the surface of the material and allowed to take up the profile gauge.
shape of any defects present. The resulting cast is
removed and then analysed.
A carefully taken cast may be put into an electron

microscope to reveal detail of grain-sized features.
Taking Measurements Underwater
Small-to-large scale surface profiles may be

recorded using stereo-photography.
Large scale surface profiles may be recorded

using a taut-wire survey. In this technique, a
wire is anchored at either end and stretched ANY
tight along eg a damaged brace.
QUESTIONS?
Regular measurements are made along the wire
to create a profile of the deformation. If
performed twice along perpendicular planes then
a three-dimensional representation of the
deformation may be gained.
6
Section 3
Corrosion
3 Corrosion
3.1 Energy considerations in corrosion
With time most materials react with their environment to change their
structure. The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics)
degradation and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction

between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
1 Removal of the metal.

2 Formation of an oxide.
3 Formation of another chemical compound.
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
First Law of Thermodynamics states:
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
As a direct consequence of this law, when spontaneous changes occur they

must follow a rule, which is:
 It must release free energy from the system to the surrounding at constant
temperature and pressure.
Which is a way of stating the Second Law of Thermodynamics:
 When corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a

spontaneous process.
Take the case of a metal, such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
found in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication.
The process whereby the metal is extracted requires either the smelting of the
ore (iron) or an electrolysis process (aluminium). The final metal produced is,
therefore, at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was extracted ie
energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce
their energy level to a minimum. That is why water runs downhill, thus reducing
its potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce
their energy and, therefore, obey the rule imposed by the second law. So free
energy is released.
DIS2-30815
Corrosion 3-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
various types) is such an important material in building and industry the
corrosion of iron has a special term, rust.
Figure 3.1 Changes in energy levels of a typical metal extracted from ore.
3.2 The corrosion process

Knowing there is a driving force for the process, it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place. Firstly, a reminder of the basic
structure of the atom will assist in the understanding of the topic. In its
simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus surrounded by negatively charged
electrons. Figure 3.1 shows a simplified diagram of the structure of an atom
that is adequate for the purposes of this discussion.
Figure 3.2 Simple structure of an atom.
DIS2-30815
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom, so composed, has a
negative charge of electrons equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds
each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer
zero. This condition of the atom is called ionic.
So, if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which means that
the atom now has a positive charge. If the atom gains an electron it becomes a
negative ion and now has a negative charge.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state
from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is
having a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer
shell. The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom
losing one or more (usually no more than three) electrons to become an ion.
3.2.1 The anodic reaction

The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state to its ionic
state is known as the anodic reaction. It is part of an overall reaction involving
the metal and other species present in the environment. This process is also
called oxidation.
Figure 3.3 The anodic reaction.
The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons, as shown in Figure 3.4
which represents a freely rusting iron surface immersed in seawater (the
electrolyte).
DIS2-30815
Figure 3.4 Anodic sites on surface of iron exposed to seawater.
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in
the presence of an electrolyte; that is often water or a water-based solution of
ionic compounds, such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal, that is not actually being
corroded, that is; an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 3.4.
3.2.2 The cathodic reaction

These free electrons, formed in the anodic reaction, must be used up if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion
process, therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons are
neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively, reactions such
as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions.
Figure 3.5 Cathodic reaction.
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Typically, a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by
positive ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a
negative charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons because
for its electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence shell, yet
occurs naturally with only six.
Figure 3.6 Cathodic reaction (reduction) into the electrolyte.
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where negative
ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte where they
combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of this reaction is
known as the cathode.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the
composition of the electrolyte. Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when
the electrolyte is acidic. Oxygen reduction is also very common, since any
aqueous solution in contact with air is capable of producing this reaction. It is,
of course, the reaction encountered in seawater. Metal ion reduction is less
common and is normally found in chemical process streams. The common
denominator with all these reactions is that they consume electrons and this is
the most important point to note.
3.2.3 Electrochemical aspects of corrosion

A fundamental definition for corrosion is:
 Corrosion is the degradation of a metal by an electrochemical reaction with

its environment.
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For corrosion to take place four criteria must apply:
1 There must be an anode; this normally corrodes by loss of electrons.

2 There must be a cathode, this does not normally corrode.
3 There must be an electrolyte, this is the name given to a solution that
conducts electricity. Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while seawater
is.
4 There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the cathode
for the free electrons to travel along.
These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 3.7 below and all
electrochemical corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this.
Figure 3.7 Corrosion circuit.
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on

already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3.3 Electric theory

Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given

electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and is
given the symbol I.
DIS2-30815
 In the MKS (metre, kilogramme, second) system, one ampere is defined as
that constant current which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long
straight parallel wires of negligible cross-section; placed 1m apart, in a
vacuum, will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per
metre length.
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference between
two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
 In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical potential

between two points of a wire carrying a constant current of 1 ampere when
the power dissipation between those points is 1 watt.
The flow of an electric charge is impeded by a quantity called resistance and

between any two points there is always some resistance to the passage of the
current. The unit of resistance is the ohm which has the symbol Ω.
 The MKS system defines the unit of electrical resistance as being the
resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant potential
difference of 1V, applied between these points, produces in the conductor a
current of 1A.
During the majority of this section all discussion and illustrations will be in
terms of electron or ion flow and, as far as possible, positive and negative
notations will be avoided so as to avoid confusion, which often occurs when
corrosion is studied. This confusion arises because of an historical accident that
resulted in producing what is now called conventional current.
Electron flow is exactly opposite to conventional current, this is what causes the
confusion as studies in corrosion so often involve discussion on electron or ion
flow. To avoid such problems for the rest of this discussion on corrosion only
electron flow will be considered. Figure 3.8 illustrates the two types of flow.
Conventional Flow Electron Flow
Battery
Anode
A Cathode
+ ‐
Anode Cathode
+ A ‐
Figure 3.8 Conventional and electron flow.
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
Books), 1988, ISBN 13: 9780114129118.
Trethewey K R, Chamberlain J, Corrosion for Students of Science and

Engineering, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1988,
ISBN 13: 9780582450899.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Energy Considerations in Corrosion
With time most materials will react with their environment

to change their structure. In metals this is called corrosion,
in polymers (plastics) degradation and in concrete
weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electro-

CSWIP 3.2U Course chemical reaction between a metal and its environment
which leads to one of three consequences:
Corrosion
1. The removal of the metal.
2. The formation of an oxide.
3. The formation of another chemical compound.
This change in the metal will be expected if the

thermodynamics (energy state) of the system is
considered.
Energy Considerations in Corrosion The Corrosion Circuit
The first law of thermodynamics states: For example consider the case of iron, it is found in nature
as an ore which when analysed is found to be a chemical
 Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other
elements. It is necessary to extract the metal itself from
Therefore when spontaneous changes occur they must follow a the other compounds before it can be used in fabrication.
rule:
The process whereby the metal is extracted requires the
 Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free smelting of the ore. The final metal produced is now at a
energy from the system to the surrounding at constant higher energy level than the ore from which it was
temperature and pressure. extracted. Energy is added to the system.
Which is a way of stating the second law of thermodynamics: A fundamental law of energy is that all systems try to
reduce their energy level to a minimum. Metals do this and
 When corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is therefore obey the rule imposed by the second law. Hence
a spontaneous process. free energy is released.
The Corrosion Circuit The Corrosion Process
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy Knowing there is a driving force for the process makes it
causing corrosion is chemical energy that is utilised necessary to consider the mechanism by which corrosion
to form lower energy chemical compounds, like the can take place.
metal oxide which resembles the original ore.
An atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.
The overall charge on the

atom is zero, as an atom
has a negative charge of
electrons equal to the
positive charge of the
nucleus.
RUS
T
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The Corrosion Process The Corrosion Process
However electrons can be added or taken from The first step in the corrosion process is that
the group that surrounds each atom. When this metal atoms change their state from being
happens the overall charge on the atom is no metallic, no charge on the atom, to being ionic,
longer zero. This condition of the atom is termed having a charge on the atom, by losing at least
ionic. one electron from the outer shell.
So if the atom loses an electron it becomes a The process of corrosion then goes on at the
positive ion and now has a positive charge. This atomic level, each atom losing one or more,
may be referred to as a cation. usually no more than three, electrons to become
an ion.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a
negative ion and now has a negative charge.
This may be referred to as an anion.
The Anodic Reaction The Anodic Reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons,
state to its ionic state is known as the anodic reaction. It is
part of an overall reaction involving the metal and other
shown in this diagram, which represents a freely rusting
species present in the environment. This process is also called iron surface immersed in seawater.
oxidation.
The site at which this takes place is the anode
The Cathodic Reaction The Cathodic Reaction
The free electrons formed in the anode reaction must be Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be
used up if the reaction is to proceed. This part of the taken up by positive ions and atoms of oxygen in the
reaction takes place at the site where the free electrons electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative charge.
are neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Oxygen however readily accepts these free electrons
because for its electron stability it needs eight electrons in
its outer valence shell yet occurs naturally with only six.
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its

surface where negative ions form and subsequently emit
free electrons into the electrolyte where they combine with
elements creating different compounds.
The site of this reaction is known as the cathode.
Reactions that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions
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The Cathodic Reaction Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion

Corrosion is the degradation of a metal by an
electrochemical reaction with its environment.
For corrosion to take place four criterion must apply:
1. There must be an anode.

2. There must be a cathode.
3. There must be an electrolyte.
4. There must be an electrical connection between the cathode
and the anode.
Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion
These four elements are shown here and all

electro-chemical corrosion takes place by setting
up cells like this.
Any Questions?
3
Section 4
Types of Corrosion
4 Types of Corrosion
4.1 Corrosion cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Section 3, can be set up
by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
 Dissimilar metals.
 Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal.
 Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the
metal.
 Dissimilar ion concentrations.
 Dissimilar oxygen concentrations.
4.2 Dissimilar metal corrosion cell (galvanic corrosion)

It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte)
a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in water
and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a voltage
and current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 3.8
Section 3 refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and
which the anode by reference to Galvanic Series. The rule is that metals found
lower in the series are anodic to any metal above them. For example, zinc is
lower in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc is connected to mild steel
and immersed in seawater, zinc will be the anode and corrode and mild steel
will be the cathode and not corrode.
If, on the other hand, mild steel, in the form of a ship’s hull is connected to
manganese bronze, the ship’s propeller, the mild steel now becomes the anode
and corrodes and the propeller is the cathode, which does not corrode.
DIS2-30815
Types of Corrosion 4-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Table 4.1 Galvanic Series in seawater.
Gold
Silver
18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless steel (passive)
Monel
Nickel (passive)
Copper
Red brass
Aluminium bronze
Admiralty brass
Yellow brass
Nickel (active)
Manganese bronze
Lead
18-8 Stainless steel (active)
50-50 Lead-tin solder
Cast iron
Wrought iron
Mild steel
Cadmium
Alcad
Aluminium 52Sh
Galvanised iron
Zinc
Magnesium alloys
Magnesium
4.3 Concentration cell corrosion

Corrosion of this type is associated with crevices in the order of 20-100μm wide
(1 micrometre, μm = 1000 nanometres, nm), and commonly involves chloride
ions in the electrolyte.
The stages in the process are:
Corrosion will at first occur over the entire surface of the exposed metal at a
slow rate, both inside and outside the crevice. During this period of time the
electrolyte may be assumed to have a uniform composition and normal anodic
and cathodic processes take place. Under these conditions positive metal ions
and negative hydroxyl ions are produced, so as to maintain equilibrium within
the electrolyte.
This process consumes the dissolved oxygen, which results in the diffusion of
more oxygen from the atmosphere at any surface where the electrolyte is in
contact with air. In turn then, the oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte is
replaced more easily at metal surfaces rather than in any small crevices. This
creates a low oxygen situation within the crevice, that in turn impedes the
cathodic process and the production of hydroxyl ions is therefore reduced.
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This results in excess positive ions accumulating in the crevice, which causes
negative ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte outside in order to
maintain minimum potential energy overall. The metal ions, water molecules
and chloride all react in complicated chemical reactions forming complex ions,
which it is thought, react with water in an hydrolysis reaction, resulting in
corrosion products.
The increase of hydrogen ion concentration accelerates the metal dissolution

process, which, in turn, makes the problem worse, as does the accompanying
increase of chloride concentration within the crevice. An important feature of
active crevice corrosion cells is that they are autocatalytic, that is once started
and they are self-sustaining. It is worth underlining the fact that the electrolyte
in an active crevice can become very acidic. This is the situation shown in
Figure 4.1. The metal inside the crevice is corroding rapidly while that outside is
cathodically protected.
Figure 4.1 Crevice corrosion.
4.4 Pitting
Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface,
once formed corrosion pits propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion.
Consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of clean mild
steel.
 The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the steel under
the water. This consumes oxygen by the normal cathode reaction in what is
a neutral solution at this stage.
 This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is obvious
that the wetted area around the water/air interface has more oxygen
diffusion from the air than the centre of the drop.
 This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region, which
dissolves.
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 The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the cathode diffuse
inwards and react with iron ions diffusing outwards, causing the deposition
of insoluble corrosion product around the depression, or pit.
 This further retards the diffusion of oxygen, accelerates the anodic process
in the centre of the drop and causes the reaction to be autocatalytic.
Long Path Air
Short Path Oxygen Diffusion Short Path

Water
Oxygen Depletion Layer
General corrosion with many local anodes and cathodes
Air
Water
Short Path
OH‐ OH‐
Fe2+ Fe2+
Rust Rust
Cathode Cathode
e‐ Anode e‐
Figure 4.2 Pitting beneath a water drop.
As the process continues, the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab and isolating the environment within
the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the autocatalytic process is
assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions within the pit. This type
of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a structure, if it were not
protected with a coating such as paint or Monel sheathing.
4.5 Intergranular corrosion

Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries in a material
because of intrusions in these regions. This is, primarily, because grain
boundaries are the preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation
processes, which occur in many alloys.
These intrusions are of two types:
Intermetallic (intermediate constituents)

 Compounds that are formed from metal atoms and having identifiable
chemical formulae can be either anodic or cathodic to the parent metal.
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Compounds
 These are formed between metals and non-metallic elements, such as;
hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen.
 Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are both important
constituents of steel, are both cathodic to ferrite (iron).
In principle, any metal that has inter-metallics or compounds at grain

boundaries will be susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Plain carbon steel is a
two phase metal and some grains are cathodic, while others are anodic and
intergranular corrosion initiates, as indicated in Figure 4.3
Figure 4.3 Corrosion in two phase metal.
4.6 Grain boundary corrosion

The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy
found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the
anodic sites, while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode. This
situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves, in the form of a line.
Figure 4.4 Grain boundary corrosion.
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Weld decay, or preferential corrosion, is an example of this type of decay. In
this case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe of the
weld and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the anode and
corrosion sets in, often giving quite significant visual indications of its presence.
Figure 4.5 Weld decay or preferential corrosion.
4.7 Stress corrosion cracking

SCC is the combined action of stress and a corrosive environment which leads
to the formation of a crack, which would not have developed by the action of
the stress or environment alone. The conditions necessary for SCC to occur are:
 Tensile stress.
 Suitable environment.
 Sensitive metal.
 Appropriate temperature and pH range.
Some examples of alloy system and environment combinations which cause

SCC are given in Table 4.2. Depending on the alloy system and corrodent
combination, the cracking can be intergranular or transgranular. SCC cracks
have the appearance of a brittle mechanical fracture, which is readily observed
in a scanning electron microscope, Figure 4.6.
Table 4.2 Combinations of alloy and environment susceptible to SCC.

Material Environment
Brass Ammonia
Austenitic Stainless Steels Chloride-containing solutions
High Strength Steels Hydrogen
A common feature of SCC that repeatedly occurs is the unexpectedness of its

manifestation. Often, a material that has been chosen for its corrosion
resistance is found to fail at a stress level well below its normal fracture stress.
DIS2-30815
Figure 4.6 Example of SCC.
Problems with pipes and tubes are common because of the hoop residual
stresses that are the result of the fabrication process. Stress-relieving heat
treatments are a vital part of the quality control for these components because
of this.
4.8 Corrosion fatigue

There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking, but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is under
dynamic stress, whereas SCC is under static stress.
Fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels well below the UTS.
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metal’s fatigue resistance

is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack yields:
 Firstly the formation of slip bands.

 Next very small cracks form in the order of 10nm long.
 Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths.
 Finally, macroscopic, 0.1-1mm crack propagation; in a direction at right
angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure.
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three states indicated by the Pourbaix
diagram, see Section 5 Figure 5.1. It can also occur at stress levels much lower
than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is also true that, while SCC
growth rates are independent of the stress intensity factor during much of the
crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always effected by it.
It is thought that the use of CP systems that place the metal in the immune
state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form, tend to inhibit crack
growth, ensuring that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
4.9 Erosion corrosion

This is a self-explanatory name for a form of deterioration that results from a
metal being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and
a metal surface, which accelerates the rate of corrosion. Examples of this type
of corrosion are attributable to mechanical effects, such as, wear, abrasion and
scouring.
DIS2-30815
Soft metals, such as copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
1 Corrosion associated with laminar (fluid) flow.

2 Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions.
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
 Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions, such as chloride and
sulphide, this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase.
 If the flow contains any solid particles, protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion.
 The alternative to this is that it is sometimes possible in pipes for the
deposit of silt to be prevented, thus preventing the formation of any
differential-aeration cells in the crevices beneath.
 A possible beneficial effect is that more oxygen is carried to the area, which
minimises the formation of differential-aeration cells that are normally a
common cause of attack.
 Another possible beneficial effect is where a steady supply of inhibitor is
concentrated within the flow, as in a pipeline for example.
These combined circumstances make the effects of laminar flow unpredictable.
Taking the case of turbulent flow, however, the situation is much more
straightforward. The fluid molecules now impinge directly on the metal causing
wear. This obviously increases the corrosion rate.
This effect can easily occur inside a pipe because turbulence can be caused by
sudden changes in bore diameter, or direction (ie pipe bends), a badly fitted
joint or gasket, circumferential welds or silt deposits.
Figure 4.7 Effects of flow in pipes.
DIS2-30815
4.10 Fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion describes corrosion occurring at contact areas between
materials under load; subjected to vibration and slip. In appearance, it shows
pits and grooves in the metal surrounded by corrosion products.
It has been observed in a number of different components in machinery and in

bolted parts. In essence this is a form of erosion corrosion.
Fretting corrosion is very detrimental due to the destruction of metallic

components and the production of oxide debris. This leads to loss of tolerance
and may result in fatigue fracture due to the excessive strain caused by the
extra movement and the pits acting as stress raisers. A classic case on land of
fretting occurs at bolted tie plates on railway tracks.
The basic requirements for the occurrence of fretting corrosion are:
 The interface must be under load.

 Vibration or repeated relative motion between the interfaces must be
sufficient to produce slip or deformation on the surfaces.
 The load and relative motion of the interface must be sufficient to produce
slip or deformation on the surfaces.
This type of corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of
risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath
them.
Figure 4.8 Possible fretting corrosion between riser and riser clamp.
DIS2-30815
4.11 Biological corrosion
Biological corrosion is also referred to as microbiologically-induced corrosion
(MIC), emphasising the effect of living organisms (referred to as bacteria).
Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) is one of many types of bacteria, which can

be found in drilling and pumping machinery, storage tanks, pipelines for water
injection, oil recovery and multiple production. SRB metabolise sulphates and
produce sulphuric acids or H2S, thus introducing hydrogen sulphide into the
system, resulting in pitting or sulphite stress corrosion cracking (SSCC).
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways:
 The production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or ammonia,

which result in direct chemical attack on the metal.
 Producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action.
 The reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) under anaerobic (no
oxygen present) conditions.
- The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio
desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions created
under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick deposits of
corrosion products, or under mud.
- There are indications that, because oxygen is unable to diffuse through
the heavy marine growth, the effect of this organism is to take the place
of oxygen in the usual cathodic reaction.
 By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms.
 Fretting corrosion may also occur due to the continued movement of hard
shelled creatures on the structure’s surface.
4.12 Other factors affecting corrosion rates

The corrosion rate is predictable within certain parameters and corrosion
engineers work this out when designing a protection system. There are
however, environmental factors that affect the overall corrosion reaction.
Specifically these are:
 Temperature.
 Water flow rate.
 The pH of the water.
4.12.1 Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. Hot
risers, exhaust and cooling-water dumps are all sites that can and do corrode
more quickly than other sections of offshore structures. Therefore, these
components being more susceptible must be inspected more regularly.
4.12.2 Water flow rate

In general, if the water flow is increased then the rate at which the metal is
removed is also increased. If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or
aeration takes place near the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal
removal is experienced locally. The pitting of ship’s propellers and pump and
dredger impellers are general examples of this.
DIS2-30815
4.12.3 The pH value of the water
The corrosion rate of metals is directly affected by the pH value of the
electrolyte. Steel, for example, corrodes least when in a solution that has a pH
of between 11 and 12.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with one
atom of oxygen (H2O). There is a limited amount of dissociation (separation of
positive and negative charged ions in solution) into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl
ions.
Water represents a neutral substance as it contains both acid H+ and alkali OH-
in equal amounts. This can be noted in the form of an equilibrium:
H2O H+ + OH-
The relationship between these elements forms the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property: that is the presence in aqueous solution
of the hydrogen ion, whereas, alkali has hydroxyl ions.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are neutralised by
alkalis.
The method of defining acidity is by means of a term called pH, which indicates
the amount of hydrogen activity. It is measured on a scale of 0-14.
Figure 4.9 The pH scale.
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
9780419135401.

ISBN 13: 9780582450899.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Types of Corrosion
Corrosion cells using the process outlined in

section 3, can be set up by many different
means but they all operate because there is
some dissimilarity between the anode and the
cathode:
CSWIP 3.2U Course
Types of Corrosion  Dissimilar metals.
 Dissimilar phases in the metal grains.
 Dissimilar energy levels.
 Dissimilar ion concentrations.
 Dissimilar oxygen concentrations.
Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Galvanic Series
 Dissimilar metal corrosion cell: Galvanic

corrosion
 When two dissimilar metals are placed in an
electrolyte a potential difference (voltage) exists
between them and one will be an anode the
other a cathode.
 It is possible to determine which of the two
metals will be the anode and which the cathode
by reference to the electrochemical force series.
 Similar tables are produced for metals under
actual conditions and these are called the
galvanic series.
Concentration Cell or Crevice Concentration Cell or Crevice

Corrosion Corrosion
This type of corrosion is associated with crevices in the order This creates a low oxygen situation within the crevice which
of 20-100μm (mircometre) wide and commonly involves impedes the cathodic process, reducing hydroxyl ion
chloride ions in the electrolyte. production.
Excess positive ions accumulate in the crevice which causes
Initially corrosion occurs uniformly over the surface of the
negative ions to diffuse there from the bulk of the electrolyte.
exposed metal producing positive metal ions and negative
hydroxyl ions. This is an attempt to maintain minimum potential energy
overall.
This process consumes the dissolved oxygen.
The metal ions, water molecules and chloride all react in
This results in the diffusion of more oxygen from the complicated chemical reactions forming complex ions.
atmosphere wherever the electrolyte is in contact with the air. These, it is thought react with the water in an electrolysis
reaction resulting in corrosive products.
The oxygen in the bulk of the electrolyte will be replaced more
easily than that trapped in the crevice.
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Concentration Cell or Crevice Concentration Cell or Crevice

Corrosion Corrosion
The increase of hydrogen ion concentration
accelerates the metal dissolution process.
Likewise there is an increase in chloride
concentration within the crevice.
This initiates an autocatalytic process which
means once started it is self-sustaining.
The electrolyte in an active crevice becomes very
acidic, due to the increase in hydrogen possibly
as a result of the electrolysis.
Initial conditions Final conditions
The metal within the crevice will corrode while General corrosion Corrosion is accelerated in crevice
that outside will be catholically protected. Concentration cell or crevice corrosion
Pitting Corrosion Pitting Corrosion
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on Now consider the case of a water drop laying on
the surface of a sheet of clean mild steel: the surface of a sheet of clean mild steel:
 In this process the water (electrolyte) under the  As with crevice corrosion, hydroxyl ions are
water drop initiates uniform corrosion consuming generated in the centre of the water drop.
oxygen.  A depression and then a pit will form under the
 Outside the water drop oxygen is readily available water drop.
and replaces that used by the corrosion process.  Once again the process is self-sustaining once
 This imbalance of relative oxygen diffusion causes initiated.
the centre of the water drop to become anodic  This type of corrosion is most likely in the splash
while the outside is cathodic. zone on unprotected steel.
Pitting Corrosion Inter-Granular Corrosion
This type of corrosion is similar to general or

uniform corrosion but in this case there are
larger amounts of anodic or cathodic material in
one place than expected.
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Grain Boundary Corrosion Grain Boundary Corrosion
This is due to the higher energy regions of the grain Weld decay or preferential corrosion
boundaries becoming anodic. Weld decay is an

example of this type of corrosion.
Grain boundaries
Cathode
Anode
Preferential corrosion along the weld toe

Electron flow away from the active grain boundaries
Stress Corrosion Fretting Corrosion
Stress corrosion is a form of inter-granular This occurs at contact areas between materials
corrosion seen on structural members carrying under load subjected to vibration and slip.
high tensile loads. The rate of corrosion is much
faster compared to any similar member carrying There must be:
lighter loads.
 An interface under load.
 Vibration or cyclic motion sufficient to produce slip or
deformation on the surfaces.
Stress Stress  Load must be sufficient to produce slip or deformation
Grains
Load Load to the surfaces.
Most likely to be seen adjacent to clamps.
Fretting Corrosion Fretting Corrosion
Two theories for fretting corrosion Fretting corrosion occurs where surfaces that
Wear-oxidation are in contact, move slightly. This may occur
Wear-oxidation is based on the concept that cold welding between risers and clamps.
or fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces
under pressure and during the subsequent relative motion,
these contact points are ruptured and fragments of metal
are removed.
Oxidation-wear
Oxidation-wear is based on hypothesis that metal surfaces
are protected by a thin, adherent oxide layer. When
metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to
repeated relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at
high points and results in oxide debris. It is assumed that
the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is repeated.
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Erosion Corrosion Turbulent Flow
Erosion corrosion has two main forms: Turbulent flow is comparable with fretting
1. Corrosion caused by laminar flow. corrosion but the movement is provided by fluid.
2. Damage caused by impingement in turbulent
conditions.
Laminar flow will cause several effects:

 Ionic distribution in the double layer is disturbed
preventing equilibrium being established which leads to
increased dissolution.
 Aggressive ions such as chloride and sulphide are
replenished.
 Helps prevent differential-aeration cells forming.
 A steady supply of inhibitor is concentrated within the
flow.
Turbulent Flow Corrosion Fatigue
As previously mentioned fatigue affects all metals causing

failure at stress levels well below the UTS.
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states

indicated by the pourbaix diagram, it can also occur at stress
levels much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking
(SCC). It is also true that while SCC growth rates are
Avoiding erosion independent of the stress intensity factor, fatigue crack growth
corrosion by design is always affected by it.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that

place the metal in the immune state tend to inhibit crack
growth ensuring structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
Biological Corrosion
Corrosion by marine biological action can be

initiated in various ways.
 Production of corrosive substances like hydrogen

sulphide or ammonia which result in direct chemical
attack on the metal.
 Producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive Any Questions?
action.
 Reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under
anaerobic conditions.
 Formation of concentration cells around and under the
organisms.
4
Section 5
Corrosion Protection
5 Corrosion Protection
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings,
inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and
CP. Before considering these methods, a brief examination of the way in which
the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables; the electrode
potential and the pH of the electrolyte, will assist in understanding the
various protection methods.
This data is often presented in a diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix

diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under
controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
14
pH
Figure 5.1 Pourbaix diagram for iron in water.
It can be seen from the Pourbaix diagram, that there are three distinct possible
states of corrosion depending on electrode potentials (measured against a
standard hydrogen reference electrode) and pH values:
1 Corrosion: At intermediate electrode potentials and over a wide range of

pH values corrosion takes place and metal is removed.
2 Passivity: At higher electrode potentials and over a wide range of pH
values, there is a passivity region. This is the region in which a corrosion
product film is formed, that in most cases is an oxide film. It is worth
indicating that the diagram only indicates an oxide film is formed: it does
not mean that the oxide film gives protection. The properties of the film
must be known in order to determine this.
3 Immunity: At low electrode potentials and over almost the whole of the pH
range, the rate of corrosion is so low that the metal is said to be immune.
DIS2-30815
Corrosion Protection 5-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
5.1 Cathodic protection
The three stages indicated in the Pourbaix diagram show it is possible to
determine basic strategies for preventing corrosion.
 Making the electrode potential more positive will produce passivation at

point C.
 Making the electrode potential more negative will produce immunity at
point B.
 Making the electrolyte more basic will produce passivation at point D.
Altering the electrode potential to produce passivation or immunity by the

methods of CP is the most useful technique for offshore structures.
In designing a CP system, the designer starts by determining an acceptable

corrosion rate and this information is inputted to a graph to determine a value
for current density. This level of current density will ensure the required
corrosion rate to be achieved.
The electrode potential to achieve this current is approximately -800mV. It may

seem that potentials more negative than -800mV (against Ag/AgCl) would
produce even less metal loss. There are two reasons why it is not prudent to
use very much more negative potentials:
1 At potentials much more negative than –1100mV, the possibility of

hydrogen evolution exists and this can cause hydrogen embrittlement.
2 Large currents are associated with more negative potentials that produce
high local concentrations of hydroxyl ions that often damage barrier coating,
such as paint if it is present.
These two points are more likely to occur with an ICCP system but are still quite
valid, making the choice of between -800 to -1100mV a valid design parameter
in all cases for offshore platforms.
5.1.1 Sacrificial anode method

With this method of corrosion prevention, the entire structure is made into the
cathode in a massive corrosion cell. The structure will therefore not corrode but
at the expense of the anode, which is sacrificed providing the electron flow and
gives the process its name.
DIS2-30815
Figure 5.2 Sacrificial anode system.
The anode must be selected from the appropriate Galvanic Series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium. Aluminium is often
selected for uncoated structures because of its higher current output and zinc
for coated ones (BP North Sea). Magnesium would provide the highest current
but may not last long enough to provide adequate protection for the design
lifetime of the structure. In practice, a balance between the level of protection
and the length of time the structure will need protecting will be needed. It
should be mentioned that the anodes will not be pure zinc or aluminium but
these will be their main constituent.
The anode material used should be zinc or aluminium, as magnesium would

react too quickly.
Advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems
Table 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode systems.

No external electric power required
Current output decreases with time
and therefore no danger to divers
Adds considerable weight and drag to
No danger of overprotection
the structure
No running costs Initial costs are comparatively high
Active from day of immersion Comparatively difficult to increase
A well proven and reliable method protection by retro-fitting anodes
DIS2-30815
5.2 Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) system
An impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) system works on the same
principle as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the
cathode. However, in the case of the ICCP system, the necessary potential and
current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference

electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary
depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating that in
subsequent service becomes damaged, this will increase the exposed surface
area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing
the current density. If, on the other hand, there was a reduction in the surface
area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less
surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases, the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the
potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 5.3 shows
the system.
The anode material is selected from the top of the Galvanic Series, not the
bottom. Materials such as titanium, platinised niobium and lead/silver alloys
are used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to
prevent any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Potentiostat
Reference
Eelectrode
Figure 5.3 Impressed current system.
DIS2-30815
5.2.1 Practical considerations for installing ICCP systems
Anodes made from the materials previously mentioned, are capable of
supplying high current densities and it would be possible to protect a structure
with a few large anodes supplied with a high current. However, in practice,
anodes are usually distributed at regular intervals over the whole structure. This
is because:
 The high current density that would be present in the immediate vicinity of
a single large anode could damage paint surfaces and possibly cause
embrittlement. The use of more, smaller anodes reduces the current density
for each one and reduces the probability of this type of damage.
 Offshore structures have a reasonably complicated geometry that makes it
difficult for corrosion engineers to predict the total distribution potentials.
Therefore, it is prudent to use more anodes, each one protecting a smaller
area, thus minimising the areas at risk of inadequate protection.
 When designing the system if the corrosion engineers have any doubts
about protecting any particular area of the structure, sacrificial anodes may
be installed to work in conjunction with the ICCP system.
The ICCP system installed on the Claymore platform was designed to provide
160mA/m2 (milli-amps per square metre), using 55 platinum-iridium anodes
and 12 reference electrodes. Also the Murchison platform uses 100 anodes and
50 reference electrodes. In general, in the North Sea, the most common anode
materials are platinum-sheathed titanium and lead/silver alloys.
It is vitally important that the power supply is connected with correct polarity.
The negative terminal must be connected to the structure and the positive
terminal must be connected to the anode (conventional electrical circuit
notation). Should these connections be reversed, the structure would corrode
catastrophically.
The ICCP anodes can be distributed in either of the following ways:
 Platform based.
 Remote from the structure.
Platform based
In this method numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals
around it; in a similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are
insulated from the structure.
Two problems are associated with this method. One is the possibility of
shadow areas where inadequate protection is provided. This problem can be
solved by the use of sacrificial anodes supplementing the ICCP system as
indicated earlier.
The second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from the anode
to the adjacent structure. This could cause embrittlement, as discussed earlier,
but to avoid this dielectric shields are used to insulate the structure
electrically. Also, the current is limited by design, because each anode is
positioned to provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits the
possibility of embrittlement and coating damage.
DIS2-30815
Figure 5.4 Dielectric shield.
There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are at about 80V
potential with some 1000A current. If divers are used adjacent to any of the
anodes, they should be isolated from the system. Normally, only the anodes in
the immediate work area are switched off.
Remote from the structure

A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated distance
from the structure. This method avoids the possibility of current flowing directly
from the anode to the adjacent structure but, because there are fewer anodes
the current density is higher and therefore, the possibility of coating damage
and embrittlement still exists.
Design considerations generally favour more anodes distributed around the

structure.
There is a safety issue with divers but, as the anodes are some distance away
from the structure, it may be possible to ensure safety by imposing an
exclusion zone around the anode (Figure 5.5).
DIS2-30815
Figure 5.5 An ICCP system with anodes remote from the structure.
Table 5.2 The advantages and disadvantages of an ICCP system.
The output is variable to react to Only works when switched on.

changing current density
requirements No power means no protection
Anodes are smaller so there is less There are ongoing running costs
weight loading
A high current density could lead to
overprotection, which could cause
hydrogen embrittlement and coating
damage
Can be remotely monitored Requires continuous monitoring
Fewer required A safety zone is required around any

areas where diving is undertaken
Possibility of shadow areas occurring
Can increase certain types of marine

growth - still under research
Reference or control electrodes

These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or
saturated calomel electrode (SCE) or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is
favoured on reinforced concrete structures.
DIS2-30815
Reference electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They determine
the current required from the power source. Without them, the system cannot
provide a quantifiable degree of protection (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6 Zinc reference electrode installed on an offshore structure.
5.3 Using coatings to protect the structure

Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings,
enamels or sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be when
consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be in
the order of 25-100 microns thickness only for some applications.
Paint
Is applied to a metal surface where it presents a barrier to air, moisture and
ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete barrier
to oxygen or water. In time, these will penetrate through to the surface of the
metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond onto the
metal surface and therefore, high quality metal surface preparation is required,
such as SA3.
The bonding between successive coats must also be strong and the topcoats
must provide as impervious a barrier to the electrolyte as is possible. This last
is achieved by ensuring the constituents making up the topcoats have very low
water absorption and transmission coefficients.
Coal tar epoxides

Are used extensively on offshore structures. They consist of coal tar and
epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings are highly impermeable to water
and resistant to attack by most chemicals and hydroxyl ions (that are produced
by the cathodic reaction).
DIS2-30815
Zinc coatings
Utilising a combination of zinc dust and complex silicates with a solvent-based
self-curing binder, give good protection to steel surfaces. These coatings are
frequently over-painted by another system and are used on components such
as ladders in a marine environment.
Concrete
Is used to provide a protective coating to pipelines where it provides a passive
environment for the steel pipe as well as adding weight.
Metallic coatings
Such as galvanising, using zinc, impose a continuous barrier between the metal
surface being protected and the surrounding environment. These coatings may
be applied in a number of ways.
Electroplating
Uses a bath of salts as an electrolyte. The component and rods of the plating
metal are immersed in the electrolyte and a potential is applied between the
component and the rods. The component becomes the cathode and the rods the
anode, so metal ions of the plating material deposit from the solution onto the
component.
Hot dipping
Involves the component being immersed in a bath of molten coating metal.
Galvanising is accomplished by this method (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 Zinc coating (galvanising).
Spray coats
Use a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating metal that are
melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed in the form of
droplets travelling at 100-150ms-1 that flatten and adhere on impact with the
component.
DIS2-30815
Cladding
Uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can be applied by:
 Rolling.
 Explosive welding.
 Buttering (building up a welded coat on the surface to be protected).
 Sheathing.
Diffusion
Requires the component to be heated to just below the melting point of the
coating metal, in the presence of the coating in powder form and in an inert
atmosphere. The component is allowed to baste for several hours and the
coating diffuses into the surface of the component.
Monel cladding
Is used on some offshore risers; it is cupronickel alloy sheathing.
Figure 5.8 Monel cladding on an offshore riser.
5.4 Inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte)

Remember, the Pourbaix diagram (Figure 5.1) indicates three methods for
preventing corrosion:
 Making the electrode more positive.

 Making the electrode more negative.
 Changing the electrolyte pH.
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte. The properties of
the electrolyte that can be affected by using inhibitors are:
 The conductivity of the electrolyte.

 The pH of the electrolyte.
 The interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, attacking or
strengthening passive films.
As an example of how this can be achieved, consider steel in seawater. If

distilled water is substituted for the seawater the conductivity and pH of the
electrolyte is reduced and a passive film will form on the surface of the steel.
DIS2-30815
5.4.1 Corrosion protection by design
The methods used to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised
thus:
 Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells, avoiding galvanic or

dissimilar metal corrosion.
 Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate drainage,
etc.).
 Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors. These can be
quite powerful and make parts of the structure anodic with obvious results.
 Choose the material with the best properties for the environment.
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
9780419135401.

ISBN 13: 9780582450899.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Corrosion Protection
How do we slow down corrosion?
The main way this is done are by using:
CSWIP 3.2U Course  Sacrificial anodes.

 Impressed current cathodic protection.
Corrosion Protection  Paints and coatings.
 Inhibitors.
 A little thought on the part of the designers and
engineers.
Corrosion Protection Pourbaix Diagram
There are numerous methods for preventing Altering the electrical

corrosion. potential to produce
passivation or immunity
by the methods of anodic
To understand the various protection methods or CP is the most useful
an examination of the way in which the technique for offshore
corrosion process is influenced by the two main structures.
variables will assist: If the electrode, the
-640mV structure, potential is
 The electrode potential. made more negative by
 The pH value of the environment. the application of free
14
pH
electrons then the
structure will become
immune to corrosion.
Corrosion Protection Sacrificial Anodes
In designing a CP system the system designer starts by

determining an acceptable corrosion rate, this information is
put into a graph to determine a value for current density.
This level of current density will ensure the required
corrosion rate is achieved.
The electric potential to achieve this current is approximately
-850mV. It may seem that potentials more negative than -
850mV (against Ag/AgCl) would produce even less metal
loss. There are two reasons why it is not prudent to use very
much more negative potentials.
 At potentials much more negative than -1000mV the
possibility of hydrogen embrittlement exists.
 Large currents are associated with more negative
potentials that produce high local concentrations of
hydroxyl ions that often damage paint coatings.
1
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Sacrificial Anodes Sacrificial Anodes
This method of CP is fairly straightforward. We Advantages and disadvantages of sacrificial anode

are creating a massive galvanic corrosion cell in system
our favour by attaching less noble materials to Advantages Disadvantages
the structure thereby making it the cathode. No external electric power
Current output decreases with
required and therefore no
time
The materials most commonly used for anodes danger to divers
are: Adds considerable weight and
No danger of overprotection
drag to the structure
 Aluminium: Uncoated structures. No running costs
Initial costs are comparatively
 Zinc: Coated structures. high
 Magnesium: Rarer because they may not last Active from day of immersion Comparatively difficult to
long enough for the design life of the A well proven and reliable increase protection by retro-
fitting anodes
structure. method
Impressed Current Cathodic

Sacrificial Anodes
Protection
An impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP)
system works on the same principal as the
sacrificial anode system in that the structure is
made to be the cathode.
However, in the case of the ICCP system the

necessary potential and current flow is provided
by a DC generator rather than by galvanic
coupling.
Impressed Current Cathodic Impressed Current Cathodic

Protection Protection
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by
incorporating reference electrodes into the
circuit that measure the potential.
The potential can vary depending on the

circumstances, if the structure has a coating that
in service became damaged, this would increase
the exposed surface area needing to be
protected.
2
28/08/2015

ICCP Practical Considerations
Protection
The control unit can deal with this by increasing Anode material
the current density. If there was a reduction in With the sacrificial system the anodes were
the surface area, as for instance a calcareous being eaten away, in the case of the ICCP
deposit build-up, there would be less current system the surface area is very important and
required. so the anode must not corrode, so the anode
material is selected from the top of the
In both case the reference electrode provides galvanic series not the bottom.
the means of monitoring the potential which
varies proportionately according to the current.  Titanium.
 Platinised niobium.
 Lead/silver alloys.
ICCP Practical Considerations ICCP Practical Considerations
High current density: Insulation:
Anodes made from the materials previously  The anodes and the supply cables must be
mentioned are capable of supplying high current insulated from the structure to prevent high
densities and it would be possible to protect a density current flowing directly to the
structure with a few large anodes supplied with a structure.
high current. However, in practice anodes are
usually distributed at regular intervals over the  The high current density that would be present
whole structure. in the immediate vicinity of a single anode
could damage paint surfaces and possibly
cause embrittlement.
ICCP Practical Considerations ICCP Practical Considerations
Structure geometry Polarity.

Offshore structures have a reasonably  It is vitally important that the power supply is
complicated geometry that makes it difficult for connected with the correct polarity.
corrosion engineers to predict the total
distribution potentials.
Therefore it is prudent to use more anodes, each  The negative terminal must be connected to
one protecting a smaller area, thus minimising the structure and the positive terminal must
the areas at risk of inadequate protection. be connected to the anode.
When designing the system, should the
corrosion engineers have any doubts about  Should these connections be reversed the
protecting any particular area of the structure, structure would corrode catastrophically.
sacrificial anodes may be installed to work in
conjunction with the ICCP system.
3
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Platform Based ICCP Platform Based ICCP
Platform based have two problems associated with

this method.
1. The possibility of areas of inadequate protection

known as shadow areas. This can be solved by
the use of sacrificial anodes supplementing the
ICCP system as previously mentioned.
Platform Based ICCP Platform Based ICCP
2. Current flowing directly from the anode to the

adjacent structure. This could cause
embrittlement and coating damage but to
avoid this dielectric shields are employed to
insulate the structure electrically.
Current is limited by design, each anode being

positioned to provide protection for the local
area only. This limits the possibility of coating
damage and embrittlement.

Platform Based ICCP
Protection
There is a diver safety consideration in that
these anodes have an output of between:
30–80 volts DC and 300–1000 amps.
If divers are deployed adjacent to any of these

anodes they should be isolated from the system.
There is no need to switch off the whole system.
4
28/08/2015
System Remote from the Structure System Remote from the Structure
Remote from the structure a number of anodes

may be placed on the seabed at a designated
distance from the structure.
This method avoids the possibility of current Referenc

flowing directly from anode to structure but e
Electrode
there being fewer anodes, the current density is
higher and therefore there is still a possibility of
coating damage and embrittlement.
Therefore design considerations generally favour

more anodes distributed around the structure.

System Remote from the Structure
Protection
A diver safety
issue exists but
as the anodes
are some
distance away
from the
structure it is
possible to
ensure safety
by imposing an
exclusion zone
around the
anode.
Reference Electrodes Protection Using Coatings
Reference electrodes are commonly: Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the
surface of the protected structure. They may be paints,
organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or enamels and
 Zinc. even sheathing.
 Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl). Paint applied to a metal surface presents a barrier to air,
 Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). moisture and ions aggressive to the metal.
 Coal tar epoxides are used extensively. They consist
of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These
These are vital components of
coatings are highly impermeable to water and
any ICCP system. resistant to attack by most chemicals and hydroxyl
They determine the current ions, produced by the cathodic reaction.
 Zinc coatings utilising a combination of zinc dust and
required from the power source. complex silicates with a solvent-based self-curing
Without these the system can not provide a binder give good protection to steel surfaces and are
quantifiable degree of protection. often over-painted.
5
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Protection Using Coatings Protection Using Coatings
Metallic coatings such as galvanising using zinc, impose a

continuous barrier between the metal surface being
protected and the environment. Monel
sheathing
These coatings can be applied in a number of ways:
 Electroplating.
 Hot dipping.
 Hot metal spraying.
 Diffusion.
 Cladding.
One form of cladding is known as sheathing and some

offshore risers are sheathed with monel (cupronickel
alloy).
Inhibitors: Controlling the Electrolyte Summary
The pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for The methods employed to protect structures
preventing corrosion: from corrosion can be summarised thus:
1. Making the electrode more positive. Avoid:
2. Making the electrode more negative.  All unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells: Avoiding
3. Changing the electrolyte pH. galvanic or dissimilar metal corrosion.
 Differential-aeration cells: Crevices, debris traps,
Properties of the electrolyte that can be affected by
inadequate drainage.
using inhibitors are:  Stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors.
These can be quite powerful and make parts of the
 The conductivity of the electrolyte.
structure anodic with obvious results.
 The pH of the electrolyte.
 The interaction of the electrolyte with the metal surface, Choose:
attacking or strengthening passive films.  The material with the best properties for the
environment.
Any Questions?
6
Section 6
Corrosion Protection Monitoring

6 Corrosion Protection Monitoring
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore, a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure the corrosion protection
system is operating to its design specifications and that there are no in-service
effects interfering with it.
Monitoring commonly used topside include such methods as weight loss

coupons and electrical resistance (ER) probes, while visual inspection, CP
surveys, ultrasonic thickness surveys, ROV inspection and intelligence pigging
are widely used subsea. Chemical analyses and solid particle detection of
samples collected from the pipeline at the topsides; will provide corrosion
information to assess both topsides and subsea pipelines.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current

system required for protection varies:
 From metal to metal.

 With the geometry of the structure.
 With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value).
 With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit.
Since the amount of current required for the protection of any structure cannot
be accurately predicted or distributed evenly throughout the structure, the
method of checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and
current density around the structure at various places.
6.1 Inspection requirements

Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are
therefore, as follows:
 Visual inspections of both sacrificial and impressed current anodes for

depletion.
 Visual inspection of the electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see
that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there are
no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables or anode connections.
 Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the
cathode by confirming that the readings obtained are within the protection
parameters. (-800 to -1100mV generally).
 Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current
system is providing adequate protection.
 Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting and
loss of wall thickness.
DIS2-30815
Corrosion Protection Monitoring 6-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
The potential measurements usually referred to as cathode potential (CP)
readings are obtained by:
 Taking contact readings with a CP meter:

- By hand, employing a diver with a hand-held instrument.
- By mounting a contact probe on an ROV.
 Taking proximity readings with a proximity probe mounted on an ROV.
 Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted permanent sensors
with readout in a surface control room.
Current density measurements and monitoring are obtained by:
 Taking current density readings normally with an ROV mounted sensor and
usually for a specific requirement. This method is not used for regular
inspections.
 Monitoring potential and current through remotely mounted electrodes
incorporated into the impressed current system.
6.1.1 Cathode potential measurements

The cathode potential is measured by using a reference electrode incorporated
into an instrument that has a readout calibrated in mV. As stated in the
previous sections these electrodes are commonly:
 High purity zinc.

 Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl).
 Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE) (this is more favoured for concrete
structures).
6.1.2 High purity zinc electrodes (ZRE)

High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is most commonly used with remotely mounted
monitoring systems as shown in Section 5. The site for mounting the electrode
is selected because it is a representative site, an area of marginal protection or
an area of high stress and it is installed as part of the impressed current
system. The electrode is connected to a voltmeter in the surface control room.
Figure 6.1 High purity zinc electrode (ZRE).
DIS2-30815
6.1.3 CP readings using silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes
The most common reference electrode used in offshore corrosion monitoring is
silver/silver-chloride. This electrode is used extensively for both contact and
proximity applications, whether diver or ROV deployed.
Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as half-cells (because they form

a complete cell when the meter is connected to the cathode) are utilised in
several contact CP probes, including the Bathycorrometer and the Morgan
Berkeley Rustreader, the former being by far the most common world-wide.
They are deployed as either hand held or ROV mounted probes. ROVs are more
commonly used for proximity measurements.
Figure 6.2 Diver held contact CP meter (Bathycorrometer or similar).
The probe contact tip is placed on the cathode and the meter gives the readout
in mV of the electrical potential between it and the half-cell.
Figure 6.3 Contact CP reading taken by an ROV.
DIS2-30815
The proximity method is normally used by ROV’s. When taking proximity CP
readings it is vital that a good electrical connection is made between the
structure and the positive terminal of the surface control room installed meter,
a maximum of 100mm is maintained between the probe and the structure, as
shown in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.4 Proximity CP measurement.
6.1.4 Current density measurements

Current density may be measured using a specialised probe mounted on an
ROV. This type of inspection would be undertaken for a specific purpose, such
as investigating a particular area of the structure that was suspected of being
under-protected or following up a visual inspection that had identified more
corrosion than was anticipated. Specific procedures will be provided for this
type of survey.
As stated earlier, impressed current systems have reference electrodes installed

to monitor current flow and potential. Figure 6.1 shows a ZRE monitoring
potential and Figure 6.5 illustrates a monitored anode.
A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is isolated electrically from the

structure and is connected via an insulated cable to the surface control room.
Thus the current can be constantly monitored.
DIS2-30815
Figure 6.5 A monitored anode.
6.2 Calibration procedures for hand-held CP meters

It is necessary to check the calibration of CP meters to ensure that the readings
obtained are accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A
standard method of checking calibration has been adopted in the offshore
industry. This procedure is detailed here.
6.2.1 Necessary equipment

Three K-series electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screw-on
K-series cells for hand-held CP meters, these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors, which
should be specified.
The electric connector is provided so that the cells can be proven as described
below.
 High impedance (10MΩ) voltmeter.

 Zinc block (99.9% pure) with clamp and electrical connector.
 Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which could
contain inhibitors).
 Log sheets.
6.2.2 Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the K-series cells are chemically
saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells.
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for
use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the
K-series. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell;
however, it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with
solution. They are sealed and to confirm they are saturated it is necessary to
unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to the solution reservoir.
 Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of
solution. The solution is potassium chloride (KCl) and if the solution is
saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial.
Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic.
 Label the electrodes and their wires 1, 2 and 3.
 Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse
each one only as far as the filling hole in the phial.
DIS2-30815
 While the electrodes continue to soak, connect electrode 1 to the negative
terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal and record
the reading.
 Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes.
1 and 3.
2 and 3.
 Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 ± 2mV.
Figure 6.6 Proving K-series reference cells.
If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used.
 If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one to
use.
 If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used.
 If all of the readings are out of range either replace all the K-series cells or
flush out the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a new saturated
solution of potassium chloride, refill the phials and re-test.
On completion of the entire procedure rinse the electrodes in fresh water.
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
6.2.3 Calibration of the meter

The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the same, whether
it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
Calibration of a Bathycorrometer
The calibration checking procedure is slightly different if the meter being
calibrated is a Bathycorrometer with the specifically designed screw-on cells. In
this case the following procedure applies.
As the electronic components in the Bathycorrometer can affect calibration it is

necessary to use a BCM checker (supplied separately by the manufacturer) to
check there are no electrical faults in the unit before continuing with this
procedure. Separate instructions are supplied with this equipment so will not be
detailed here.
DIS2-30815
Once satisfied that the electrical components are functioning correctly:
 Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater (not drawn
from the fire main).
 Remove the contact probe tip and white Delrin probe cone from the meter.
 Screw the K-series reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer in place of
the Delrin probe and probe cone tip.
 Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge the semi-
permeable membrane. Gently shake the unit to remove any air bubbles
lodged in the holes. (The meter display may be left out of the water to
assist taking readings.)
 Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes).
 The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the meter’s own
Ag/AgCl cell is read off the meter display directly.
 Record the reading on the log.
Acceptable readings are between +42mV +/-5. It should be noted that values
will vary dependent upon salinity and temperature of the seawater, see Figure
6.7.
1 2 3
Soak for 30 minutes

Fully charge CP meter Unscrew tip from meter
In fresh seawater
4 5 6
+42mV +/- 5mV
Screw in K-Series electrode Immerse meter for 10 minutes Record reading in log
Figure 6.7 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer.
Note: If the reference electrode used are Calomel Cells (as opposed to K-series)
then the expected readings will be 0 to -10mV.
The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is by comparison. The

procedure is outlined below.
DIS2-30815
Overall calibration of any CP meter
 Select the proven K-series electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes
into a plastic bucket on deck.
 Take a zinc block, attach a clamp and electric wire and place the block into
the same bucket.
 Connect the K-series electrode to the negative terminal of a high resistance
voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode.
 Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its
electric connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector).
 Take a reading from the voltmeter. Acceptable readings are between -1.0V
±5mV (ie -950 to -1050mV). Record the reading on the log.
 Remove the zinc block and disconnect it from the clamp.
 Soak the CP meter assembly in a bucket of fresh seawater for 30 minutes.
 Place the zinc block into the same bucket as the CP meter and make
submerged contact between the probe tip and the zinc.
 Take a reading from the CP meter. This reading should be the same as that
recorded from the K-series ±10mV (ie -940 to -1060mV). This proves the
CP meter by comparison.
 Record the reading on the log.
Figure 6.8 Calibration of an ROV deployed contact meter.
DIS2-30815
Calibration of Ag/AgCl proximity probes
Before initiating this procedure, ensure the insulation on the conductors for the
proximity cell is intact. This may be achieved by using an insulation test meter.
The cable must be properly insulated to avoid any possibility of the copper
conductor being exposed to seawater and affecting the readings.
 Select a proven K-series cell and immerse the tip in a bucket of fresh
seawater for 30 minutes.
 Immerse the Ag/AgCl proximity probe in the same bucket for the same
time.
 Connect the negative terminal of the high resistance voltmeter to the
Ag/AgCl half-cell.
 Connect the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the K-series electrode.
 Take the reading. Acceptable readings are 42mV ± 5mV.
 Remove the K-series electrode and immerse the zinc block (only) positioned
100mm from the Ag/AgCl half-cell. The zinc block is connected to the
positive terminal of the meter system via the clamp and electrical
connection.
 Take the reading. Acceptable readings are -1000-1050mV.
Figure 6.9 Calibration of an Ag/AgCl proximity probe.
Note: If the reference electrode used is a Calomel Cell, then the reading in
stage 3 above will be 0 to -10mV.
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6.3 Operating procedures
To ensure that accuracy is maintained and that repeatable results are obtained,
CP monitoring methods follow the procedure below.
 Ensure self-contained meters are fully charged and keep a charging log.
(Usual requirement for charging batteries is 15 hours from fully discharged.
This will give approximately 60 hours of continuous use).
 Ensure the probe tip for contact meters is sharp (hand-held meters are
usually supplied with spare tips).
 Soak meters and half-cells for a minimum of 30 minutes before use. (This
allows time for ion penetration through the semi-permeable membranes).
 Confirm the calibration of the system in use according to the appropriate
calibration procedure. Record the results on the appropriate log sheet.
 Record meter serial number and any other specified details on the
appropriate log sheet.
 Take a reference reading on zinc at the inspection site prior to starting the
survey.
 For each contact reading, ensure there is correct metal-to-metal contact
between the probe tip and the cathode surface.
 With proximity probe surveys, ensure there is a solid electrical connection to
the structure from the positive terminal of the surface instrument.
 For proximity probe readings, ensure the standoff between the probe and
the cathode is correct, no more than 100mm away.
 During the course of the survey, ensure that each reading is correctly
recorded on the appropriate log.
 On completion of the survey take another reference reading on zinc.
 Recover the equipment, wash in fresh water, dry and store. Charge any
battery-operated equipment as necessary and complete the battery-
charging log.
Note:
 Morgan-Berkley meters can be left soaking in a solution of silver chloride,
on trickle charge continuously if required.
 If a large number of readings are being taken it is prudent to take check
readings periodically during the survey.
6.3.1 Normal CP readings against Ag/AgCl

Following are the normal range of readings expected during a survey of a steel
structure.
Table 6.1 Expected CP readings.

Material CP Reading
Over-protected structure More negative than -1100mV
Zinc -1000mV to -1050mV
Protected steel -800mV to -1100mV
Under protected steel -640mV to -800mV
Unprotected steel -450mV to -640mV
Monel -50mV to -150mV
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
9780419135401.

ISBN 13: 9780582450899.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Monitoring Corrosion Protection
A monitoring regime is necessary to ensure the

corrosion protection system is operating to its
design specifications and that there are no in-
service effects interfering with it.
CSWIP 3.2U Course The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or

from an impressed current system required for
Corrosion Protection Monitoring protection varies:
 From metal to metal.
 With the geometry of the structure.
 With differences in sea water environment
(temperature, pH value).
 With any other factors that affect the resistance of the
circuit.
Monitoring Corrosion Protection Inspection Requirements
Since the amount of current required for the Monitoring or inspection requirements for
protection of any structure cannot be accurately corrosion protection systems are as follows:
predicted, the method of checking is to measure
the potential and current density around the  Visual inspection of anodes for wear.
structure at various places.  Visual inspection of electrical connections.
 Potential measurements to ensure the structure is still
the cathode.
 Current density measurements.
 Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage.
Inspection Requirements Cathode Potential Measurement
CP readings are obtained by: The cathode potential is measured by using a reference
electrode incorporated into an instrument that has a
 A diver taking contact readings with a hand-held CP readout calibrated in mV (1 Volt = 1000mV).
meter or by mounting a contact probe on an ROV.
 Taking proximity readings with an ROV probe. These electrodes are commonly:
 Monitoring proximity readings via remotely mounted
permanent sensors with a readout in a surface control  High purity zinc.
room.  Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl).
 Copper/copper-sulphate (CSE).
Current density measurements and monitoring are
obtained by: This is more favoured for concrete structures.
 Taking current density readings with an ROV mounted

sensor.
 Monitoring remotely mounted electrodes incorporated
into the impressed current system.
1
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CP Readings Utilising Ag/AgCl

Remote Monitoring
Electrodes
 High purity zinc electrode (ZRE). The most common reference electrode used
 The electrode is connected to a offshore is Silver/silver chloride. This electrode is
voltmeter in the surface control used extensively for both contact and proximity
room.
applications whether diver or ROV deployed.
 It may be installed as part of the
impressed current system. Ag/AgCl electrodes, most frequently referred to as
 High purity zinc (99.9% pure) is half-cells because they form a cell when the meter
most commonly used. is connected to the cathode are utilised in several
 The site for mounting the contact CP probes, including the bathycorrometer,
electrode is selected because it is that are hand held or ROV mounted probes.
either a representative site, an
area of marginal protection or an The probe tip is placed on the cathode metal to
area of high stress. metal and the meter gives the readout in mV of
the electrical potential between it and the half-cell.
Bathycorrometer Diver CP Survey
ROV Contact Meter Diver CP Survey
-0.850
Cables incorporated into

vehicle umbilical and
connected to a voltmeter in
the control room
2
28/08/2015
Proximity CP Probe Current Density Measurements
Similar to reference electrodes

but can be used to monitor
the efficiency of any CP
Monitored anode systems for example sacrificial
anodes.
A monitored anode is a
sacrificial anode that is
isolated electrically from the
structure and is connected to
an ammeter in the surface
control room.
When taking proximity CP readings it is vital that a sound Current density may also be
electrical connection is made between the structure and the measured using a specialised
positive terminal of the surface control room installed meter. probe mounted on an ROV.
Calibration of Hand-held CP Meters Necessary Equipment
It is necessary to confirm calibration of CP  Three k-series electrodes complete with

meters to ensure that the readings obtained are electrical connectors.
accurate and comparable with other and  High impedance (10MW) voltmeter.
previous readings.  Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and
electrical connector.
A standard method has been adopted in the
offshore industry for this purpose.  Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater:
Not from fire main which could contain
The first part of the procedure proves that the k- inhibitors.
series cells are chemically saturated and  Log sheets.
sufficiently stable enough to be used as
reference cells.
Proving K-Series Cells Proving K-Series Reference Cells
 Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are

undamaged and full of solution. The solution is
potassium chloride (KCl) and if the solution is saturated
or supersaturated, solid crystals may be seen in the
phial.
 Label the electrodes 1, 2 and 3.
 Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being
careful to immerse each one only as far as the filling
hole in the phial.
 While the electrodes continue to soak, connect electrode
1 to the negative terminal of the voltmeter and Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is +/- 2mV
electrode, 2 to the positive terminal and record the
reading.
 Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes.
3
28/08/2015
Proving K-Series Reference Cells Calibration of a Bathycorrometer
If all readings are:

 Within this range any electrode may be used.
 Out of this range, either replace all the k-series cells or
flush out the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a
new saturated solution of potassium chloride, refill the
phials and re-test.
If one reading is:
 Out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the
one to use.
 In range either of the electrodes in that pair may be
used.
On completion of the procedure rinse the electrodes in
fresh water.
Calibration of an ROV Calibration of Ag/AgCl Proximity

Deployed Contact Meter Probes
1 2 3
+42mV
+/-5mV
Soak proven electrode Immerse AG/AGCl in same Connect positive to electrode

for 30 minutes bucket for same time and negative to half cell
4 5
-1000mV
to
-1050mV
100mm
Remove electrode and Connect positive to electrode

immerse zinc block and negative to half cell
Operating Procedures: Prior to

Operating Procedures: During Use
Deployment
 Ensure meters are fully charged.  Take a reference reading on zinc prior to the survey.
 Maintain a battery-charging log.  Ensure correct metal-to-metal contact between the probe
 Ensure the probe tip is sharp. tip and the cathode surface.
 Soak for a minimum of 30 minutes before use.  With proximity probe surveys ensure there is a solid
electrical connection to the structure connected to the
 Confirm the calibration of the system. positive terminal of the surface instrument.
 Record the results on the appropriate log  For proximity probe readings ensure the standoff between
sheet. the probe and the cathode is correct.
 Record meter serial number on the  Ensure that each reading is correctly recorded in the
appropriate log sheet. appropriate log.
 On completion of the survey take a reference reading on
zinc.
4
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Operating Procedures: After Use Normal CP Readings Against Ag/AgCl
Recover the equipment:

Material CP Reading
Over-protected
 Wash in fresh water. More negative than -1100mV
structure
 Dry and store.
Zinc -1000mV to -1050mV
 Charge any battery-operated equipment as necessary.
 Complete the battery-charging log. Protected steel -800mV to -1100mV
Under protected steel -640mV to -800mV
Note: If a large number of readings are being Unprotected steel -450mV to -640mV
taken it is prudent to take check readings Monel -50mV to -150mV
periodically during the survey. Magnesium (H1 alloy) -1400mV to -1600mV
Any Questions?
5
Section 7
Welding and Welding Defects

7 Welding and Welding Defects
7.1 Joining metal components
In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components, there are four
ways in which they can be formed into shape: machining - when the material is
cut away; casting - where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
forging - where the material is worked into shape and fabricating - where the
component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components inspected underwater are almost all formed by fabrication.

This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting

or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together
by metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition
from the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make
a bond (a stronger version of soldering) or by adhesive bonding, where parts
are glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is
welding.
7.2 Fabricating offshore structures

Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore, as has been indicated
previously. In fabricating the structures, the designers choose to use welding as
the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is extremely
difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all faults and,
because of this, welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not about to
fail.
The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place is of great
assistance when inspecting welded joints because; all techniques have certain
faults that are common to that technique. It is, therefore, important to have
some knowledge of the main types of welding.
7.3 Welding processes

Currently, there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven major
groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics and
therefore, similar effects on the parent metals.
The seven groups are:
1 Solid phase welding.

2 Thermo-chemical welding.
3 Radiant energy welding.
4 Electric-resistance welding.
5 Unshielded arc welding.
6 Flux-shielded arc welding.
7 Gas-shielded arc welding.
From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection, the
following welding processes are the most widely used, either in the construction
of the structure itself or in the manufacture of the major components.
DIS2-30815
Welding and Welding Defects 7-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
7.3.1 Flux-shielded arc welding
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is formed
between a consumable electrode and the work; the heat thus formed melts and
fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is
used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual metal arc (MMA) welding

The most widely used technique. Heat to melt the work piece is supplied by an
electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and melts down forming small
drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the flux forms molten slag that
protects the weld, together with protective gases formed at the same time.
Figure 7.1 Manual metal arc (MMA) welding.
7.3.2 Metal inert gas or metal active gas welding (MIG/MAG)

A semi-automatic process, the welding electrode, that is also the weld filler
metal, is in the form of a continuous wire fed from a reel. This is usually
mounted on the main welding unit, but for industrial applications may form part
of the hand gun assembly.
The gun assembly itself consists of a gas shroud through which the shield gas,
either active or inert, is fed to protect the molten weld pool; an electrical pick-
up, through which the electrode wire is fed and at the same time energised,
and a trigger, which when operated, controls the gas and wire feed.
DIS2-30815
Figure 7.2 MIG/MAG welding.
Gases used for MIG/MAG welding will vary, typically they are:
 100% CO2.
 Argon/CO2 mixes.
7.3.3 Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding

Developed in the United States during WW2 and using a non-consumable
tungsten electrode, mounted inside a gas shroud in a similar way to the
MIG/MAG gun. In this method the electrode forms no part of the weld itself, but
is there to provide the arc. A filler rod of a suitable metal is used and there are
both manual and automatic versions of this equipment.
It produces particularly high quality welds, not only in steel, but is also used for
joining aluminium and other alloys. It is a slow process and requires a high
standard of operator skill. Root welds in high quality, high pressure pipe-work
are often carried out using this system.
DIS2-30815
Figure 7.3 Tungsten inert gas welding.
Like MIG/MAG, TIG can also be used with different shielding gases:
Argon
For stainless steel, high carbon steel, aluminium, and magnesium.
Helium/argon mixes
For carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium, copper and magnesium.
Variations
Include adding nitrogen to helium/argon mixes for welding copper and adding
hydrogen to helium/argon mixes for welding austenitic stainless steels.
7.3.4 Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Probably the second most common welding type seen offshore, often used in
the manufacture of steel components that are used in the fabrication of offshore
platforms, rather than the welded joints (ie nodal welds) themselves.
Developed in the Soviet Union during WW2, this is a fully automatic welding
system. It is particularly useful for welding thick steel sections and used
extensively where long continuous weld runs are to be made. The following
photograph and drawing best illustrate the equipment and process.
DIS2-30815
Figure 7.4 Submerged arc welding (SAW).
The flux is in the form of powder or granules continually fed over the work area,
and the electric arc is formed underneath so is totally submerged, giving the
process its name. Because of this, personnel do not need eye protection as the
arc is not visible.
The process uses amperages in the range of 100-2000amps, giving very high
current density to the electrode wire, which produces the deep penetration and
weld dilution needed for thick section steel.
Figure 7.5 Submerged arc welding: Tandem arc with two wires.
DIS2-30815
7.4 Types of welded joint
There are approximately 110 different welded joint variations; the majority of
which are not seen in the construction of offshore structures. So it is necessary
to have knowledge of only five types of joint.
7.4.1 The butt joint (not to be confused with a butt weld!)

The two components that make up this joint are fitted together end to end at
an angle of between 135-180o. This joint is used to join pipe sections end to
end, welding plates together and numerous other applications.
Figure 7.6 Butt joint.
7.4.2 T joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5-90o. This configuration
is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other areas.
Figure 7.7 T joint.
7.4.3 Lap joint

Two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them is
0-5o.
Figure 7.8 Lap joint.
DIS2-30815
7.4.4 Corner joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30-135o.
Figure 7.9 Corner joint.
7.4.5 Cruciform joint

A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same
axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross.
Parent plate
Parent plate1 1
Parent plate
Parent plate 22
Parent plate 3
Figure 7.10 Cruciform joint.
DIS2-30815
7.5 Types of weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt weld and the fillet weld.
A butt weld is defined as:
A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is

contained within the planes or thickness of the joined parent metals.
A fillet weld is defined as:
The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld.
a Single V butt.
b Fillet welded butt joint.
Figure 7.11 Types of weld.
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high
stresses, the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected
offshore. All nodes, including safety critical nodes on the structure, will be
constructed using butt welds.
7.6 Welding metallurgy

The welding processes outlined in paragraph 7.3, and the types of joint and
types of weld specified in paragraphs 7.4 and 7.5, are all designed for the
purpose of fixing components together safely for the entire design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved, the mechanism by
which welding takes place must be understood.
DIS2-30815
The prime factor in welding is temperature. The various welding processes,
types of weld and types of joint are all designed so that the heat generated
during the welding process can be dissipated uniformly as the molten metal
cools after the weld metal is deposited.
Figure 7.12 Temperature variations in a butt weld.
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the
melting point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the
welder determine this temperature.
The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be along the parent plate.
Between points 1 and 2, the temperature must raise above the parent metal
melting temperature so that fusion (ie melting the parent plate and mixing with
the weld pool metal), occurs.
This region (between points 1 and 2), is known as the fusion zone and can be
readily seen if a sample of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched.
The temperature then reduces from point 2-3, which is a region of the parent
metal that has sufficient heat input to cause grain structure modification, known
as the heat affected zone (HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called annealing) is to heat
it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is copper pipes for
domestic water systems that are softened in this way in order to bend them to
required shapes.
To achieve this softening effect a material has to be heated above its re-
crystallisation temperature (Trecry). Above this temperature, grains in the
material will reform and grow.
DIS2-30815
Figure 7.12 shows the temperature is reached at point 3, so that the material
between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the re-crystallisation
temperature will be liable to a change of properties. This region can also be
seen on a polished and etched sample of the weld.
The temperature continues to fall between points 3 and 4, which is ambient

temperature. Figure 7.12 only shows what is happening along the line AA but
this happens throughout the section. This leads to the different regions of the
weld, as shown in Figure 7.13 and is a graphic indication of the way
temperature gradients have to be managed in any weld.
Fusion zones
Figure 7.13 Weld regions or zones.
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat

energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to
as quenching), make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as Martensite. Martensitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (ie less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note: If the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench, it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
7.6.1 Further considerations for weld control

While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld, there are several other factors that must also be
considered.
Defects, such as porosity, often arise in welds due to gas penetrating the weld
pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the weld are hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the atmosphere, water,
hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and other oxides present in
the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in preparation, not ensuring
that the weld area is clean and dry.
These products get into the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be
dissolved in the liquid metal of the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the
dissolved gas in metal reduces and the gas comes out of solution to form
bubbles trapped in the weld metal; or sometimes, the gas diffuses into the
parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the HAZ will cause hydrogen
embrittlement, which may lead to cracking.
DIS2-30815
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential
expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in
the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless a stress relieving
procedure is specified. This state of stress is referred to as residual stress.
Normal working stress is imposed on top of and in addition to this residual

stress, giving an in-service stress that is higher than the normal design working
stress. The effect of residual stresses will be, at the very least, a reduction in
the fatigue life of the joint. At the moment, there is no way that these residual
stresses can be measured during the course of a routine inspection. Alternating
current field measurement (ACFM) may be developed for this purpose.
Atomic Hydrogen (H)

Hydrogen diffusion
Molecular Hydrogen (H2)

Steel in expanded condition Steel under contraction
Above 300ºC Below 300ºC
Figure 7.14 Hydrogen embrittlement.
BS EN 13622:2002 defines all the standard terms used to describe a weld.

There are 25 terms that apply to this course.
These terms may be grouped into categories:
 Plate edge preparation.

 Weld features.
 Welding terminology.
7.6.2 Plate preparation terms

Double V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form two opposing V’s in section,
welded from both sides.
Included angle of a butt weld

The angle between the prepared faces.
Included angle of a fillet weld

The angle between the parent plates.
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Parent plate
The metals that are to be joined by the weld.
Prepared angle, weld prep

The angle of bevel between the prepared face and the perpendicular.
Prepared face
The bevelled portion of the parent plate prior to welding.
Root gap
Separation between the parent plates to be joined.
Root face
The un-bevelled portion of the parent plate adjacent to the root gap.
Single bevel butt weld

A butt weld that has only one prepared face, welded from one side only.
Single V butt weld

A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form a V in section, welded from
one side only.
Prepared angle
Included angle and included angle
Prepared angle
Prepared face
Root face
Root Gap
Single V Butt Weld Single Bevel Butt Weld
Double V Butt Weld
Figure 7.15 Standard weld terms for plate preparation.
7.6.3 Terms defining weld features

Cap, face of the weld
Visible face of the completed weld.
Excess weld metal

Weld metal lying outside the line joining the weld toes.
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Toe of the weld
Junction between the cap and the parent plate.
Root
Point where the back of the weld intersects the back face of the parent plate.
Weld zone
Area containing the weld and both HAZs.
Heat affected zone (HAZ)

Part of the parent plate that has been affected by heat from the welding
process but which has not melted.
Throat thickness
Total thickness of the weld metal.
Effective throat thickness (design throat thickness)

Weld thickness for design purposes, usually a line between both toes and the
root.
Weld width
Shortest distance between the toes of the weld.
Toe blend
Transition between the weld material and the parent plate.
Leg (of a fillet weld)

Distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld.
Figure 7.16 Weld feature terminology on a butt weld.
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Figure 7.17 Weld feature terminology on a fillet weld.
7.6.4 Welding process terminology

Filler rod
Filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440mm long used in MMA welding.
Filler bead
When the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler rod the successive
passes are called filler beads.
Run or pass
Weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod.
Weldment
An alternative term to describe the weld zone.
Fusion zone
The edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and the root face, along
which the weld metal fuses with the parent plate.
Root bead
Weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back wall of the parent
plate.
Run out length

The specified maximum lengths of weld run for a particular rod type.
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Figure 7.18 Weld process terminology.
7.6.5 Weld defect terminology

An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld, but
subsequently, be able to describe it accurately. In common with welding
terminology, this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined
terms.
In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO 5817:
2007 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this standard,
weld defect terminology is also defined.
The different types of defect are listed in six categories.
1 Cracks.
2 Cavities.
3 Solid inclusions.
4 Lack of fusion or penetration.
5 Imperfect shape.
6 Miscellaneous.
(mnemonic - CCSLIM).
Internal weld defects are broadly sub-divided into:
Planar defects
Have a large surface area but small volume, such as cracks and laminations and
are essentially two dimensional.
Volumetric defects
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws, that have a large volume
compared to surface area, are in this category. They are three dimensional and
will also include undercut and lack of penetration. This category of defect is
caused during fabrication, not in-service; while planar defects may be caused
by in-service deterioration.
Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be
found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector, but
knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms, from all categories,
will assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with engineers,
welders or weld inspectors.
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7.6.6 Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be:
 Longitudinal.
 Transverse.
 Crater.
 Centreline.
 Toe.
 HAZ.
Figure 7.19 Cracks.
7.6.7 Cavities
A number of flaws are covered by this category.
Porosity: Linear or cluster

Gas pores that may be found in different locations.
Elongated cavities
A string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis.
Shrinkage cavity
A cavity caused by shrinkage of the weld metal while it is in a plastic state.
Crater
A depression caused by shrinkage at the end of a run if the heat is removed
quickly.
Crater pipe
A hole in the centre of a crater, caused by shrinkage.
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Figure 7.20 Cavities.
7.6.8 Solid inclusions

Volumetric defects caused by solids trapped in the weld pool before it solidifies.
Figure 7.21 Slag inclusions.
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7.6.9 Lack of fusion and penetration
Lack of fusion
The weld metal has not bonded.
Lack of sidewall fusion

No union between the weld metal and the parent plate (Figure 7.21).
Lack of root fusion

No bonding at the root of the weld joint.
Incomplete root penetration

No weld metal extending into the root of the weld.
Figure 7.22 Lack of fusion and penetration.
7.6.10 Imperfect shape

Excess weld metal
Weld metal lying outside the plane joining the toes.
Excess penetration
Excess weld metal protruding through the root.
Root concavity
A shallow groove in the root.
Incompletely filled groove

A groove caused by insufficient weld metal being laid onto the cap.
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Undercut
A groove in the toe of the weld where the parent plate is gouged due to the
welding current.
Overlap
Weld metal spilled over from the cap onto the parent plate outside the line of
the toe that has not fused with the parent metal.
Burn through
This is a collapse in the weld pool caused by excessive penetration resulting in a
hole in the weld.
Unequal leg length

Not a standard term but internationally understood, describing different leg
lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint.
Poor restart or poor stop/start

Not standard terms but internationally understood, an irregular start or pick-up
after one bead is ended or interrupted and the next arc strike is imperfectly
aligned with the previous bead.
Misalignment
Not a standard term but internationally understood, poor fit-up resulting in the
parent plates being out of alignment either laterally or angularly.
Figure 7.23 Imperfect shape.
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7.6.11 Miscellaneous
Stray flash or arc strike
Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod off
the line of the weld; can sometimes be caused by arcing of the weld supply
cable if the insulation is damaged.
Excessive dressing
Grinding away too much weld metal and leaving the weld below the level of the
surface of the parent plate.
Grinding mark
Grooves or marks on the parent plate caused by poorly controlled grinding or
surfacing tools.
Tool mark
Marks indented into the parent plate caused by chipping hammers or similar
hand tools.
Torn surface
Surface irregularity caused by breaking off temporary attachments, colloquially
known, though not always accurately, as dog scars see below.
Surface pitting
Small depressions on the weld or parent plate.
Spatter
Spots of weld metal thrown out from the weld pool and attaching themselves to
the parent plate.
Dog scar - colloquial term, see above

A welding scar left over after removal of a dog, (a temporary metal fixing used
to stabilise the parent plates during the welding process).
Figure 7.24 Miscellaneous defects.
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7.7 Reporting defects in welds
As diver inspectors are concerned with in-service inspections, volumetric
defects will seldom be identified, as they are usually caused during fabrication.
Planar defects may be observed as these could be caused by stress or fatigue
failure leading to crack-like features becoming evident.
This type of discontinuity will be of most concern in the toe of the weld, which is
also the zone where it is most likely to be found. This is because at this point
there is a region that has been heated and melted causing grain structure
changes as outlined earlier.
Also in this area the geometry of the weld changes, which may create a notch
effect; that is an area where stress is increased above the average for the rest
of the component.
Any defects identified must be reported by recording at least:
Type of defect
Describe the defect with correct terminology.
Location
State the global location, ie what component is damaged, where on the
component the damage is (state the clock and or tape position relative to a
known datum), give the relative location, ie is it on the HAZ, in the toe, on the
weld cap or in the parent plate.
Dimensions
State the start position and give length. If the defect is a crack-like feature
state whether it is continuous or branching, the orientation and if it is
measurable give width and depth.
Description
Describe the feature, if it is a crack, is it branching, if so state the orientation of
the branches.
7.7.1 Dimensional checking weld parameters

During fabrication the weld dimensions are checked and verified against the
weld design specifications to ensure that the welding is completed to the
required quality to meet design parameters ensuring that it is fit for purpose.
Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and for
the visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of
measuring gauges, templates and devices employed. These instruments are
available for in-service inspections and a review of a selection will be of interest
for underwater applications.
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7.8 The Welding Institute measuring gauge
A gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld reinforcement height,
leg length, throat thickness and depth of lack of fill.
Figure 7.25 Welding Institute gauge measuring various weld parameters.
7.9 Welding Institute leg length gauge

Specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as indicated in Figure 7.26.
Figure 7.26 Welding Institute leg length gauge.
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Bibliography
9780419135401.
Gourd L M, Principles of Welding Technology, Hodder Arnold, 1980,

ISBN 13: 9780713134025.
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Joining Metal Components
Metal components can be formed or shaped in

four ways:
1. Machining.
2. Casting.
CSWIP 3.2U Course 3. Forging.
4. Fabrication.
Welding and Welding Terminology
Offshore structures are fabricated and in this
process welding is used extensively.
Welding Processes Flux Shielded Arc Welding
There are 35 welding processes classified Flux shielded arc welding (6) is the most widely
into seven groups used process.
1. Solid phase welding. An arc is struck between a consumable electrode

2. Thermo-chemical welding. and the work.
3. Electric-resistance welding.
4. Unshielded arc welding. This generates heat and melts the joint and the electrode
5. Radiant energy welding. which provides the filler metal.
6. Flux-shielded arc welding. The consumable electrode is covered with a flux that melts
7. Gas-shielded arc welding. and provides slag and a gas shield which protects the weld
pool from contamination.
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Manual metal arc (MMA) process was first

developed in the late 19th century using bare
wire consumables.
 MMA is a simple process in terms of

equipment.
 The process can be used with AC, DC+ or DC-
current.
 It is a manual process and demands high skill
from the welder.
Collet or twist Tongs type with
 It is widely used throughout the welding
type spring-loaded
industry both for shop and site working jaws
conditions.
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Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Manual Metal Arc (MMA)
Common faults: MMA quality

 Overlap. 1. Current, arc length 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
 Porosity. and travel speed
 Slag inclusions. normal.
 Excessive spatter. 2. Current too low.
 Lack of fusion. 3. Current too high.
 Crater cracks. 4. Arc length too
 Arc strike. short.
 Incomplete 5. Arc length too long.
penetration. 6. Travel speed too
 Undercut. slow.
 Excessive 7. Travel speed too
penetration. high.
MIG/MAG Welding MIG/MAG Welding
Metal inert gas or metal active gas, MIG/MAG welding

process was initially developed in the US in the late 1940’s
for the welding of aluminium alloys.
The latest EN Welding Standards now refer to the process
by the American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding):
Trigger
 The process uses a continuously-fed wire electrode.
 The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied Gas shroud
shielding gas.
 The process is classified as a semi-automatic welding Common faults
process but may be fully automated.
 The wire electrode can be either bare, solid wire or flux-
 Porosity.  Excessive penetration.
cored hollow wire.  Excessive spatter.  Cracking.
 Lack of fusion.  Arc strike.
 Incomplete penetration.  Undercut.
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding process was first

developed in US during the 2nd world war for the
welding of aluminium alloys.
The process:
 Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode.

 Requires a high level of welder skill.
 Produces very high quality welds. Common faults
 Is considered as a slow process compared to other  Excessive penetration.  Tungsten inclusion.
arc welding processes.  Arc strikes.  Incomplete penetration.
 Burn through.  Undercut.
 Porosity.  Oxide inclusions.
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TIG Welding Gun Solid Phase Welding
Tungsten electrode
Electrode collet
Collet holder
Torch cap/tungsten housing
Torch body
Ceramic nozzle
On/off switch
Electric-Resistance Welding Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union

during the second world war for the welding of thick
section steel.
The process is normally mechanised.
The process uses amps in the range of 100 to over 2000

which gives a very high current density in the wire
producing deep penetration and high dilution welds.
A powdered flux is supplied separately via a flux hopper.
The arc is not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux

layer and no eye protection is required.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Welding heads can be mounted on

a tractor type carriage which:
 Provides travel along straight or

gently curved joints.
 Can ride on tracks set up along
the joint with grooved wheels or
on the work piece itself.
 Can use guide wheels as tracking
device.
 Due to the portability are used in
field welding or where the piece
can not be moved.
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Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Types of Welded Joint
There are approximately 110 different welded

joint variations however the vast majority of
these are not seen in the construction of
offshore structures.
Therefore it is necessary to have a knowledge of

only five.
SAW tandem arc

with two wires
SAW tandem arc
with two wires
Types of Welded Joint Types of Welded Joint
The butt joint - not to be confused with a T joint

butt weld. Two parent plates are fitted together at an angle
of between 5-90° such as the joint between two
This is where two parent plates are fitted tubular members in a node.
together at an angle of between 135-180°.
Parent plate 2
This is used offshore for circumferential and

seam welds.
Parent plate 1 Parent plate 2 Parent plate 1
Types of Welded Joint Types of Welded Joint
Lap joint Corner joint

Two parent plates are fitted one on top of the Two parent plates make a connection at the
other the angle between them is 0-5°. edges to make a joint at an angle of between
30-135°.
Parent plate 1
Parent plate 1
Parent plate 2
Parent plate 2
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Types of Welded Joint Types of Weld
Cruciform joint The two types of weld most frequently used on

A joint at which two flat plates or two bars are offshore structures are:
welded to another flat plate at right angles and
on the same axis. 1. Butt weld.
2. Fillet weld.
Parent plate 1
Parent plate 2
Parent plate 3
Butt Weld Fillet Weld
A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the
weld metal is contained within the planes or parent metal planes or thickness.
thickness of the joined parent metals.
Therefore fillet welds tend to have less strength.
Weld metal
Weld Metal
Welding Metallurgy Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
All welds are designed to hold component parts

together for the design life of the fabrication.
This design aim requires that thermal energy in the

welding process is managed correctly.
If the heat flow into and out of the weld is not properly
managed the weld may fail in-service.
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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) Considerations in Weld Control
One of the means of making a material softer, often called Temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for
annealing, is to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. To heat energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as
achieve this softening effect a material has to be heated controlled as the heat flow during the actual welding. In general
above its re-crystallisation temperature (Tecry). fast cooling rates (quenching) make the material harder and
less able to withstand crack propagation.
In the previous diagram, this temperature is reached at
point 3 so that the material between point 2 and 3 that While the heat input and cooling rate control may be of
has been raised above the re-crystallisation temperature paramount importance to the finished quality of a weld, there
will be liable to a change of properties. are several other factors that must also be considered.
Defects, such as porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
Above this temperature the grains in the material will penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be
reform and grow. This is known as the heat affected zone present in a weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are
(HAZ). derived from the atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (grease or
oil) and other oxides present in the weld vicinity, due to lack of
care in preparation.
Considerations in Weld Control Welding Terms and Definitions
These products get into the arc and provide a supply of gas that BS EN 13622:2002 defines all the standard
can be dissolved in the liquid metal of the weld pool. On cooling
the solubility of the dissolved gas reduces and the gas comes out
terms used to describe a weld. There are 25
of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal or terms that apply to this course.
sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen
diffusing into the HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement which These terms may be grouped into categories:
may lead to cracking.
 Plate edge preparation.
 Weld features.
 Welding terminology.
Plate Preparation Terms Terms Defining Weld Features
Prepared angle Butt weld

Included and included angle Weld zone
angle Prepared angle
Weld width
Root face Prepared Excess weld

Weld Cap
face metal
Toe of the weld
Root Gap (Toe blend)
Single V butt weld Single bevel butt weld
Throat thickness
Effective throat
thickness
Double V butt weld Root
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Terms Defining Weld Features Welding Terms
Fillet weld Filler rod.

Toe of the weld
The filler metal for the weld in the form of a rod
Included angle 440mm long used in MMA welding.
Cap or face
of the weld
Filler beads.
Toe of the weld Leg length
When the weld is made up of more than one
pass of a filler rod the successive passes are
Effective
throat called filler beads.
thickness
Run or pass.
Throat thickness Weld metal deposited in a single pass of a filler
rod.
Root
Welding Terms Weld Process Terminology
Root bead.
Fusion Zones
Weld bead protruding beyond the back wall of
the parent plates.
Fusion zone.
Filler beads and
The point at which parent plate melts and mixes weld beads making HAZ
with weld metal. up the bulk of the
weld
Run out length.

The specified run length for a given welding rod.
Root bead or penetration bead
Welded Nodes and Nozzles Welding Defect Terminology
Offshore structures are constructed mainly of An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in
tubular members. Connections of these members a weld but be able to describe it accurately. In common with
welding terminology this has been internationally agreed and
may be either nodes or nozzles. defined terms.
BS EN ISO 5817:2003 Defines six categories of weld defects:
1. Cracks.
2. Cavities.
3. Solid inclusions.
4. Lack of fusion and penetration.
5. Imperfect shape.
6. Miscellaneous.
C.C.S.L.I.M.
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Internal Weld Defects Cracks
Planar defects Cracks that occur in welded materials are

These have a large surface area but small volume caused by many factors and may be classified by
such as cracks and laminations. They are essentially shape and position.
two-dimensional.
Classified by shape Classified by
Volumetric defects
 Longitudinal. position
Inclusions, porosity and other internal flaws that have
 Transverse.  HAZ.
a large volume compared to surface area are in this
 Centreline.
category. They are three-dimensional and will also  Chevron.
 Crater.
include undercut and lack of penetration. This  Lamellar tear.  Fusion zone.
category of defect is caused during fabrication not in-
 Parent metal.
service while planar defects may be caused by in-
service deterioration.
Cracks Cracks
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
Cracks Cracks
Under bead cracking Toe cracking
Toe cracking in MMA fillet weld
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Cracks Lamellar Tearing
 Step like appearance.

 Occurs in parent material or HAZ.
 Only in rolled direction of the parent material.
 Associated with restrained joints subjected to
stresses on corners, tees and fillets.
 Requires high sulphur or non-metallic
inclusions.
Lamellar Tearing Cavities
Critical area Critical area Gas pore Cluster porosity Causes:
 Loss of gas shield.

 Damp electrodes.
 Contamination.
Blow hole  Arc length too large.
Herringbone porosity  Damaged electrode flux.
Critical
 Moisture on parent plate.
area  Welding current too low.
Gas pore
<1.5mm.
Root piping Blow hole
>1.6mm.
Cavities Cavities
Porosity
Root piping
Porosity
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Cavities
Cavities
Weld crater
Crater pipe
Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity
Cavities Solid Inclusions
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas Non-metallic inclusions caused by some welding
defect, it has the appearance of a gas pore in processes:
the weld crater. Causes
 Slag originates from
Crater cracks Causes: welding flux.
(Star cracks)  Too fast a cooling  MAG and TIG welding
rate. process produce silica
 Deoxidization Slag inclusions Lack of sidewall fusion inclusions.
with associated slag  Slag is caused by
reactions and liquid
inadequate cleaning.
to solid volume  Other inclusions include
change. tungsten and copper
Crater pipe  Contamination. inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding
Lack of interrun fusion with
slag processes.
Solid Inclusions Solid Inclusions
Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines
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Lack of Fusion Lack of Fusion
Typical causes of lack of fusion: Causes:

 Poor welder skill.
 Welding current too low.  Incorrect electrode
 Bevel angle too steep. manipulation.
 Root face too large (single-sided weld). Incomplete filled groove
 Arc blow.
 Root gap too small (single-sided weld). and lack of sidewall fusion  Incorrect welding
 Incorrect electrode angle. current/voltage.
 Linear misalignment.  Incorrect travel speed.
1
 Welding speed too high.  Incorrect inter-run
 Flooding the joint with too much weld metal 2 cleaning.
(blocking out).
1: Lack of sidewall fusion
2: Lack of inter-run fusion
Lack of Fusion
Lack of Fusion
Lack of sidewall
fusion
Lack of root
penetration
Lack of sidewall fusion and incompletely filled groove
Imperfect Shape Imperfect Shape
Overlap Toe overlap

An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld
caused by metal flowing on to the surface of the
parent metal without fusing to it.
Causes
 Contamination.
 Slow travel speed.
 Incorrect welding
technique.
 Current too low.
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Incompletely filled groove Poor cap profile
Poor cap profile and excessive

cap reinforcement may lead to
stress concentration points at the
weld toes and will also contribute
to overall poor toe blend.
Excessive cap height Excessive cap reinforcement Incompletely filled groove
Poor stop/starts
Poor cap profile and poor toe blend
Undercut.
An irregular groove at the toe of a weld run in the
parent metal.
Causes
 Excessive amps/volts.
 Excessive travel speed.
 Incorrect electrode
angle.
 Excessive weaving.
 Incorrect welding
technique.
 Electrode too large.
Intermittent cap undercut
 Arc length too high.
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Imperfect Shape Miscellaneous
Arc strike or stray arc:

 Accidental striking of an arc on to base material.
 Loss of welding cable insulation.
 Poor connection of current return cable.
Spatter:
 Excessive current or voltage.
Slag:
 Poor workmanship: Inadequate cleaning.
Grinding mark/mechanical damage:

Root undercut Cap undercut
 Torn surface.
Miscellaneous Miscellaneous
Causes Causes:
 Excessive current.  Accidental striking of
 Damp electrodes. the arc onto the
 Contamination. parent material.
 Incorrect wire feed  Faulty electrode
speed when welding holder.
with the MAG welding  Poor cable insulation.
process.  Poor return lead
 Arc blow. clamping.
Arc strike
Spatter
Mechanical damage Chipping marks

Defined as any surface material damage caused
during the manufacturing process.
 Grinding.
 Hammering.
 Chiselling.
 Chipping.
 Breaking off welded attachments, torn
surfaces.
 Using needle guns to compress weld capping
runs. Mechanical damage/grinding mark
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 A variation of leg lengths on a fillet weld.

Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe linear misalignment

(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees.
Note: Unequal leg lengths on a fillet weld may
be specified as part of the design in which case it Angular misalignment
will not be considered as a defect.
This image cannot currently be display ed.
Linear misalignment
Linear misalignment
Any Questions?
14
Section 8
Ultrasonic Inspection
8 Ultrasonic Inspection
8.1 Physics of ultrasound
Sound is made when something vibrates. You can twang a ruler on a table or
flick a stretched elastic band to verify this. The stretched surface of the rubber
band or the ruler vibrates and sets up a series of vibrations, sound waves, in
the air. As the surface of the band or ruler pushes into the air, the air molecules
are forced together and a region of high pressure forms; compression.
As the surface moves back, the air molecules move apart, forming a low
pressure area or rarefaction. As the surface vibrates, alternate compressions
and rarefactions are set up in the air and travel out from the surface to form a
sound wave. The air molecules don’t move with the wave - they vibrate to and
fro in time with the vibrating surface.
If we plot the displacement of the particle against time it will produce a sine
wave as shown below.
Wavelength
Figure 8.1 Sine wave showing amplitude and wavelength.
The sound wave so produced travels through the air at a speed of about
332m/sec, at 0°C, at sea level. We hear the sound when it hits a membrane in
our ear and causes it to vibrate.
Sound will travel through any medium that has molecules to move, but it
travels faster in more elastic materials because the vibrations are passed on
more quickly. Sound travels faster in water or metal than it does in air, as
liquids and solids are more elastic than air. The speed of sound increases with
the stiffness, (elasticity) and decreases with density, in fact, it’s actually the
square root of the stiffness divided by the density.
8.1.1 Frequency
As sound is a series of vibrations, one way of measuring it is to count the
number of vibrations per second - the frequency. Frequency is measured in
Hertz. One vibration in one second is one Hertz. Two vibrations in one second is
two Hertz. Ten vibrations in one second is 10 Hertz and 1000 vibrations in one
second is 1000 Hertz or one kilohertz (kHz). One million vibrations in a second
is one Megahertz (MHz).
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Ultrasonic Inspection 8-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
The higher the frequency - the higher the note sounds - the higher the pitch. If
you twang the ruler or the rubber band hard, the noise is louder, it has greater
amplitude, but the note remains the same. If, however, you shorten the ruler or
tighten the rubber band, they vibrate more quickly and the note given out is
higher, the frequency is greater. To raise the pitch of their instrument, guitar
players move their fingers down the frets, thus shortening the string and
making it vibrate more quickly.
We can only hear sounds between certain frequencies - more than 16Hz and
less than 20,000 Hertz. If you were able to move your arm up and down 20
times a second, it would sound like a very low hum. You cannot move your arm
this fast, so you cannot hear the vibrations in the air caused by your moving
arm. A dog whistle vibrating at 25,000 Hertz cannot be heard by humans, but it
can be heard by the sensitive ears of a dog.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Speed of sound in air = 332m/sec
Sound Waves
Frequency Electro-magnetic Waves
(Travelling at the speed of
(kHz) (Travelling at the speed of light)
sound)
Infrasound
10-3
Less than 16Hz
10-2
10-1
Human hearing range 1
(16 to 20,000Hz) 10 VLF
102 LF
Ultrasound – frequencies
above 20,000Hz up to 103 MF
Radio frequencies
10MHz 104 HF
106 UHF
107 SHF
Figure 8.2 The frequency spectrum.
It rarely occurs to us that there is a whole world of sound that we cannot hear.
Other animals can hear sounds at higher frequencies - bats can hear sound at
100,000 Hertz and others like snakes, have worse hearing than we have.
A sound with frequencies above the upper range of human hearing is called
ultrasound. Sound below about 16 Hertz is called infrasound. Therefore the
definition of ultrasound is; sound with a frequency greater than 20kHz.
However, there is an advantage for the lower frequencies. The lower the
frequency, the more penetrating a sound wave is - that is why foghorns give
out very low notes and why the low throbbing notes from your neighbour’s
stereo come through the wall rather than the high notes. Elephants and hippos
can communicate over distances of up to 30 kilometres using infrasound, while
whales can communicate through water across an ocean!
For most practical ultrasonic testing, the frequency range used is between 0.5-
6MHz; the lower frequencies between 0.5-1.5MHz are used for materials with
large grain structures, such as concrete or cast iron. Frequencies from 2-6MHz
are used for testing materials with fine grain structures including steel.
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8.1.2 Velocity
So far, only the effects of the wave passing one point in the material have been
considered. However, the wave itself is passing through the material. Like a
surface wave on water, the water at any point goes up and down, but as well as
this the wave travels forward.
Ultrasonic waves travel through a material at the speed of sound for a given
type of wave in a given material. That is, the speed of sound is different for
different types of wave and the speed of travel is different in different
materials.
8.1.3 Types of ultrasonic waves

Sound waves propagate through a material (liquid, solid or gas) by causing the
atoms to oscillate as the wave front passes through it. There are two types of
wave that propagate through the solid material and three types that travel
along the surface skin of the material.
The three types of surface wave have no application underwater and will not be
discussed further. The two types of wave that propagate through a solid are
discussed below.
Longitudinal/Compression waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L, with the addition of a letter V -
VL we indicate the velocity of propagation of longitudinal/compression waves.
With this type of wave propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is
the same as the wave propagation see Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3 Longitudinal/Compression wave.
Transverse/Shear waves
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol T, with the addition of a letter V –
VT we indicate the velocity of propagation of these waves. With this type of
wave propagation, the direction of oscillation of the atoms is at 90o to the wave
propagation see Figure 8.4.
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Figure 8.4 Transverse/Shear wave.
Table 8.1 Properties of ultrasonic waves.

Type of Symbol Atomic Motion Used For
Wave
Longitudinal VL Longitudinal Thickness and
or In the direction of the lamination
Compression wave propagation measurements
Transverse VT Transverse Defect sizing and

or At 90 degrees to the weld inspection
Shear wave propagation
In order that ultrasonic sound waves can be used to measure depths and sizes
within any material, it is a fundamental principle that the velocity of the sound
wave remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in
fact the case; and furthermore, the ultrasonic wave obeys the Laws of Light and
we can, therefore, predict its behaviour.
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here for a

selection of materials is shown in table 8.2
Table 8.2 Acoustic velocities in various materials.

Material Acoustic velocity (m/sec)
VL VT
Aluminium 6350 3100
Concrete 4600
Naval brass 4430 2120
Copper 4660 2260
Air 332
Structural steel 5940 3250
Water 1490
Perspex 2730
Note: Blank spaces in the VT column, this is because Shear waves cannot be
produced in liquids, solids or polymers such as Perspex and concrete.
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8.2 Wavelength
A wave in the sea is a vibration of energy. As the wave passes a fixed point it
produces a constant rise and fall of energy. A complete vibration is a change in
energy from maximum to minimum and back to maximum.
A wavelength is the distance a stress wave moves forward during one complete
cycle. It varies with the speed of sound and with the frequency. Wavelength is
represented by the Greek letter Lambda (). We can work out wavelength if we
know the speed and frequency of a sound wave. Wavelength is the velocity in
metres per second divided by the frequency.
If we want to know the wavelength of a 2MHz compression wave travelling

through steel, we can again use the formula, as we know the compressional
speed of sound in steel, 5,940m/sec.
5,940,000
= =2.97mm
2,000,000
If we want to know the wavelength of a shear wave of 2MHz in steel we can use
the formula again, but this time we use the shear speed of sound in steel which
is 3,250m/sec.
An easy way to remember how this formula works is to split it down within a
triangle - with the velocity, wavelength and frequency at the corners.
The velocity must be placed at the top (Note: How it forms a diamond shape)
and the wavelength and frequency at either of the bottom two corners.
λ f
If we want to work out wavelength we cover the wavelength symbol - this

leaves the V over . If we need to find the velocity, cover the V which gives us 
x . Covering the frequency () will leave V over .
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V V
=
f
λ f
V
V= xf
λ f
V V
f=

λ f
Figure 8.5 Velocity, frequency and wavelength relationship.
The wavelength of an ultrasonic wave is important because the shorter the

wavelength, the smaller the flaws that can be discovered. Defects of a diameter
of less than half a wavelength may not show on the CRT. On the other hand,
the shorter the wavelength the less the ultrasound will penetrate the test
material.
8.3 Further effects of ultrasonic properties in materials

As the ultrasonic signal passes through a material, a pressure or stress front
will be initiated in the material, which will present resistance to the passage of
the sound wave energy. The amount of resistance will depend on the properties
of the material. This is a useful parameter of a material and must be
determined if the pressure or stress magnitude of the ultrasonic wave is to be
determined.
8.3.1 Acoustic impedance (Z)

The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is called acoustic impedance. It is
the reason that ultrasound travels at different speeds in different material.
8.3.2 Acoustic attenuation

A further effect on the sound wave is the reduction in energy of the wave as it
passes through a material. The strength of the ultrasonic signal will be reduced
and eventually will be so low that it cannot be detected.
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8.4 The direction of propagation of an ultrasonic wave
It has been established that the ultrasonic wave travels at a known speed in a
straight line and that it obeys the Laws of Light. In order to predict the direction
that the wave travels as it passes through an interface into a different material,
it is necessary to determine what happens when a wave meets an interface.
An interface is any boundary between two materials of differing properties (eg

perspex/steel, water/air).
An interface will include the outside edges of a component and the back surface
which is referred to as the back wall. Similarly, the surfaces of a crack or
porosity bubble are also boundaries.
At these interfaces, in accordance with the laws of light, the direction of travel
of the wave after meeting the interface will be determined by the Law of
Reflection and the Law of Refraction.
8.4.1 The Law of Reflection

This states that the angle the reflected wave makes with the normal angle to
the interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same as the angle
that the incident wave makes with the same normal angle.
Figure 8.6 Law of Reflection.
When the angle of incidence is 0°, the reflected angle is also 0°, so the wave is
reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same
material; therefore, there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the
mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for thickness
measurements using ultrasonic compression waves.
8.4.2 Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law)

At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will pass
into the second material. The path in the second material will still be straight
line, but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with the direction of
the incident wave as it will have been turned through an angle that can be
determined by Snell’s Law.
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Figure 8.7 Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law).
8.5 Generating ultrasound

Sound is created when something vibrates. It is a stress wave of mechanical
energy. The Piezo-electric effect changes mechanical energy into electrical
energy. It is reversible, so electrical energy - a voltage - can be changed into
mechanical energy or sound, which is the reverse Piezo-electric effect. The first
people to observe the Piezo-electric effect were the Curie brothers who
observed it in quartz crystals.
8.5.1 Piezo-electric crystals

Jaques and Pierre Curie used quartz for their first experiments. Nowadays
polarised ceramics are used instead of quartz crystals.
It was later discovered that by varying the thickness of crystals and subjecting
them to a voltage, they could be made to vibrate at different frequencies.
Frequency depends on the thickness of the Piezo-electric crystal.
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Figure 8.8 The Piezo-electric effect.
In practice, the transducer is mounted in a probe assembly for protection and

to enable electrical connections to be made. The crystal is fitted with silver foil
electrodes to apply the voltage across the crystal if acting as a transmitter, or
to take the voltage signal from it if acting as a receiver. The crystal is attached
to the base by the mounting, which acts not only as a fixing, but also as a
backing to the crystal.
A pulse of ultrasound from a Piezo-electric crystal has a length or width of

several vibrations or wavelengths. When you strike a bell it continues to ring for
several seconds as the metal continues to vibrate. The vibrations get steadily
weaker and the sound dies away. If you put your hand on the bell you stop the
vibrations and the sound dies away more quickly - you dampen the sound.
A Piezo-electric crystal continues to vibrate after it is hit by an electrical charge.

This affects sensitivity, as the longer the pulse length, the worse the resolution.
In most probes a slug of tungsten loaded Araldite is placed behind the crystal to
cut down the ringing time.
8.6 Types of transducers (probes)

A transducer is any device that transforms energy from one form into another.
There are a number of different types of probes, some designed for specific
tasks. However, in our sphere of NDT we need only be familiar with the main
types.
 Single crystal.
 Twin crystal.
 Compression or zero degree.
 Angle.
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8.6.1 Single crystal probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo-electric crystal that both
transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The crystal must transmit the
signal, stop ringing, ring down to rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to
produce electric energy to pass to the receiver amplifier.
Figure 8.9 Single crystal probe.
8.6.2 Twin crystal probes

This type of probe has separate transducer crystals for transmission and
reception. The two crystals are mounted in the same housing but are carefully
isolated from each other both electrically and acoustically.
The material properties of the crystals are quite different from those of the
single crystal probe because the two crystals are not required to ring down to
receive. One is constantly transmitting while the other is constantly receiving.
The electric isolation is achieved by provision of two co-axial connectors, one
for transmit and one for receive, while the acoustic barrier is generally a thin
layer of cork.
A twin crystal probe is designed to minimise the problem of dead zone. A twin
crystal probe has two crystals mounted on perspex shoes angled inwards
slightly to focus at a set distance in the test material. Were the crystals not
angled, the pulse would be reflected straight back into the transmitting crystal.
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Figure 8.10 Twin crystal probe.
8.6.3 Advantages/disadvantages in probe selection

Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output characteristics.
Single crystal probes
Good power output Poor near zone resolution
Greater penetration Cannot measure thin plate
Twin crystal probes
Good near zone resolution Less power output
Can measure thin plate because dead Less penetration
zone is contained within the shoe
Can be focused
8.6.4 Compression or zero degree probes

This type of probe transmits longitudinal/compression waves that are
introduced into the test piece at a zero degree angle. Therefore, there is no
refraction and the signal passes directly through the specimen at a zero angle.
This type of probe may be single or twin crystal. It is the type of probe fitted to
a digital thickness meter.
8.6.5 Angle probes

These probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at
an angle to the interface and not perpendicular. The angle is determined to
either match the weld angle of preparation or to introduce the beam at an angle
best suited to reflect from internal defects. These types of probe are used for
weld inspection tasks, see Figure 8.11.
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Figure 8.11 Angle probe.
8.6.6 Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the probe and the test surface. This is because the
mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists between
the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance between the
shoe of the transducer and the air. For underwater inspection the seawater acts
as a couplant and aids the passage of ultrasound into the material.
Probe
Couplant
Figure 8.12 Couplant.
8.7 The sound beam

The spread of sound waves from a piezo-electric crystal has been likened to the
beam of a torch, an elongated cone. Just as the intensity of light from a torch
diminishes with distance, so sound pulses get weaker the further they travel
from the crystal.
An acoustic sound wave has also previously been described as being a single
sinusoidal wave propagating through a material. These analogies do not
however present a totally true picture.
The sound produced from an ultrasonic crystal does not originate from a single
point but rather it is derived from many points along the surface of the Piezo-
electric crystal. This results in a sound field with many waves interacting or
interfering with each other.
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Far Zone
Dead zone Near zone
Figure 8.13 Ultrasonic sound beam.
8.7.1 Near Zone (or Near Field)

A Piezo-electric crystal is made up of millions of molecules. Each of these
vibrates when the crystal is hit by an electric charge and they send out shock
waves. The shock waves jostle each other.
Exponential decay
Intensity
Distance
Figure 8.14 Variations in sound intensity.
After a time, the shock waves, or pulses, even out to form a continuous front.
The area between the crystal and the point where the wave front evens out is
what we call the Near Zone. Inside the Near Zone signals from a reflector bear
no accurate relation to the size of the reflector, as the sound vibrations are
going in all directions. This affects the accuracy of flaw sizing of small reflectors
inside the Near Zone.
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Near Zone
Figure 8.15 Regions of a sound beam.
The Near Zone of a crystal varies with the material being tested, but it can be
worked out by a formula:
D2
Near Zone NZ=
4
8.8 Principles of ultrasonic testing

There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The first is based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the ultrasonic

beam due to absorption by the flaw.
Figure 8.16 Through Transmission Technique.
The second principle is based on the reflection of energy from a flaw or

interface. This is the method used in digital thickness meters and in A-scan
inspections. It is the basis of the majority of ultrasonic test systems. It is
commonly referred to as the Pulse Echo Technique.
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Figure 8.17 Pulse Echo Technique.
Ultrasonic inspections are largely performed by the Pulse Echo Technique in

which a single probe is used to both transmit and receive ultrasound. In
addition to the fact that access is required from one surface only, further
advantages of this technique are that it gives an indication of the type of defect,
its size and its exact location within the item being tested.
The major disadvantage is that pulse echo inspection is reliant upon the defects
having the correct orientation relative to the beam in order to generate a
returning signal to the probe and is not, therefore, considered fail safe. If the
sound pulse hits the flaw at an angle other than 90o, much of the energy will be
reflected away and not return to the probe with the result that the flaw will not
show up on the screen.
Figure 8.18 Pulse echo testing with a zero degrees compression wave probe.
Figure 8.19 Pulse echo testing with an angle shear wave probe.
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8.9 Ultrasonic test systems
An ultrasonic test system should be able to measure either the amplitude of the
signal if a through transmission test is used, or the time required for the
ultrasonic signal to travel between specific interfaces if the Pulse Echo
Technique is employed.
A versatile test system in fact measures both the amplitude and the time
simultaneously. For thickness measurement, the main use of ultrasonic testing
is the measurement of the time the signal takes to travel between specific
interfaces, and the instrument is referred to as either a Digital Thickness Meter
or an A-scan flaw detector.
8.9.1 Digital Thickness Meters

Digital thickness meters measure the thicknesses of material using longitudinal
waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the material
under test at the normal angle and are commonly used underwater for
thickness checks.
Figure 8.20 Cygnus 1 Digital Thickness Meter.
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Figure 8.21 Simplified block diagram of Digital Thickness Meter.
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe and, as such, can only give a readout from the major reflector, which is
its main limitation. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is
designed to display multiple reflections simultaneously.
Figure 8.22 Possible problems associated with a DTM.
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8.9.2 Advantages of DTMs
 Quick and easy to use.
 Divers and ROVs can use them.
 Only a small amount of training is necessary to use one.
 Only isolated cleaning is required.
 The Cygnus DTM will take readings through firmly adhered paint.
8.9.3 Procedure for using a Cygnus DTM

 Check the unit for damage.
 Check correct probe fitted, diaphragm in place and undamaged.
 Fully charge battery and complete charging log.
 Switch on and carry out calibration check using appropriate block V1/V2.
 Deploy unit to worksite.
 Diver carries out pre-cal check - results recorded on data sheet.
 Carry out the survey to the client’s requirements.
 At the end of the survey, or in accordance with the client’s instructions
during the inspection, carry out a post-cal check - results to be recorded on
the data sheet.
 Return the unit to the surface and wash in fresh water.
 Inspect the unit for damage, if any found mark unit as appropriate and
remove from service.
 Put the battery on charge and complete the charging log.
 Store in a secure, dry environment.
8.9.4 The A-scan flaw detector

There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending on
the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (cathode ray tube or
oscilloscope) as this presents all the information available in the echo system.
With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation.
A-scan: Shows real time depth of the defect, or distance along the beam
path.
B-scan: Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views.
C-scan: Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect.
P-scan: Adds all of the above together and gives a 3-D computer
impression.
The most commonly used diver-deployed flaw detector is an A-scan instrument.

As an example of this type of instrument, figure 8.23 shows the control panel of
a Baugh and Weedon PA 1011.
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Figure 8.23 Baugh and Weedon PA 1011 control panel.
The ultrasonic flaw detector, the UT set, sends a voltage down a coaxial cable
to the probe. The Piezo-electric crystal in the probe is hit by the voltage and
vibrates. The vibration creates an ultrasonic pulse, which enters the test
material. The pulse travels through the material until it strikes a reflector and is
reflected back to the probe.
It re-enters the probe, hits the crystal and vibrates it, causing it to generate a
voltage. The voltage causes a current which travels back to the flaw detector
along the cable. The set displays the time the pulse has taken through the test
material and back and the strength of the pulse as a signal on the CRT screen.
This is basically how a UT set works. It transmits energy into material via a
probe and measures the time in microseconds that the sound pulse takes to
return to the probe. The controls on the UT set are almost entirely concerned
with presenting a display on the CRT screen for the operator to interpret.
The cathode ray tube is a device for measuring very small periods of time. The
CRT displays electrical pulses on a screen in a linear time/distance relationship.
That is, the longer the distance on the screen time base (the X-axis), the longer
the time that has been measured.
On the Y-axis (vertical) the amplitude of the returning signal is indicated, the
higher the amplitude of this signal, the greater the strength of the reflected
signal. Of course, in the case of thickness measurements this will be the back
wall echo.
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8.9.5 Calibration and reference blocks
A-scan type instruments all require calibration before being used for testing.
Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a
reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the client.
Reference blocks
These are manufactured for the client to agreed specifications and surface finish
and are used solely for a particular job and are not intended for any other
purpose. This is usually because they are intended for use on specialised steels
that would have different velocities.
Calibration blocks
There are several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic testing.
The two most popular are the IIW V1 and IIW V2 calibration blocks. A
calibration block is manufactured to standard specifications and to international
standards. It is produced from specified material and is machined to close
tolerances and laid down standard of surface finish.
All the dimensions on the block are also specified and it is used to calibrate
ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. V1 blocks are used on the surface to
calibrate A-scan units and V2 blocks are used subsea by divers for calibration
checks.
Figure 8.24 IIW V1 calibration block.
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Figure 8.25 IIW V1 block. Figure 8.26 IIW V2 block.
A step wedge as shown in Figure 8.27 it is a type of calibration block used for
thickness measurement.
W
Wh
Couplant
Figure 8.27 Step wedge, dimensions in mm.
8.9.6 Pre-calibration checks

For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged. Switch on the set and
allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the manufacturer’s recommended time.
This allows the CRT and other circuits to reach operating temperature and
stabilise.
CRT display
Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot will
normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the screen.
Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse (the
first transmitted pulse) on the screen.
Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be between
10mm and 1m depending on the actual instrument). Select and connect the
required probe. (For thickness measurement and lamination testing, this will be
a zero degrees or normal angle compression probe – either single or twin
crystal).
Time base linearity

Place the probe onto a calibration block and use the course and fine range (time
base) controls to display four back wall echoes on the screen. Adjust the back
wall echoes (BWE) so that they are equally spaced along the X-axis, then adjust
the second and fourth so that they are on the fifth and tenth divisions on the
graticule. Provided this is achieved the time base is linear.
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Linearity of amplification
Set the reject or suppression control to off or zero. Place the probe over the
1.5mm diameter hole on a V1 calibration block. Adjust the gain controls to
display the height of the reflected signal to 80% full screen height (FSH).
Note: The gain settings.
 Use the fine (2dB or 1dB) gain control to increase the signal by 2dB.
This represents the difference in height between 80-100% that is a ratio of 4:5,
which will increase the signal on the screen by one quarter of its displayed
height and the signal should be at full screen height.
 Readjust the fine gain control to attenuate the signal back to 80% full
screen height.
 Attenuate the signal by 6dB.
This represents a decrease of a half and the signal therefore should reduce to
40% of full screen height.
 Now attenuate a further 12dB.
This represents a decrease of one quarter of the displayed signal and the height
should then be 10% of the full screen height.
If the gain adjustment does not produce these results the amplifier is not linear
and the instrument must be recalibrated internally, which involves stripping it
down to readjust internal trim settings.
8.9.7 Calibration procedure for 100mm thickness.

Place the probe onto the face of a suitable calibration or reference block that is
25mm thick ensuring there is adequate coupling.
A number of back wall echoes should be displayed on the CRT screen. Adjust
the gain settings as necessary to display the second echo signal amplitude to
75% full screen height.
Adjust the fine range and delay controls to alter the screen display so that four
back wall echoes are shown, all equally spaced across the x-axis.
As the screen on the CRT has a graticule that is divided into 10 equal segments,
the four echoes are adjusted to 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 divisions along the x-axis.
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Figure 8.28 A-scan flaw detector calibrated for 100mm.
8.9.8 Setting sensitivity

On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to conform
to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest specified flaw. This
may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 in size, although this would be a very
sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size that may be achieved is of the order
of 1 to 2λ.
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or the

procedure agreed with the contracting party.
The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected signal
from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the screen and is
not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for laminations is to
adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo from the parent plate is
displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall echo
from a specified (say 1.5mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into a reference
block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 8.24 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1

calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains a 1.5mm diameter hole.
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Setting resolution
The final process in the calibration procedure is setting resolution. This is
adjusting the gain controls so that the CRT display is capable of displaying
several reflected signals from the smallest detectable flaws at the maximum
range of the test. This may be accomplished using an agreed and specified
reference block.
The common method is to display the three signals reflected from the step, cut
out and back wall on the V1 block, Figure 8.29.
Figure 8.29 A method for setting resolution.
8.9.9 The 6dB drop method for plotting laminations

It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural
welding is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test
surface will be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the
reflected signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed
scan based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary

marks with a paint-stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate
to give a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by
a careful scan, employing the 6dB drop method, to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
The 6dB drop method explained

The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is very
strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal displayed
on the screen reduces in amplitude.
DIS2-30815
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is reduced
to half the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6dB reduction in
signal strength, which gives this method its name. The reason for this reduction
at this point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is being reflected from
the flaw while the remainder of that signal is now not reflected but continues on
its transmission path through the material.
The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on the
surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire outline
of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate.
The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary, Figure 8.30.
25mm
60mm
First flaw BWE

maximised to full
screen height
First flaw BWE reduced

to ½ screen height
BWE from parent plate
Figure 8.30 The 6dB drop method.
8.9.10 The use of angle or shear wave probes

Angle probes as their name indicates propagate the ultrasonic signal into the
material at an angle. As mentioned earlier the actual angle will be determined
by the expected orientation of the flaws that are being scanned for.
Most frequently these will lie on the fusion boundary of a weld and therefore the
probe angle will be the same as the angle of preparation. This will ensure that
any signal reflected from a flaw will be returned along the same path as the
transmission signal because the angle of reflection will equal the incident angle.
There are standard probes available for 45o and 60o as these angles are
common preparation angles in structural welds. Other angles may be calculated
by trigonometry and the application of Snell’s Law, Figure 8.7 refers.
DIS2-30815
Figure 8.31 Angle probe scanning the preparation face of a weld.
The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
CRT in the same manner as for a 6dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to one tenth using a 20dB drop. This point can be plotted and the
defect size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
8.9.11 Lamination plotting

Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected
from these and not the flaw. To avoid this, the entire area is scanned with a
compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area may be marked out
in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage, see Figure 8.32.
Figure 8.32 Scanning for laminations.
DIS2-30815
8.9.12 Advantages and disadvantages of A-scan ultrasonics
Advantages:
 Can find and size subsurface defects.
 Possible to record the results via a computer system, photograph or video
the CRT screen.
 Accurate thickness readings can be carried out on thinner material than with
DTMs.
 Areas of pitting on the back wall can be assessed.
 Very adaptable, various probes can be fitted ie shear and compression
probes as well as twin and single crystal probes.
 More than one person can view the results either by looking at the same
unit or by setting up repeaters.
 Real-time results, no waiting for films to be developed.
Disadvantages:
 Requires highly trained operators to set up and interpret the results.
 Relies on accurate calibration.
 High level of cleaning required SA2.5 or SA3.
 Special arrangements have to be made for recording the results.
8.9.13 Care and maintenance of equipment

Care of UT equipment follows the same pattern as all equipment deployed
underwater.
 Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls.

 Charge all batteries in accordance with manufacture’s recommendations
using the correct type of charger.
 Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve hydrogen gas and
cause an explosive hazard).
 Store equipment in a dry place.
 Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components.
 Never operate equipment that is thought to be damaged – get it repaired.
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
Bayliss M, Short D, Bax M, Underwater Inspection, CRC Press, 1990. ISBN 13:
9780419135401.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an

ultrasonic sound wave as it passes through a material. The
wave is a stress pulse travelling at the speed of sound
within the material under test.
Such a wave travels in straight lines and will be partially
reflected from any interface in its path. Timing the interval
CSWIP 3.2U Course between the transmitted wave and the reflected wave will
Ultrasonic Inspection give the length of the wave’s path through the material.
From this information the thickness of materials can be
measured using a DTM and the presence of flaws can be
detected using other types of equipment.
Offshore this NDT method is used regularly for corrosion
monitoring and occasionally for weld inspection.
Producing Ultrasound What is meant by Ultrasonic?
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in What is meant by ultrasonic?

which sound waves pass through the material
under test.  Ultra: Beyond.
 Sonic: Sound.
Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has
been determined that, at frequencies in this part Sound: Something you are able to hear.
of the frequency spectrum, sound waves travel
furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Ultrasound
Sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of
Therefore the greatest penetration into solid human hearing, typically between a frequency of
materials is achieved by using ultrasound. 20kHz to approximately 10MHz.
What is meant by Ultrasonic? Frequency Spectrum
Infrasound: Frequency Spectrum
 Sound waves at a frequency of less than Speed of sound in air = 332m/sec
approximately 16Hz, these tend to be felt Sound waves

(Travelling at the speed of
Frequency
(kHz)
Electro-magnetic waves
(Travelling at the speed of light)
rather than heard for example earthquakes Infrasound frequencies

sound)
and volcanoes. less than 16Hz Infrasound

Less than 16Hz
10-3
Audible frequencies Human hearing range

(16 to 20,000Hz)
10-2
Audible sound:
10-1
16-20,000Hz 1
Ultrasound – frequencies above
 Sound waves within the range of human 20,000Hz up to 10MHz 10 Radio VLF
frequencies
Ultrasonic frequencies 102 LF
hearing which are the frequencies between used for testing

103 MF
104 HF
infrasound and ultrasound. typically 0.5-6MHz 106 UHF
107 SHF
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Ultrasonic Inspection Frequency of the Wave
The ultrasonic sound wave range of frequency is The number of atomic particle oscillations it causes per
from 20kHz up to approximately 10MHz. second determines the frequency of a signal.
The basic unit of frequency is the Hertz, abbreviated to Hz.

For most practical ultrasonic testing the
frequency range used is from 0.5-6MHz. One Hertz is one complete cycle of an event per second.
Lower frequencies between 0.5-1.5MHz are used

for testing materials with very large grain
structures such as concrete or cast iron.
Frequencies from 2-6MHz are used for testing

materials with fine grain structures including
steels.
Frequency of the Wave Frequency of the Wave
Graph for an alternating voltage A sound wave can be compared to the previous
graph in that as the sound wave train passes
through a material it propagates a stress front
that causes the atoms within the crystal lattice
structure of the material to be alternatively
tensely and compressively stressed and relaxed.
Graph of a signal with a frequency of 1Hz
Frequency of the Wave Frequency of the Wave
The frequency of the signal shown in the previous graph

may be calculated thus:
Its not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to
frequency. Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes.
The stress variation with time at a point in a solid, The frequency calculated above would normally be written as
subjected to an ultrasonic impulse from an ultrasonic transducer 10kHz.
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Frequency of the Wave Speed of the Wave
Number Engineering Prefix Symbol

The effects of the wave passing one point in the material
have been considered. However, the wave itself is passing
along through the material.
1,000,000,000 109 giga G
Like a surface wave on water, the water at any point goes
1,000,000 106 mega M up and down but as well as this the wave travels forwards.
1,000 103 kilo K Ultrasonic waves travel through a solid at the speed of
sound for a given type of wave in a given material.
1 1
The speed of travel of a sound wave is different for
0.001 10-3 milli m different types of wave and different in different materials.
0.000001 10-6 micro m
Types of Ultrasonic Wave Waves That Propagate Through Solids
Sound waves propagate through a material Longitudinal or compression waves.

(liquid, solid or gas) by causing atoms to
oscillate as the wave front passes through it. This type of wave is denoted by the symbol L.
There are two types of wave that propagate VL denotes the velocity of propagation of
through the solid material and three types that longitudinal or compression waves.
propagate as surface waves along the surface
skin of the material. With this type of wave the direction of oscillation
of the atoms is the same as the direction of the
wave propagation.
Longitudinal or Compression Wave Longitudinal or Compression Wave
Wave front
Second wave front Wave front Wave
Wave front moves moves past the front
particle particle moves on
Particle moves in the direction

of the wave propagation
Direction of travel Particlereturns
Particle returnstotooriginal
rest
ParticleParticle atParticle
rebounds to maximum
maximum opposite position
at deflection
rest
deflection
Particle movement of a longitudinal or compression wave
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Shear or Transverse Waves Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves.
This type of wave is denoted by the symbol T.
VT denotes the velocity of propagation of these waves.
The direction of oscillation of the atoms in this mode of

travel is at right angles to the direction of motion of the
propagating wave.
This mode of propagation is employed with angle probes

for weld inspection and is not used with DTM’s.
Particle movement of a transverse wave
Surface Waves Types of Wave
Of the three types of surface waves used in ultrasonic

Type of Single Comments on
testing none are used in underwater inspection. Wave
Symbol Condition Atomic Motion
Velocity use
1. Raleigh waves.
2. Lamb waves.
3. Love waves. Longitudinal Longitudinal
Used for
Passes through thickness and
or VL That is in the Yes
the large bulk of lamination
Compression direction of wave
material measurement
propagation
s
Transverse Used for

Shear or Passes through
VT That is at right angles Yes defect sizing
Transverse the large bulk of
to the direction of and weld
material
propagation inspection
Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves Summary of Velocities
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to

measure depths and sizes within any material, it Acoustic velocity (ms)
Material
is a fundamental principal that the velocity of VL VT
the sound wave remains constant for different Aluminium 6350 3100
samples of the same material. Concrete 4600
Naval brass 4430 2120
This is in fact the case, furthermore the Copper 4660 2260
ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can Air 332
therefore be used with confidence for inspection Structural steel 5940 3250
tasks. Water 1490
Perspex 2730 1430
VL = Longitudinal. VT = Transverse.
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Ultrasonic Wavelength Ultrasonic Wavelength
The wavelength indicates how far the ultrasonic For example, to calculate the wavelength for a
stress wave moves forward during one complete 20kHz ultrasonic compression wave in
stress cycle and has to be considered when the aluminium:
maximum sensitivity of any ultrasonic test is being
assessed.
The method of calculation is:
Ultrasonic Wavelength Ultrasonic Wavelength
The wavelength depends on the velocity of sound, the

wavelength of the ultrasonic signal will change when it
passes from one material into another.
For example when an ultrasonic compression wave passes

from perspex into steel, perspex would be the material
used for the shoe of the transducer and steel is the
workpiece.
The wavelength in steel would be larger than that in the

perspex. This is because the velocity of sound in perspex
(2730m/s) is lower than the velocity in steel (5940m/s).
Compression wave passing from perspex into steel
Further Effects of Ultrasonic Further Effects of Ultrasonic

Properties Properties
Acoustic impedance (Z). Acoustic attenuation.
The resistance to the passage of ultrasound is The reduction in energy of the wave as it passes
called acoustic impedance. It’s a material through the material. The strength of the ultrasonic
property and is the reason that ultrasound signal will be reduced and eventually will be so low
travels at different speeds in different materials. that it cannot be detected.
The main physical phenomena that attenuate the
ultrasonic signal are:
 Scattering: Sound wave bouncing off particles.
 Diffusion: The beam expanding as it goes through the
material.
 Viscous damping losses: Relates to atomic particle
movement.
 Relaxation losses: Relates to atomic particle movement.
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The Decibel System The Decibel System
It is usual to measure the amplitude performance or how

much a signal is attenuated, in terms of the ratio of one The power in an ultrasonic signal will decrease
signal to another, for example input strength to output with distance into the material
strength.
In the case of an amplifier the output is larger than the

input while with an attenuator the reverse is the case.
It is therefore consistent to measure the attenuation of a

signal using this technique. It is not an absolute
measurement but gives the relationship of the loss of
power in a signal as it passes through a section of
material.
The Decibel System The Decibel System
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the For example what is the attenuation of the ultrasonic
curve that joins up the peaks of the graphs and the signal between the first and second echoes for the
signals The
shown?
attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by: first echo is 12 units high Applying the
formula gives:
= 20 Log10
(12/6).
The second is
6 units high = 20 Log10 (2).
P1 and P2 can be any successive two peaks. = 20 x 0.3010.
= 6.02 dB.
A standard formula that is applied to the attenuation of an
ultrasonic signal propagated in any material under test is:
The calculated result is most important as it is used in
20 Log10 V1/ V2 dB practical material testing. It should be remembered that
if the signal is halved that is a 6dB drop.
The Direction of Propagation The Direction of Propagation
So far we have shown that the ultrasonic wave

travels at a known speed, in a straight line and obeys  An interface will include the outside edges of a
the laws of light. component and indeed the back surface is
referred to as the back wall. The surfaces of a
In order to predict the direction that the wave travels crack or porosity bubble are also boundaries.
as it passes through interfaces into different
materials, it is necessary to determine what happens
when the wave meets an interface.  At these interfaces the direction of travel of
the wave will be determined by the law of
An interface is any boundary between two materials reflection and the law of refraction.
of differing properties for example water and steel or
perspex and steel.
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Law of Reflection Law of Refraction
The angle the reflected wave makes with the normal angle to At an interface part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the
the interface from which the wave is being reflected is the same rest will pass into the second material. The path in the second
as the angle that the incident wave makes with the same normal material will still be a straight line but the direction of this
angle. wave will not be continuous with the direction of the incident
wave. It would have been turned through an angle that can be
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection determined by Snell’s Law.
Material 2 is denser
than material 1
When the angle of incidence is 0° the reflected angle is also 0°
this is the ideal condition for thickness measurements using
ultrasonic compression waves.
Ultrasonic Transducers Piezo Electric Crystal
A transducer is any device that transforms

energy from one form into another.
In the case of the ultrasonic transducer, it

transforms high frequency electrical signals to
the same high frequency mechanical signals and
vice versa.
This is the Piezo electric effect.
The Piezo electric transducer crystal is made When switch is closed the When the crystal is squeezed by
from a range of synthetic crystalline and ceramic potential across the crystal the returning sound an electrical
will cause it to change shape potential will be produced
materials.
Types of Transducers: Probes Single Crystal Probes
There are a number of different types of probes, These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric
some designed for specific tasks. However, we only crystal that both transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal.
need to be familiar with the main types. The acoustic characteristics of this transducer are quite specific
and the selected crystals possess particular characteristics.
All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic
signal into a test specimen with maximum efficiency. The crystal must transmit the signal, stop ringing, ring down to
The configuration of any probe is dependant on the rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to produce electrical
actual task it is designed for. energy that is passed on to the receiver amplifier.
There are broadly four types of probe: So the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely
separated from the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test.
1. Single crystal probes.
2. Twin crystal probes.
3. Compression or zero degree probes.
4. Angle probes.
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Single Crystal Probe Twin Crystal Probes
This type of transducer has separate crystals for transmission

and reception. The two crystals are mounted in the same
housing but are carefully isolated from each other electrically
and acoustically.
The material properties of the crystals are quite different from

those of the single crystal probe because the two crystals are
not required to ring down in order to receive.
One is constantly transmitting while the other is constantly

receiving. The electrical isolation is achieved by providing two
co-axial connectors, one to transmit and one to receive.
The acoustic barrier is generally a thin layer of cork.
Twin Crystal Probe Advantages/Disadvantages
Single crystal probes Twin crystal probes
Advantages: Advantages:
 Good power output.  Good near zone resolution.

 Greater penetration.  Initial pulse and dead zone
are contained in the shoe.
 Can be focused to any depth.
 Can measure thin plate.
Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
 Poor near zone resolution.  Less power output.

 Cannot measure thin plate.  Less penetration.
Compression or Zero Degree Probes Angle Probes
This type of probe: Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is

introduced into the material at an angle to the
 Transmits longitudinal waves that are interface and not perpendicular.
transmitted into the test specimen at a zero
angle. The angle is determined to either match the
 There is no refraction and the signal passes weld angle of preparation or to introduce the
directly through the specimen. beam at an angle most suited to reflect from
 May be single or twin crystal. internal defects.
 Is fitted to a digital thickness meter.
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Single Crystal Angle Probe Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use

of a suitable coupling agent between the probe and the test
surface.
This is because the small mechanical pulses cannot travel

across the small air gap that exists between the two surfaces
due to the mismatch in acoustic impedance between the shoe
of the transducer and the air.
Probe
Probe
Couplant
The Ultrasonic Beam Principals of Ultrasonic Testing
There are two basic principles of ultrasonic testing.
The through transmission technique (1)

Far zone Based on the detection of a decrease in energy of the
Here the beam diverges at a ultrasonic beam due to absorption by the flaw.
predictable rate it decays
exponentially and can be used to
accurately size small defects.
Dead zone Near zone

An area Area of fluctuating
where intensities can be
nothing used for thickness
useful can readings and sizing
be large reflectors for
obtained. example laminations.
Principals of Ultrasonic Testing Ultrasonic Test Systems
The pulse/echo technique (2). There are several types of units that can be used in this system
 Based on the reflection of energy from a flaw or depending on the method employed for timing and indicating
interface. the pulses of energy.
 This is the method used in A-scan ultrasonic
inspection and digital thickness meters and is the For flaw detection the indicator is a (cathode ray tube) CRT as
basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. this presents all the information available in the echo system.
With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation
1. A-scan: Shows real time depth of the defect.

2. B-scan: Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views.
3. C-scan: Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect.
4. P-scan: Adds all of the above together and gives a three-
dimensional computer impression.
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Pulse Echo System with A-Scan

An A-Scan Flaw Detector
Display
Calibration and Thickness

Calibration and Reference Blocks
Measurement
A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration
calibration before they can be used for testing. block however a reference block may be used if this is
either specified or agreed by the contracting party.
Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist Reference block
in this process but a standard calibration block will still be A reference block is produced to agreed measurements
required. and specifications. It is manufactured to the same
tolerances and surface finish as a calibration block and is
Digital thickness meters are pre-calibrated for use with low used in the same way.
carbon steel but the calibration must be verified before
each use. This will require the use of a calibration block or The difference between this and a calibration block is that
a specified reference block or step wedge. the reference block is intended to be used only for the
specified task and is not intended to be used for general
work on any other components.
Calibration and Reference Blocks V1 Calibration Block
Calibration block.
There are several different calibration blocks available
for ultrasonic testing.
The two most popular are the V1 and V2 calibration

blocks.
A calibration block is manufactured to standard specifications

and to international standards. It is produced from specified
material and is machined to close tolerances and laid down
standard of surface finish.
All the dimensions on the block are also specified and it is used
to calibrate ultrasonic flaw detectors in general.
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A-Scan Calibration Procedure for Scanning
A-scan flaw detector  Ensure the A-scan is fully charged.

calibrated to 100mm.
 Calibrate the set.
This picture shows the  Record the serial number of the instrument.
unit set up for a linearity  Record the serial number of the
check. calibration/reference block.
Peaks at 2.5, 5, 7.5 and  Complete a visual inspection of the test
10 representing 25, 50, surface.
75 and 100mm in this  Should be clean to SA2.5 or SA3.
case.  Scan and plot any laminations or thin sections.
The unit is now  Report and record results.
calibrated for measuring
up to 100mm.
Thickness Plotting The 6 dB Drop Method
25mm
60mm
First flaw BWE

maximised to full
screen height
First flaw BWE reduced

to ½ screen height
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make

BWE from parent plate
temporary marks with a paint stick or chinagraph to gain a

first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is
followed by a careful scan employing the 6dB drop method to
accurately size the flaw and determine the shape.
Digital Thickness Meter Digital Thickness Meter
 The Cygnus ultrasonic thickness meter has a

zero angle single crystal transducer probe.
 It uses the pulse echo technique for thickness
measurement.
 Before use check calibration at the worksite
(pre-cal.) this should be logged by the surface
data recorder.
 Clean enough of the test area for probe
access, firmly adhered paint need not be
removed.
 Upon completion of the inspection check the
calibration (post-cal.) this should also be
logged by the surface data recorder.
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Possible Causes of
Advantages of DTMs
False Readings With DTMs
 Quick and easy to use.
 Divers and ROVs can use them.
 Only small amount of training is necessary to
get results.
 Only isolated cleaning required.
 A Cygnus DTM will take readings through
firmly adhered paint.
Advantages of A-Scan Disadvantages of A-Scan
 Can find and size subsurface defects.  Requires highly trained operators to set up
 Possible to record the results via computer, and interpret the results.
photograph or video the CRT screen.  Relies on accurate calibration.
 Accurate thickness readings of thin material.  High level of cleaning required SA2½ or SA3.
 Areas of pitting on the back wall can be  Special arrangements have to be made for
assessed. recording the results.
 Very adaptable, all types of probe can be
fitted.
 More than one person can view the results
either by looking at the same unit or by
setting up repeaters.
 Real time results, no waiting for films to be
developed.
Care and Maintenance of Equipment
 Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and

controls.
 Wash off all housings with fresh water.
 Charge all batteries in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.
 Do not overcharge, some batteries may evolve Any Questions?
Hydrogen gas and cause an explosive hazard.
 Store equipment is a dry place.
 Be aware of the danger of electric shock from
some components.
 Never operate equipment that is thought to be
damaged, get it repaired.
12
Section 9
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding

9 Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
9.1 Cleaning
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling.
In either case only discrete areas of the structure will be cleaned, not the entire
jacket. A number of methods for cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 9.1
Table 9.1 Existing methods for cleaning.

Method Advantages Disadvantages ROV
Hand cleaning Inexpensive, easy to Slow, diver fatigue, poor
No
(scrapers, etc) deploy finish
Depth limits, control,
Pneumatics More efficient Yes
exhaust
Expensive, limited
Hydraulics More efficient Yes
choice, bulky hose
Fast, effective, Hazardous, leaves
HP water jet No
least damaging reflective surface
HP water jet with Hazardous, may damage
Fast, matt finish No
grit entrainment the surface
Grit blasting Removes all growth, Hazardous, maintenance,
Yes
(with water) matt finish backup team required
May be depth limited,
LP air grit Fast, matt finish large compressor Yes
required
Effective on hard Will not remove soft
Cavitation jet Yes
growth, safe, no grit growth
Inhibitors/ No diver intervention Only in splash zone,
No
Henderson rings required environmental impact
9.1.1 HP water jets

HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and, therefore, some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 9.1
DIS2-30815
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding 9-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Figure 9.1 Hughes HP water jet.
Safety considerations are:

 Never block or wire the trigger open.
 When in use never point at anything other than the area to be cleaned.
 Keep clear of any retro-jets.
 Never get any part of the body in front of the jet.
 Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition and
are correctly fitted and tightened. Whip-checks should be fitted to all joints.
 If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system because
of circulation in the water.
 If grit penetrates the suit or gloves under pressure take medical advice
immediately.
 Treat the equipment with respect; it is capable of maiming or even killing if
not handled correctly.
 All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater use.
DIS2-30815
9.1.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) advice
The DMAC has published the following advice on managing any accident that
might occur while using this type of equipment.
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the
extent of the injury beneath and the damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities
of water may have punctured the skin, flesh or organs through a very small
hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture,
particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent
infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries.
9.1.3 Management of any Injury

The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or
absence of infection. Even though the injury seems trivial on the surface and
the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for medical
examination as quickly as possible.
In a remote location, where surgical examination is not immediately possible,

first aid measures are confined to dressing the wound and observing the patient
closely for the development of further complaints over four or five days.
The development of fever and a rising pulse rate suggest the injury is serious,
together with the persistence or occurrence of pain. On evacuation, the diver
should carry the following card, which outlines the possible nature of the injury.
This person has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to
14,500psi (100MPa, 1000 bar, 1019Kg/cm) with a jet velocity of 900mph
(1440Km/hr).
Please take this into account when making your diagnosis.
Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organisms occurring at low

temperatures have been reported. These may be Gram Negative
Pathogens such as those found in sewage. Bacterial swabs and blood
cultures may, therefore, be helpful.
9.1.4 Standard of surface finish

The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying grit blast cleaning of steel prior to
the application of paint coatings.
This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO 8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1:

1989 and BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001, BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1:
1996.
DIS2-30815
The specifications from these standards normally applied offshore are as
follows:
SA1: Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual

inspection).
SA2: Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and

corrosion products.
SA2½: Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment, resulting in a

dull matt metal finish. This is the most widely adopted cleaning
level applied offshore as it leaves a matt surface, sometimes
referred to as stippled, that does not unduly reflect light. It is an
excellent surface for all NDT.
SA3: Very thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for
most inspection but will reflect light and is, therefore, not such a
good surface if video and photography are employed. Most
commonly used for A-scan ultrasonic inspections.
9.1.5 Area to be cleaned

The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in
unnecessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA2½ should include the weld cap and an
area 75mm either side of it, measured from the weld toe. Also, an area large
enough to allow access for the inspection equipment and the diver inspector
should be cleaned to SA1 either side of the weld, see Figure 9.2.
Clean to SA2.5 75mm

either side of the weld
Figure 9.2 Cleaned area.
DIS2-30815
9.2 Profile grinding
9.2.1 General comments
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structure’s
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults, such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws.
If pressure vessels, such as caissons and conductors are constructed to PD

5500:2000, all welds should be dressed to comply with the requirements of the
standard. Profile grinding obviously has an established place in welding
fabrication.
Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ profile
grinding may be dictated by:
 The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during MPI or
EMD investigations are actually cracks.
 The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed during
inspection activities.
 The practice of removing identified notches or stress raisers discovered
during the normal IMR cycle.
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised, either by

the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holder’s engineering department, via
the onsite Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be
given in a written instruction.
9.2.2 Remedial grinding

The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features
are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the
annual IMR programme.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any

indications to a maximum depth of 2mm, in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a
requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication
has been ground out or not.
The Onshore Engineering Department, in accordance with their requirements

and procedures, will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains
after the full 2mm depth is reached (Figure 9.3).
DIS2-30815
Figure 9.3 Remedial and profile grinding.
DIS2-30815
Bibliography
9780419135401.
Lancaster J F, Metallurgy of Welding, Woodhead Publishing, 1999,

ISBN 13: 9781855734289.

Books), 1988, ISBN 13: 9780114129118.
DIS2-30815
28/08/2015
Cleaning for Inspection
There are two prime reasons for cleaning an

area of a structure:
1. To prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other

NDT.
CSWIP 3.2U Course 2. To remove excessive marine growth, debris
Cleaning for Inspection and Remedial Grinding or other fouling.
In either case only discrete areas of the

structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket.
Cleaning for Inspection HP Water Jets
Method Advantages Disadvantages ROV
Hand cleaning (scrapers, Inexpensive, Slow, diver fatigue, poor

No
etc) easy to deploy finish
Depth limits, control,
Pneumatics More efficient Yes
exhaust
Expensive, limited choice,
Hydraulics More efficient Yes
bulky hose
Fast, effective, Hazardous, leaves
HP water jet No
least damaging reflective surface
HP water jet with grit Hazardous, may damage
Fast, matt finish No
entrainment the surface
Grit blasting Removes all growth, matt Hazardous, maintenance,
Yes
(with water) finish backup team required
May be depth limited,
LP air grit Fast, matt finish Yes
large compressor required
Effective on hard growth, Will not remove soft HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment
Cavitation jet Yes
safe, no grit growth and LP grit blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have
No diver intervention Only in splash zone,
Inhibitors/Henderson rings
required environmental impact
No potential to harm the operator and therefore some safety
considerations must be included with any discussion of their use.
HP Water Jets HP Water Jets
1
28/08/2015
HP Water Jets Safety Considerations
 Never block or wire the trigger open.

 Never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned.
 Keep clear of any retro-jets.
 Never get any part of the body in front of the jet.
 Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test,
good condition and are correctly fitted and tightened.
 If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support
system because of circulation in the water.
 If grit penetrates the suit or gloves under pressure take
medical advice immediately.
 Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming
or even killing if not handled correctly.
Diving Medical Advisory Committee

Management of any Injury
(DMAC)
DMAC has published advice on managing any accident that The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury
might occur while using this type of equipment. and the presence or absence of infection.
Even though the injury seems trivial on the surface and
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little
the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to
indication of the extent of the injury beneath and the
arrange for medical examination as quickly as possible.
damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities of water may
have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a very Where this is not immediately possible, first aid measures
small hole that may not even bleed. are confined to dressing the wound and observing the
patient closely for the development of further complaints
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in over four or five days.
subsequent rupture, particularly if infection has been
The development of fever and a rising pulse rate suggest
introduced. The development of subsequent infection is
the injury is serious together with persistence or
particularly important in abdominal injuries.
occurrence of pain.
Cleaning for Inspection Standard of Surface Finish
On evacuation the diver should carry the following SA1: Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling for GVI.
card which outlines the possible nature of the injury: SA2: Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose
 This person has been involved with high pressure water paint and corrosion products.
jetting up to 14,500psi (1000bar) with a jet velocity of SA2½: Thorough blast-cleaning with grit entrainment
900mph (1440kmh). resulting in dull matt metal finish. This is the most
widely adopted cleaning level applied offshore as
it leaves a surface that does not unduly reflect
 Please take this into account when making your diagnosis. light. It is sometimes referred to as stippled. It is
an excellent surface for CVI, MPI CCTV,
 Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organisms photography and all other NDT.
occurring at low temperatures have been reported. These SA3: Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal.
may be gram negative pathogens such as those found in This is good for most inspection but will reflect
sewage. Bacterial swabs and blood cultures may therefore light and is therefore not such a good surface if
be helpful. CCTV and photography are employed.
2
28/08/2015
Cleaning Areas for Weld Inspection Grinding Indications
Crack
Weld
Pit gauge
Weld
Toe ground out to an

agreed maximum
Final Profiling
Weld Any Questions?
Area ground to
maximum agreed and
profiled to relieve stress

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CSWIP 3.

2U - NDT Inspection Diver

Training and Examination Services

Organisation and Examination

The Certification Scheme for Personnel (CSWIP)

CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Government’s Board of

Single source of expertise

TWI has a large, fee-paying industrial membership of around 800 members,

Certification management board

Professional Board of Certification Management Board

Membership, Education Membership, Education & Registration

CSWIP Welding Specialists & Practitioners

CSWIP Plastics Welders Certification

Welding Fabricator Certification Management

Certification Scheme for Welder Training

CSWIP In-Service Inspection Management

Responsibilities of the board

 Acts as the governing board for certification in keeping with the

The management committees:

 Meet regularly and monitor the administration of the examinations.

CSWIP certification for underwater inspectors

1 3.1U Diver Inspector.

(This is an approved course for preparation for the 3.2U examination)

The other paper:

 Magnetic particle assessment of three welds using various magnetisation

DIS2 CSWIP 3.2U

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Introduction End of Course Examination

You MUST pass an end of course examination

Copying of any course material

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

CSWIP 3.2U Certification CSWIP 3.2U Certification

Copyright © TWI Ltd Copyright © TWI Ltd

Copyright © TWI Ltd

Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)

In 1600, the Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an

A couple of centuries later, in 1819, the Danish Physicist Øested, observed a

1.2 Types of magnetism

Table 1.1 Magnetic properties of a selection of materials.

Figure 1.1 Domains in an un-magnetised state.

When an external magnetic field is introduced the domains align themselves

Figure 1.2 Magnetised state: Domains orientate in an external magnetic field.

Figure 1.4 Residual state: Domains remain orientated in the absence of

Figure 1.5 Like poles repel: Unlike poles attract.

Figure 1.6 The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet.

Characteristics of the magnetic lines of force

 Have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs.

Circular magnetism is not polar and cannot be detected externally on a round

Figure 1.8 Coiled conductor.

1.5 Magnetic Hysteresis

Figure 1.9 Hysteresis loop.

When an un-magnetised ferromagnetic material is exposed to a gradually

To reduce the flux density to zero, or demagnetise the specimen, a negative

Increasing the negative magnetising force still further produces a B-H

1.5.1 Hard and soft ferromagnetics

Figure 1.10 Hysteresis loops for hard and soft ferromagnets.

1.6 Definition of terms

Magnetising force The total force tending to set up a magnetic flux in

Permeability The ease with which a material can be

Saturation The stage, at which any increase in the

Coercive force The reverse magnetising force required to remove

Remanence The magnetic flux density remaining in a material

Residual magnetic field The magnetic field remaining in a material after