CARABAO MANURE AS ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE

PAPERBOARD PRODUCTION

SENIOR HIGH THESIS PROPOSAL PRESENTED TO THE

FACULTY OF THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL DEPARTMENT IN

DMMC INSTITUTE OF HEALTH SCIENCES

TANAUAN CITY, BATANGAS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

SECTION: 12 – HOPKINS

NAME OF MEMBERS:

BELO, JASON VIC D.

DOJO, EMILOREINE

MARASIGAN, MARVIC JOEMPERL M.

MEJINO, GAIL AUDREY H.

2022
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CHAPTER I

The Problem and its Background

This chapter contains the Introduction, Purpose Statement, Statement of the

Problem, Null Hypothesis, Review of Realated Literature, Significance of the study,

Scope and Limitation of the study, Definition of Terms, Theoretical Framework, and

Conceptual Framework.

Introduction

Cutting down trees made major impacts on the environmental status of the Earth

and is influenced by the amount of paper that is consumed on daily basis. Data were

collected from the employees of selected higher educational institutions in Oman.

Technical factors, workplace environment, printing preferences and lack of awareness

were found the main cause of overconsumption. Environmental and economic impact of

the paper was estimated from the actual amount of paper consumed using standard

formulas from literature. The institutions have used 5,200 reams (13 tons) of 80gm A4

size paper in one year. The economic cost of the paper was 7,800 OMR (20,280 US$).

The environmental impact estimated are: cutting of 312 trees, 73,970 Ibs of CO2 gas

emission, 144,742 KWh of energy consumption, solid waste produced 29,614 lbs and

247975 gallons of water were wasted (Shah, I. A. et al., 2019). Due to this problem,
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global warming and other natural disasters are occurring. However, most plants contain

the same property of having cellulose which is the molecule needed to produce papers.

Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is one of the most ubiquitous organic polymers on the planet. It is a

significant structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, various forms of

algae and oommycetes (Gupta, P.K., et al., 2019). Taking this fact into consideration, the

researchers are trying to find a way in which other sources of this material might have the

ability to avoid the process of cutting down trees which contributes highly on the

problems of the environment. Since it is a non-toxic, bio-degradable polymer with high

tensile and compressive strength, it has widespread use in various fields such as

nanotechnology, pharmaceutical industry, food industry, cosmetics, textile and paper

industry, drug-delivery systems in treating cancer and other diseases (Gupta, P.K., et al.,

2019). The paper industry makes a great use of trees for using cellulose as material for

paper production, although other alternatives and more sustainable source this material

exist.

Bubalus bubalis carabenesis or carabao is a domestic animal related to buffalos

and cows. They are herbivore which means they eat grass or plants. Carabaos can eat this

source of cellulose because of its ruminant stomach. Grass is taken into Rumen where

plant materials are exposed to bacteria that can break down the cellulose. It will then

undergo the other parts of digestion until it becomes manure which is now a source of

cellulose. Analyses were conducted on 10 grass species from permanent grasslands in the

Note´c Leniwa and Note´c Bystra valley. Their chemical composition was assayed, and

their heat of combustion and heating value were determined. The cellulose content

ranged from 33.38% to 38.68%, while the content of lignin ranged from 15.42% to
 3

21.99%, and that of hemicellulose from 30.27% to 34.31% (Waliszewska, B. et al.,

2021). This study show that cellulose in grass ranged from 33% up to 38%. Comparing

these percentages with the common source of cellulose in trees, wood contains 40-50%

(Wayback Machine, 2018). Rationally, using grass fed on carabaos are better source of

cellulose and most importantly, the amount of energy to cut, grind, and produce paper is

expensive compared to extracted cellulose by feces of carabaos which is more sustainable

to preserve nature.

Paper production is basically a two-step process in which a fibrous raw material

is first converted into pulp, and then the pulp is converted into paper. The harvested

wood is first processed so that the fibres are separated from the unusable fraction of the

wood, the lignin. Pulp making can be done mechanically or chemically. The pulp is then

bleached and further processed, depending on the type and grade of paper that is to be

produced. In the paper factory, the pulp is dried and pressed to produce paper sheets.

Post-use, an increasing fraction of paper and paper products is recycled. Non recycled

paper is either landfilled or incinerated (Bajpai P., 2018.) This process is replicated by

the digesting process of carabaos (grinding), and the other manmade process that differs

based on the applied steps of a researcher. Since the researchers opt for the creation of a

product with much less equipment, the amount of energy that will be preserved is

significant comparing with the energy consumed in making a commercialized paper.

Creating a way of having a sustainable source of cellulose, the researchers will find out

the capability of carabao manure as alternative material for sustainable paperboard

production.
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The main objective of this study is to create an alternative and affordable

paperboard using carabao manure that contains cellulose. Cellulose can be found in trees,

however, using other sources like carabao manure are much sustainable source of this

fiber. This research will try to use the natural properties of its independent variable to

make an extensive background about how other sources of cellulose can be used for

products with significantly less materials and usage of equipment. This study will serve

as future reference for making a feasibility study of a product development in business

related subjects.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this study is to use carabao manure as substitute of cellulose

source in making paper specifically, paperboard. Carabao feces holds the same properties

a wood contain such as having cellulose and fiber which is the essential part of making

pulp that undergoes mechanical or chemical process to become a paper. This study will

highlight the benefits of using carabao manure as another source of material for making

papers which also contributes to the preservation of environment.

Theoretical Framework

Mixture Theory

Mixture theory is used to model multiphase systems using the principles of

continuum mechanics generalised to several interpenetrable continua. The basic

assumption is that, at any instant of time, all phases are present at every material point,

and momentum and mass balance equations are postulated (Bowen et al., 1976;

Wilmanski K., 1996).

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The mixture theory can be applied within the state of the molecule cellulose

which will turn into paper after undergoing the process of papermaking. The principle of

continuum can be observe in how the fiber coming from the plants which are eaten and

digested by the carabao does not change and at all phases it is present all throughout the

papermaking process. This theory is also supported by how the historical standpoint of

papermaking uses the same principle of using the same source of molecule which is then

turned into a product we know now as paper.

Paper as we know it today was first made in Lei-Yang, China by Ts'ai Lun, a

Chinese court official. In all likelihood, Ts'ai mixed mulberry bark, hemp and rags with

water, mashed it into pulp, pressed out the liquid, and hung the thin mat to dry in the sun

(paperrecycles.org, 2019). This origin is preserved and applied with industrial

development in the modern era and used all over other researches.

The method of making paper is essentially a simple one—mix up vegetable fibers,

and cooks them in hot water until the fibers are soft but not dissolved. The hot water also

contains a base chemical such as lye, which softens the fibers as they are cooking. Then,

pass a screen-like material through the mixture, let the water drip off and/or evaporate,

and then squeeze or blot out additional water. A layer of paper is left behind. Essential to

the process are the fibers, which are never totally destroyed, and, when mixed and

softened, form an interlaced pattern within the paper itself. Modern papermaking

methods, although significantly more complicated than the older ways, are developmental

improvements rather than entirely new methods of making paper (Paper, madehow.com

vol. 2). Following the consolidated process of making a paper through related literature,
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the researchers will replicate the procedures with small alterations needed to match the

framework. Therefore; the researchers will provide sufficient understanding of the

constant and dependent variables of the experiment and doing small changes to the

papermaking process limited in the independent variable which is the carabao manure.

Conceptual Framework

The development of a conceptual framework begins with a deductive assumption

that a problem exists, and the application of processes, procedures, functional approach,

models, or theory may be used for problem resolution (Zackoff et al., 2019).

Using the concepts and with comprehensive background of the related studies on

hand, the conceptual framework for the research is shown in the next page:

Figure1.

Input Process Output

Experimenting with Testing out different Affordable
the production properties of the paperboard.
process of Bubalus carabao feces Effective alternative
carabenesis feces paperboard and source of cellulose
under different listing its rating for papermaking.
condition categorized by each
property comparing
with commercial
paperboard.
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Statement of the Problem

1. What is the level of effectiveness of carabao manure as alternative material for

paperboard using the following concentrations?

1.1. 100%;

1.2. 75%;

1.3. 50%; and

1.4. 25%?

2. What is the level of effectiveness of carabao manure paperboard in comparison with

the commercial paperboard using the following concentrations?

2.1. 100%;

2.2. 75%;

2.3. 50%; and

2.4. 25%?

3. Is there any significant difference on the effectiveness of carabao manure using

different concentrations and commercial paperboard?

4. What recommendation could be proposed to use carabao manure as alternative

material for sustainable paperboard?

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Null Hypothesis

H0: There is no significant difference on the effectiveness of Bubalus bubalis

carabenesis feces paperboard using different concentrations and commercial paperboard.

Assumption of the Study

An assumption is an unexamined belief: what we think without realizing we think it. Our

inferences (also called conclusions) are often based on assumptions that we haven't

thought about critically (Ekstrom, 2021). The assumptions of the researchers for this

study are as follows:

A1 Carabao feces has cellulose, so it can be an alternative to trees.

A2 A great amount of this alternative source of cellulose is enough to make a paperboard.

A3 The data collected from this experiment can be a good indication of how much

potential this alternative source of fiber and how sustainable it is in making paper.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

The researchers will focus on the ability of carabao manure as an alternative

source of cellulose and its capability to be a paperboard with limited equipment and

material. The study will approach the usage of surroundings specifically the location

around farmlands near the researchers area and use resources available within that

premises due to lockdown restrictions. Carabao manure is the highlighted independent

variable as other factors in the process of making is exclusive to the procedural choice of

the researchers.
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Adjustments are depending on the availability of sources of carabao manure

although limited and not exceeding the Sto. Tomas City, Batangas area.

No intervention will be done with the control variable which is the type of product

we are testing that is paperboard. Comparisons between the experimental and commercial

products are the extent of research and no further experimentation will be conducted if

not requested.

Significance of the Study

The result of this study will be a great benefit for the following.

To farmers, as they can use the knowledge and process of making paper or

paperboard out of carabao manure as another source of income.

To the paper industry, as they can use the knowledge of using other resources

such as carabao manure to have a sustainable source of cellulose and help in preserving

the environment.

To environmental organizations, as they can help implement this knowledge to

further preserve our natural resources. Without them, there is no substantial change that

will occur.

To future researchers, as they can use this knowledge for other purposes and by

altering other variables to enhance their own research.

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Definition of Terms

For a better understanding of the study, the following terms are defined in the context of

this research.

Bubalus bubalis carabenesis – is a domestic swamp-type water buffalo native to the

Philippines.

Cellulose - is a molecule, consisting of hundreds – and sometimes even thousands – of

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. It is the main substance in the walls of plant cells,

helping plants to remain stiff and upright.

Hemicellulose - is one of a number of heteropolymer, such as arabinoxylans, present

along with cellulose in almost all terrestrial plant cell walls.

Hemp - is a variety of the Cannabis sativa plant species that is grown specifically for

industrial use.

Lignin - is a class of complex organic polymers that form key structural materials in the

support tissues of most plants.

Mulberry - is a fast-growing, small to medium-sized mulberry tree which grows to 10–

20 m tall.

Plant fiber - are generally composed of cellulose, often in combination with other

components such as lignin.

Pulp - is made from breaking down the fibrous part of plants, primarily trees, and refers

to the main ingredient in the papermaking process.

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Rags - a piece of old cloth, especially one torn from a larger piece, used typically for

cleaning things.
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CHAPTER II

Review of related literature

The review of related literature includes the literatures that have distinct

similarities with the study carabao manure as alternative material for sustainable

paperboard production.

A sustainable potential source of ruminant animal waste material (dung

fiber) for various industrial applications: A review, Bioresource Technology

Reports

A large part of the vegetation on the earth is unsuitable for human

consumption but is fairly consumed by grazing and herbivorous animals. Cattle

convert straw and stover in their rumen and the excreted waste from their body

like dung and urine are subsidiary. Proper management, processing and

valorisation of cow dung and cow urine into energy, manure, medicines, organic

pesticides, and other daily products can generate millions of employment

opportunities in rural areas. The main purpose of this review is to explore the

possibilities and find out the potential and suitability of ruminant animal dung
 13

fiber material as an alternative non wood source for various application, like

handmade pulp and paper, Composite material (Reinforcement), Manmade

boards, Fillers for Nano structural composite etc. (Fasake V.& Dashora K., 2021).

Cow Manure and Elephant Dung Could Be Used to Make the Paper of the

Future

The average dairy cow produces 82 pounds of manure daily. For

elephants, that number is up to 300 pounds. According to researchers at the

University of Vienna, all that dung represents an untapped resource that has the

potential to change the way we make paper. The team of scientists presented their

findings at a meeting of the American Chemical Society on March 21. Waste

from cows and elephants, they say, is rich in the same cellulose that's required to

make paper products. What's more, the cellulose in manure has been broken down

by digestion, making it easier for paper manufacturers to process. Animals eat

low-grade biomass containing cellulose, chew it and expose it to enzymes and

acid in their stomach, and then produce manure (Bismarck A., n.d.). Depending

on the animal, up to 40 percent of that manure is cellulose, which is then easily

accessible (Bismarck A., n.d). Today most paper is made by grinding down raw

wood into nanocellulose, a process that takes a lot of power. The cellulose in dung

has already been chewed and worn down by acid and enzymes in the animal's

digestive system, cutting out the need for all that grinding. Thanks to cattle farms

and elephant parks around the world, this material is an abundant sustainable

resource. The dung they collect is treated with a sodium hydroxide solution to

remove lignin, the glue that holds cellulose fibers together. From there, they filter
 14

out other impurities like proteins and dead cells and bleach whatever's left with

sodium hypochlorite to create a pure, white pulp that's ready to be made into

paper (Debczak M., 2018).

From poop to paper: a new way to produce paper sustainably

Paper is a material that we use ubiquitously—for printing, books, and

advertisements. Over 40% of the world’s cut timber is used for paper production,

and it requires millions of trees to be cut down and uses a lot of water. A research

group from the University of Vienna has created a more environmental friendly

way to produce paper — from animal poop. Grazing animals eat a lot of grass and

other plants. This means that their waste also contains a lot of cellulose. In areas

with lots of farm animals or elephants, reusing their waste is a good way to get rid

of this agricultural waste and produce paper in a cheap and environmentally

friendly way. Because the animals already process the cellulose originally, less

energy and chemicals are needed to turn this partially digested cellulose into

cellulose nanofibers than for raw wood. Many types of dung are suitable;

Bismarck and his lab group have worked with goat, horse, cow, and elephant

dung. Let’s just say that there is no shortage of material either. Parks in Africa

where hundreds of elephants live and cattle farms around the world produce tons

of manure. To go from dung to a finished paper product, the manure needs to first

be treated with sodium hydroxide. This treatment removes lignin, which can be

reused as fertilizer or fuel, and other impurities. The material is bleached with

sodium hypochlorite to remove the rest of the lignin and to make white pulp for

paper. This cellulose then needs minimal grinding to break it down into the
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nanofibers necessary for paper production. In contrast, when isolating cellulose

from trees, much more processing and grinding is necessary. The cellulose from

animal dung could likely be processed in the same factories where tree pulp is

made (Motivans E., 2018).

Making Paper from Poop Offers a Solution to the World’s Manure Problem

Paper is typically made from cellulose fibers derived from wood, and

wood isn't plentiful in places where there aren't many trees. In the near future,

however, that may not be a problem, as scientists have devised a method of

making paper from cow and even elephant manure. The resulting pulp is

subsequently bleached with sodium hypochlorite to remove the rest of the lignin,

and to give the pulp a white color. It is then used to make paper which can be

written on, or used in applications such as reinforcing polymer composites, or

filtering wastewater before it's released into the environment. Not only does the

process make use of a waste product, but it also requires less energy and fewer

chemicals than wood-based paper production, as the animals have already ground

up and partially digested the raw material. A team of scientists from the

University of Vienna, however, thinks that poop can be turned into paper. Their

process, which involves extracting grass and hay fibers, called cellulose, from

manure is simple, inexpensive, and uses less energy and fewer chemicals than the

top-down method of grinding wood into pulp. After collecting a fresh sample of

manure, the researchers heated it in an oven for two hours at 120 degrees Celsius

(248 degrees Fahrenheit) to kill any pathogens. Next, they mixed the sterilized

manure with a solution of water and sodium hydroxide to remove animal matter,
 16

such as dead cells and tissue. They then purified it using common bleach and

mixed it in a common household blender. (In a larger-scale paper production

facility, active oxygen would be used because it’s chlorine-free and

environmentally friendly). Lastly, they poured the suspension through a filter to

remove any excess water. The result was a gel-like substance of pure cellulose.

After spreading the substance flat onto a mold, they pressed it with a weight and

left it to dry. The result: paper (Staedter T., 2018).

From elephant dung to paper: an unusual alternative to deforestation

Harvested and processed, adult elephant droppings can be used to make

high quality paper. An adult elephant produces 50 kg of dung per day, which is

potentially 115 sheets of paper. Did you know it’s possible to make paper from

elephant dung? This non-ruminant herbivore consumes an average of 200 to 250

kg of food a day, mostly in the form of plants and fruit. It produces 50 kg of dung,

which once treated, will in its turn produce 115 sheets of paper. The process is

very simple. These pachyderms don’t digest the cellulose in the plants they ingest.

The cellulose, which is a fibrous material, is recovered, washed, boiled for 4

hours, dried and then treated in the same way as conventional wood pulp. The end

product is paper that is completely natural, odorless and free of bacteria

(LivingCircular, 2016).

Cellulose nanofibers won from elephant and cow manure for sustainably

making paper
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The interest in cellulose fibres, in particular micro- or nanofibrillated

cellulose, utilized in paper and composite materials as alternative to conventional

fibre materials, has recently grown significantly. Thereby, particularly in countries

without access to large forest areas, an alternative to wood as raw material for

natural fibres is highly desirable. In order to promote an environmentally

sustainable, widely available and cheap raw material, elephant manure was

proposed as potential source. As elephants digest only 30 to 40% of their diet,

their manure contains large quantities of fibrous cellulosic material. In addition,

the mechanical, acidic and enzymatic pre-treatment during ingestion and digestion

initiates break down of the fibres. This makes this animal waste a suitable

candidate for the use as precursor for the production of micro- or even

nanofibrillated cellulose. Nanocelluloses are commonly prepared by mechanical

disintegration of plant material, optionally with chemical pre-treatment, thus

requiring a lot of energy and chemicals during the fibrillation process. Therefore,

utilizing the elephant as the first-stage bioreactor for the defibrillation of cellulose

fibres by mechanical and chemical means would constitute an energy-efficient

approach (Nanowerk News, 2018).

Carabao (Bubalus bubalis carabenesis) Manure as Alternative Source for

Paper

Paper is made from cellulose fiber from woods. As our demands of paper

are getting bigger, many trees will be cut down. Approximately 80,000 to 160,000

trees are cut down daily worldwide. This estimate is based on the Global Forest

Resource Assessment, most recently conducted in 2015, which estimates that

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Earth lost around 60,000 square kilometers of trees globally in one year (Global

Forest Resource Assessment, 2015). In the Philippines, an on-going study of

paper use in one of the colleges in Metro Manila is an example. For one of its

departments alone, initial estimates show that for examinations alone use 1.8

million sheets of paper (more than 3,500 reams) annually. The end-term

requirements account for an additional consumption of another 1,000 reams of

paper. Almost 2.5 million sheets of paper (5,000 reams) annually for one

department alone (The Manila Times, 2018). To think of it, multiply it by the

numbers of departments, colleges, and universities. That’s actually a huge paper

consumptions from trees. Filipinos are very fond of raising carabaos, cows, goats,

and other farm animals. They are easy to raise because the owner just let them eat

grass in their properties. However, with 94 million head of cattle and carabao,

farmers face a staggering 2 billion tons of manure a year. Methane and ammonia

gases pollute the air, and phosphorous and nitrogen runoff contaminates rivers,

lakes, and oceans (Tracy Steadter, 2018). It’s also damaging for our environment

and can cause harm to people. That’s why this study is intended to find the use of

carabao manure and utilizing it as an alternative source for paper instead of trees.

As carabaos are herbivores, they only eat grass which basically means that they

eat cellulose fibers too. Cellulose fibers are one of the main components in

making papers. So if the animal is healthy and its digestion system is good, its

manure will not contain any cellulose fiber and it is the cellulose fiber which

makes paper (Asiole K., 2019).

Cow and elephant dung can be turned into paper, study shows
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A new paper production technique promises to reduce the industry's

reliance on wood. Researchers have developed a way to turn cow and elephant

dung into paper. Traditional paper production methods involve the chemical

and mechanical breakdown of raw wood into pulp that can be turned into

paper products, which can be an energy intensive process. As researchers

explained Wednesday at the annual national meeting of the American

Chemical Society in New Orleans, animals can save the paper industry energy

by performing the breakdown functions themselves. "Animals eat low-grade

biomass containing cellulose, chew it and expose it to enzymes and acid in

their stomach, and then produce manure," Alexander Bismarck, a professor of

advanced materials at the University of Vienna, said in a news release.

"Depending on the animal, up to 40 percent of that manure is cellulose, which

is then easily accessible." In Africa, sanctuaries, reservations and national

parks host thousands of elephants. Dung is available in massive quantities.

The same goes for cattle ranches in Europe and North America. A sodium

hydroxide solution treatment helps separate lignin and impurities, including

dead cells, from the cellulose. The separated cellulose is then bleached with

sodium hypochlorite. No additional processes are needed to break down the

celluloses before its entry into traditional paper production methods. The

digestion process inside the guts of cows and elephants works to grind the

cellulose into nanofibers (Brooks Hays, 2018).

Method For Making Paper Using Cow Dung

 20

The present invention belongs to the technical field of papermaking,

particularly for producing pulp by using cow dung, cow Urine, turmeric, waste

cotton hosiery and Seeds of Indian organic plants, flower, fruits and vegetable.

The cow dung pulp suitable for the production of paper, but also created a new

use for the development and utilization of farming waste dung, cow dung to solve

the environment pollution problem and waste to achieve a low-input, high-use,

reducing the cost of pulp products (Bheem R., 2018).

Wastes from pulp and paper mills - a review of generation and recycling

alternatives

The production of pulp and paper is increasing worldwide, and wastes are

therefore being generated in appreciable amounts. Various materials are generated

in pulp and paper mills, such as ash, dregs, grits, lime mud and pulp mill sludge.

Over the years, these wastes have typically been sent to landfills or incinerated.

However, with increased environmental awareness new alternatives have been

investigated, especially the valorization of these materials. In this review, the

characteristics of the manufacturing process, generated wastes, main destinations

and recycling alternatives are addressed. The state of the art indicates that dregs

are useful in agriculture as soil amendments, while lime mud can be used in

agriculture and in environmental technology, mainly in wastewater treatment.

Grits are commonly employed in construction, and pulp mill sludge shows

applications in agriculture, construction and energy processes. In conclusion, this

review shows several successful cases of recycling wastes from pulp and paper

mills (Hotza D. et al., 2018).

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Non-wood fibers as raw material for pulp and paper industry

Pulp and paper industry in the world have been growing fast. As a result,

there has been a massive request for pulp and paper raw materials. The raw

materials used in papermaking can be classified into three groups: wood, non-

wood, and recycled wastepaper. The Non-wood raw material is an important fiber

resource in the regions where forest resources are limited. The current usage of

non-wood plant fibers, as rice straws, corn stalks, cotton stalks, and bagasse

would play a chief role in increasing papermaking raw materials. Using of non-

wood plant fibers in the paper industry associated with some problems, including

collection, transportation, storage and handling, washing, bleaching, papermaking,

chemical recovery, supply of raw material and the properties of finished paper.

Recently, a high-tech innovation in all the fields of papermaking has made non-

wood more reasonable with wood as a raw material for papermaking. Although

till now, use of non-wood fibers for pulp and paper manufacture was focused in

countries with limited wood supply, it is now showing a growing effort even in

countries with acceptable wood source due to environmental concerns.

Consequently, the future of non-wood plant fibers as pulping and papermaking

raw material looks bright (Abd El-Sayed E. et al., 2019)

Cellulose nanopaper composites based on nanocellulose from elephant

manure

Nanocelluloses (NFC) gained substantial attention in recent years as

reinforcement of composite materials due to their excellent properties. One

promising approach to yield high fibre volume fraction NFC composites is to

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laminate nanopapers. Thereby, the characteristics of the nanopapers directly

determine the properties of the composites, hence, excellent mechanical properties

of the nanopapers are desired. Nonetheless, aiming at ecologically sound

solutions, also the raw material of the NFC needs to be considered. In this regard,

utilizing agricultural waste rather than high-grade resources (wood) as base

material would be vital. We have identified elephant manure to be a suitable

precursor for the preparation of NFC, for elephants digest only about 35 % of

their diet. Accordingly, their excrements contain large quantities of fibrous

cellulosic material, whereby the ingestion and digestion already initiates fibre

break-down. Thus, utilizing the elephant as first-stage bioreactor for the

defibrillation of cellulose fibres by mechanical and chemical means constitutes an

energy-efficient approach for the production of NFC. We demonstrate that by

chemical purification of elephant manure, cellulose nanofibrils can be isolated

from which papers were produced that had better mechanical properties than most

common unmodified NFC nanopapers thus being ideal candidates for the

preparation of nanopaper composites (Bismarck A., et al., 2018)

Biological nutrient transformation during composting of pig manure and

paper waste

Composting of pig manure is a challenging task that requires appropriate

co-substrate and bulking agent to provide optimum composting conditions and

reduce nitrogen loss. In this study, paper waste is co-composted with pig manure

as well as wood chips as the bulking agents. These raw materials were mixed at

three different ratios of paper: pig manure: wood chips = 1:1:0 (pile 1), 3:2:1 (pile
 23

2) and 3:1:1(pile 3), respectively. Each composting pile was about 11 m 3 in size

equipped with negative-pressure forced aeration. The temperature of all the three

piles ranged between 43 and 76°C and therefore produced pathogen-free compost.

The overall total carbon reduction of 39%, 36% and 36% were achieved from pile

1, 2 and 3, respectively. The   increased with the composting period,

indicating the transformation of ammoniacal-N into nitrate by nitrification

activity. However, all three piles showed significant variations in soluble   at

different stages of composting, which could be due to the microbial assimilation

and mineralization. The results revealed that the co-composting of pig manure,

paper along with wood chips was optimum under the mixing ratio of 3:2:1 (pile 2)

(Wong J. W. C., 2016)

A sustainable potential source of ruminant animal waste material (dung

fiber) for various industrial applications: A review

A large part of the vegetation on the earth is unsuitable for human

consumption but is fairly consumed by grazing and herbivorous animals. Cattle

convert straw and stover in their rumen and the excreted waste from their body

like dung and urine are subsidiary. Proper management, processing and

valorisation of cow dung and cow urine into energy, manure, medicines, organic

pesticides, and other daily products can generate millions of employment

opportunities in rural areas. The main purpose of this review is to explore the

possibilities and find out the potential and suitability of ruminant animal dung

fiber material as an alternative non wood source for various application, like

handmade pulp and paper, Composite material (Reinforcement), Manmade

 24

boards, Fillers for Nano structural composite etc. (Vinayak F. and Dashora K.,

2021)

Characterization and Morphology of Natural Dung Polymer for Potential

Industrial Application as Bio-Based Fillers

The modern-day paper industry is highly capital-intensive industries in the

core sector. Though there are several uses of paper for currency, packaging,

education, information, communication, trade and hygiene, the flip side of this

industry is the impact on the forest resources and other ecosystems which leads to

increasing pollution in water and air, influencing several local communities. In the

present paper, the authors have tried to explore potential and alternate source of

industrial pulp through ruminant animal dung, which is widely available as a rural

resource in India. Three types of undigested animal dung fibers from Indigenous

cow (IDF), Jersey cow (JDF), and Buffalo (BDF) were taken. Wheat straw (WS)

was the main diet of all animals. The cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin content

for all animal dung samples were found in a range of (29–31.50%), (21–23.50%),

and (11–13%), respectively. The abundant holocellulose and low lignin contents

are suitable for handmade pulp and paper. Surface characteristics of fodder (WS)

and all dung fibers have been investigated using Fourier Transform Infrared

Spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and SEM-Energy

dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). To increase paper production without

damaging forest cover, it is essential to explore unconventional natural resources,

such as dung fiber, which have the huge potential to produce pulp and paper,

reinforcement components, etc. (Fasake V, Dashora K., 2020).

 25

Synthesis

The related works of literature above show the relationship between using

other sources of cellulose and its beneficial effects on the environment and on the

producer of such products. Other sources such as elephant dung and cow dung are

highlighted since they are the majority of a domestic animal that is available to

foreign countries. Recent studies also imply the different benefits of using

manures in different aspects of life and how they can contribute to the industrial

development of nations because of their many uses. With all these ideas, the

researchers synthesize that using carabao manure as an alternative material for

sustainable paperboard production is not only supported by other literature, the

usage of this material also contributes to the industries that might be concerned

with the idea of the topic.

 26

CHAPTER III

Research Methodology

This chapter will tackle the capability of using Bubalus bubalis carabenesis feces

in making paperboard. Research Design, Sources of Date, Research Locale, Process,

Methods and Procedure, Proper Disposal and handling of specimen, Safety Precautions

and Procedure, Statistical Tool, and Interpretation of Data are under this chapter.

Research Design

The researchers are conducting a True Experimental research under the

Experimental research design. The true experimental research design relies on statistical

analysis to approve or disprove a hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental

design and may be carried out with or without a pretest on at least 2 randomly assigned

dependent subjects. The true experimental research design must contain a control group,

a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be random

(Formplus Blog, 2021).

This research design is used to apply the independent variable carabao manure

and test the capability of its properties as material for papermaking and to produce a
 27

paperboard. True experimental research is used to specifically highlight the outcome of

the random experimentation of using carabao feces as another source of material used for

papermaking.

Sources of Data

Primary data is an original and unique data, which is directly collected by the

researcher from a source such as observations, surveys, questionnaires, case studies and

interviews according to his requirements. As opposed to secondary data which is easily

accessible but are not pure as they have undergone through many statistical treatments.

Sources of secondary data are government publications, websites, books, journal articles,

internal records (Ajayi V.O., 2017). The sources of data in this study include books,

related literature, blogs, news, and published studies downloaded from the internet.

Carabao manure will be used in the study and data gathered from the procedure will be

recorded as the primary source of data.

Research Locale

Research setting is the physical, social, or experimental context within which

research is conducted (Davis B., 2021). The carabao manure will be used as an

alternative material for cellulose source and will undergo experimentation for the

production in the making of a sustainable paperboard at the residence of the researchers.

 28

Research Process

Figure 2.

Materials and equipment preparation.

Bubalus bubalis carabenesis feces boiling

process.

Fiber extraction

Grinding; molding; drying process.

Properties testing; recording of data;

adjustments; result.

Materials and equipment preparation

You need a source of cow manure, you need to have pie’s that are not having a lot

of straw or bedding, that is has had time to dry out some (Just another day on the farm,

2011)
 29

Bubalus bubalis carabenesis feces boiling process.

Put your tidied up, dried cow patties into a big pot, filling it no more than half full

and then top it up to mostly full with water, bring to a boil, and stir to break them up as

they heat up and start cooking. Boil that for at least 20 min (Just another day on the farm,

2011).

Fiber extraction

Use a cheese cloth, and you start running cold water in, then you lift the different

sides until it is a ball and you just keep running that cool water in and pushing it out, till

the water runs mostly clear, the key is to run that water till there is NO smell left and all

the extras are washed off, you will be left with the clean wet plant fiber. Put this back into

the cleaned pot and boil it again, you can if you want, at this point, you will have a whole

bowl of fresh cleaned fiber (Just another day on the farm, 2011).

Grinding; molding; drying process

Put it back into fresh clean water and hit it with the blender stick, you can use a

blender if you perfer, I find the first much easier to clean. It will cut the fibers into much

finer peices and leave you with a smoother looking paper (Just another day on the farm,

2011).

Properties testing; recording of data; adjustments; result

Using the senses of the researchers, the texture, color, and odor of the carabao

feces paperboard will be examined; the ability of the paperboard to be written on will
 30

undergo a test using ballpoint pen, and marker. The data from the experiment will be

recorded and further adjustments are up to the satisfaction of the researchers with the

product. Results will be collected and interpreted after getting the best output of using

Bubalus bubalis carabenesis (carabao) feces in making paperboard.

Method and Procedure

To do this experiment, the researchers will use the steps provided in the internet

from livingmydreamlifeonthefarm.com and this served as their reference of procedure.

The first step is to get carabao manure. You need to have a pie that does

not have a lot of straw and bedding. Put the pies you have gathered into a big pot

and fill it not more than half of the pot. Fill it up with almost full of water. It is

better to do it outside the house or clean all the after doing the experiment. Crush

the piles of dung until it almost feels like liquid. Let it soak for about 10-15

minutes. Next, is to strain the carabao manure using a cotton cloth then repeat the

procedure. This time, the filtered water will be putted into a huge cooking pot and

boil for 20 minutes. The purpose of boiling it is to remove the lignin and get the

fibers. Fibers will be pulps by that time so put it in a blender. After that mold it

using silk screen then let it dry under the heat of the sun (Just another day on the

farm, 2011).

Proper Disposal and Handling of Specimen

Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on earth (UXL Encyclopedia of

Science, 2021). This means that all of plants contain this molecule and every herbivore

eats this part of the plant. Excretes from an animal that ate a plant may have undergone
 31

the process of grinding this property and can be manipulated for the production of

products that use cellulose However, feces contain other substances that need to be

eliminated so that the cellulose fiber is extracted and secluded for production purposes.

This is the reason why the production of Bubalus bubalis carabenesis (carabao) feces

undergoes the process of boiling the cellulose source. Proper disposal and handling of

this specimen includes the time spent in watching over while mixing the pan full of the

feces, and safely pouring the hot feces over the straining material during the fiber-

extraction process.

Safety Precautions and Procedure

Bacteria are present in carabao manure and may have bad effects on our health.

The first thing the researchers will do before starting the procedure is to cut their nails to

reduce the instances of having manure stuck inside their nails. Anti-bacterial and

antifungal soap will be used before and after the experiment. Risking the factor of

contaminating the materials that can be found inside the kitchen is very much prevented

so the researchers prefer to do the experiment outdoors. The researcher will make sure to

clean the parts of their body that make contact with the manure. On the boiling

procedure, the boiled fiber and the pan are extremely hot and it is advisable to use a

potholder and have at least two people carry the large pan. After the experimentation, all

of the material that will be used on the experiment will undergo sanitization especially

the utensils that can be used for cooking purposes and the area where the experiment is

conducted.
 32

Statistical Tool

The statistical tool that suits the SOP1 is the mean and frequency table. Frequency

distributions can show either the actual number of observations falling in each range or

the percentage of observations. In the latter instance, the distribution is called a relative

frequency distribution (StatisticsCanada, 2021). By tallying the score of the mean, the

researchers have an easier basis of rating score of each properties of carabao feces

paperboard in comparison with the mean of the rating of each properties of commercial

paper board. The frequency table will serve as visual reference of all the rating of each

property of the carabao manure and commercial paperboard.

To find out the significance of the means, the tool that will be used to analyse the

data of SOP 3 is the T-test. A t-test is a statistical test that is used to compare

the means of two groups. It is often used in hypothesis testing to determine whether a

process or treatment actually has an effect on the population of interest, or whether two

groups are different from one another (Bevans R., 2020). The T-test will compare the

rating of the properties of carabao manure paperboard and its significant difference with

the rating of properties of commericial paperboard.

Interpretation of Data

To interpret the data collected from the carabao manure paperboard in comparison

with the commercial paperboard, a summary of scores represented by the average score

of each property will be interpreted. This data will be shown as means of either the

commercial and carabao feces paperboard. The mean is a numerical average for a set of
 33

data and is calculated by dividing the sum of the values by the number of values in a

dataset. It is used to get an estimate of a large population from the dataset obtained from a

sample of the population (formplus, 2020).

 34

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