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Fertirrigation with Low-Pressure Multi-Gate Irrigation Systems in Sugarcane

Agroecosystems: A Review

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DOI: 10.1016/S1002-0160(18)60053-0

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Pedosphere 29(1): 1–11, 2019
doi:10.1016/S1002-0160(18)60053–0
ISSN 1002-0160/CN 32-1315/P
⃝c 2019 Soil Science Society of China
Published by Elsevier B.V. and Science Press

Fertirrigation with Low-Pressure Multi-Gate Irrigation Systems in

Sugarcane Agroecosystems: A Review

Arturo GARCÍA-SALDAÑA1 , Cesáreo LANDEROS-SÁNCHEZ1,∗ , Marı́a del Refugio CASTAÑEDA-CHÁVEZ2 ,

Juan Pablo MARTÍNEZ-DÁVILA1 , Arturo PÉREZ-VÁZQUEZ1 and Eugenio CARRILLO-ÁVILA3
1 Postgraduate College Campus Veracruz, Tepetates C.P. 91674 (Mexico)
2 TechnologicalInstitute of Boca del Rı́o (ITBOCA), Boca del Rı́o C.P. 94290 (Mexico)
3 Postgraduate College Campus Campeche, Campeche C.P. 24450 (Mexico)

(Received July 5, 2018; revised November 20, 2018)

ABSTRACT
There are very few studies on the application of fertilizers through irrigation water (fertirrigation) using a multi-gate irrigation
system in sugarcane AES. Through fertirrigation, the application of fertilizers can be simplified, and their distribution uniformity in
sugarcane fields improved. This paper provides an overview of the state of the art regarding fertirrigation with multi-gate irrigation in
sugarcane agroecosystems (AES). In order to systematize, organize, and discuss the scientific data on fertirrigation with low-pressure
multi-gate irrigation systems in sugarcane AES, bibliographic material from the following full-text scientific journal databases was
screened: the Elsevier Science Direct Freedom Collection, Springer Link, and the International Society for Horticultural Science. Next,
a matrix of keywords was used to analyze the interrelationships among the available literature, current issues, and the recent findings.
We conclude that development of fertirrigation technologies with low-pressure multi-gate irrigation is much needed.
Key Words: climate change, crop water requirement, fertilizer application, fertilizer distribution uniformity, sugarcane industry,
water use efficiency

Citation: Garcı́a-Saldaña A, Landeros-Sánchez C, Castañeda-Chávez M del R, Martı́nez-Dávila J P, Pérez-Vázquez A, Carrillo-Ávila

E. 2019. Fertirrigation with low-pressure multi-gate irrigation systems in sugarcane agroecosystems: A review. Pedosphere. 29(1):
1–11.

INTRODUCTION lumes of water to meet the crop water requirements

Due to the effects of ongoing global warming and
climate change, it is imperative to make efficient use of
natural resources such as water. Water is a limited re-
source worldwide, as it is being progressively polluted
by several anthropogenic processes of urban, agricul-
tural, and industrial nature. Agriculture consumes ap-
proximately 70% of the available fresh water on Earth
(FAO, 2016). Therefore, it is necessary to improve crop
yields in order to make efficient use of water in agricu-
lture, and the use of efficient water application systems
is essential for this purpose.
Crop water requirements are increasing because cli-
mate change has modified the annual rainfall periods
in each region of our planet (Cuadra et al., 2012). This
lack of rainwater must be compensated through effi-
cient irrigation systems.
In Mexico, the availability of water in arid and
semi-arid zones is, for obvious reasons, highly criti-
cal, because the agricultural sector requires large vo-
(Flores-Gallardo et al., 2014). About 90% of the arable
land in Mexico uses the surface irrigation system, high-
lighted by the so-called “melgas” method (Ramı́rez et
al., 2014). However, this system has a low efficiency in
terms of water application, requirement, and distribu-
tion.
According to Mexico’s National Water Commission
(CONAGUA, from its initials in Spanish), 77% of Me-
xico’s available water is used for agriculture (Jiménez
et al., 2010). The recurrent drought and the commit-
ment to deliver water, as established in the 1994 Free
Trade Agreement between Mexico, United States of
America, and Canada, promoted the technification and
modernization of irrigation systems in Mexico to make
water use more efficient (Olvera-Salgado et al., 2014).
Multi-gate irrigation systems have an efficiency ra-
ting of between 70% and 85% (Flores-Gallardo et al.,
2014; Ramı́rez et al., 2014). Moreover, microsprinkler
and drip irrigation systems are 90% and 95% efficient,
respectively (Gurovich, 1985). This indicates that the

∗ Corresponding author. E-mail: clandero@colpos.mx.

2 A. GARCÍA-SALDAÑA et al.
current technological trend is to increase the water use
efficiency in food crop cultivation, in order to reduce
their virtual water consumption.
The sugarcane (Saccharum spp. L.) crop requires
a lot of water. It is used as a raw material for sugar
production and for the generation of renewable ene-
rgy via biofuels. It is increasingly recognized as a crop
that boosts the economy of rural areas. Sugarcane pro-
duction in Mexico dates back more than 490 years
(Aguilar-Rivera et al., 2012). The average sugarcane
yields range between 60 to 70 t ha−1 year−1 , with
the State of Veracruz being the leading sugarcane-
producing state in the country (Aguilar-Rivera et al.,
2012). The State of Veracruz has 19 sugar mills, a cul-
tivated area of 270 000 ha, and sugar production of 1.6
million tons per year (Aguilar-Rivera et al., 2012).
Alternatives for the application of products and
byproducts derived from sugarcane agro-industriali-
zation are expected to expand in the coming decades,
due to the growing demand for food and an exponen-
tial increase in biofuel production (Aguilar-Rivera et
al., 2012; Cuadra et al., 2012). However, the socio-
economic aspect of the sugarcane cultivation sector is
deteriorating due to the low productivity of sugar mi-
lls, which lack the cutting-edge technology for efficient
processing of sugarcane. The above is reflected nega-
tively in the producer’s bottom-line.
The application of plant nutrients with irrigation
water (fertirrigation) is a cost effective and efficient me-
thod for the application of fertilizers, which improves
agricultural production and reduces potential environ-
mental pollution, compared with the conventional met-
hods (Abbasi et al., 2012). Applying fertirrigation can
reduce the nitrogen fertilizer application levels and pro-
duction costs via agrochemical application concepts,
and decrease the pollution levels caused by nutrient
leaching and runoff (Hebbar et al., 2004). Therefore,
it is important to implement irrigation systems that
make efficient use of water with devices that allow fer-
tirrigation, to apply fertilization through intervals and
to avoid pollution of groundwater by agrochemical lea-
ching. Taking into account the above-mentioned infor-
mation, better yields can be achieved in the sugarcane
AES. The aim of this review was to present the state
of the art of fertirrigation systems for sugarcane AES
that use low-pressure multi-gate irrigation systems.
CURRENT ISSUES
Water is an increasingly limited resource world-
wide, due to the high, progressive pollution by various
anthropogenic processes; therefore, its use requires an
efficient and conscious application. In the case of the
agricultural sector, crop water requirements are ever
increasing, due to the climate change effects that alter
the precipitation patterns. This is also causing pro-
longed drought periods and flooding, because climate
change has influenced the annual rainy seasons in each
region of our planet, modifying their photoperiod and
microclimate. Therefore, the precipitation is not eno-
ugh, which makes rainwater collection and storage ne-
cessary for irrigation purposes during drought seasons.
The production sectors, including the agriculture
sector, account for a major proportion of consump-
tive water use. Surface irrigation accounts for almost
90% of the world’s irrigated area, mostly by furrow
irrigation. In Mexico, which presents arid conditions
(66% of the country), irrigation is carried out on 6.5
million hectares with hydro-agricultural infrastructure
(Olvera-Salgado et al., 2014). About 90% of the arable
land uses the surface irrigation system, highlighted by
the “melgas” method, but it has a low efficiency in
terms of water application, requirement, and distribu-
tion (Olvera Salgado et al., 2014). In the past, irriga-
tion ditches were used as a method of water conduc-
tion, but the supporting structures progressively de-
teriorated when moistened with irrigation water (Fer-
reyra, 1989), resulting in a very low conduction effi-
ciency. At present, there is a growing demand for food
production and an exponential increase in the produc-
tion of biofuels, most of which comes from the agricul-
tural sector.
The sugarcane crop experiences several types of bi-
otic and abiotic stresses, and is very vulnerable to di-
seases, pests, weeds, water loss, storms, and other un-
predictable natural phenomena such as El Niño (Bruni-
ni et al., 2010). In Mexico, after the 1910 Revolution,
agrarian law reforms that benefited farmers were ena-
cted, but in the 20th century, with the privatization
of sugarcane mills (1988 to 1992), the sugarcane sec-
tor experienced one of the worst economic crises in
its history (Chollett, 1996). Currently, the sugarcane
sector is deteriorating because of the low productivity
of the country’s sugar mills and sugarcane fields, as
both lack new technologies for sugarcane production
and processing. Furthermore, in the states of Veracruz
and San Luis Potosı́, irrigation systems are inadequate.
Moreover, the level of production inputs (fertilizers,
pesticides, etc.), the common practice of burning su-
garcane fields before harvest (90% of sugarcane is har-
vested this way), and transport costs contribute to an
increase in the total sugarcane production cost. In ad-
dition, the small size of the production units for most
of the growers and the low processing efficiency of su-
FERTIRRIGATION IN SUGARCANE AGROECOSYSTEMS
garcane mills limit the investment and improvement in
this sector (Aguilar-Rivera et al., 2012).
On the other hand, fertirrigation is rarely used in
AES with sugarcane in Mexico. The production costs
for agrochemical application concepts are high. The
fertilizer injectors needed for the implementation of
fertirrigation in low-pressure irrigation systems are ge-
nerally expensive too. The problem with fertirrigation
practices, for surface-irrigated fields, is that the mix-
ture is not always evenly distributed and the drainage
water takes away the fertilizers while leaving the field
(Abbasi et al., 2012). This causes the loss of fertilizers,
their leaching, and the pollution of shallow and deep
aquifers.
Sugarcane agroecosystem (AES)
Since ancient times, humans have had to grow their
own food to survive. With time, we have been modi-
fying our environment with the intention of producing
food, fibers, and environmental services. This modifi-
cation to the environment takes place in the ecosystem
that surrounds us. Economic, commercial, social, cul-
tural, and technological factors have added to human
intervention in ecosystems for agricultural production,
which makes this a complex system. The AES concept
has also evolved with time, which is important to con-
sider when studying it. In the beginning, it was studied
using a holistic approach linked to agroecology, and it
went through several stages until arriving at a concept
that involves a complex systems approach (Martı́nez-
Dávila, 2011).
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is a tropical
gramineous plant. Its stem has a juice rich in sucrose, a
compound that when extracted and crystallized yields
sugar grains. It is a perennial crop that is harvested
12 to 24 months after sowing, and the plantation lasts
approximately 6 to 8 years. It has a stalk that varies
in height, on average, from 2 to 3 m, with a diameter
of 5 to 6 cm (Cuadra et al., 2012). The root system is
composed of a robust underground rhizome, and the
plant can be propagated using these rhizomes as well
as by pieces of stem. The juice of the cane has a sucrose
richness of approximately 14%, although it varies from
one harvest to another. In Mexico, the first sugarcane
(Castile variety) plantations were introduced in the six-
teenth century (1 536) by the Spanish, from Cuba to
Veracruz (Aguilar-Rivera et al., 2012). Among other
uses of the crop, Dezhampanah et al. (2014) used its
biomass to create natural dyes. Sugarcane biomass is
composed of silica, cellulose, hemi cellulose, and lignin
(Dezhampanah et al., 2014). It is also used for the pro-
duction of biofuels, but its most common use is the
3
production of granulated sugar.
Surendran et al. (2016b) reported that water, ni-
trogen (N), potassium (P), and the micronutrients play
an important role in sugarcane productivity. Moreover,
in contrast to other crops, sugarcane needs a constant
application of water to satisfy its hydric needs and pro-
mote the efficient absorption of (de Oliveira Bordon-
al et al., 2018). Thus, both irrigation and fertirriga-
tion are very important to prevent water and nitrogen
stress. Research studies on irrigation and fertirrigation
are needed (Rhein and Silva, 2017) to improve the ef-
ficiency of this natural resource, as are techniques for
detecting crop water and N status, similar to the one
developed by Masseroni et al. (2018). In addition, bet-
ter ways to guarantee the N uptake need to be devel-
oped, such as controlled release fertilizers (Zhao et al.,
2017).
Brunini et al. (2010) reported that, in terms of soil
and climatic aspects, Mexico has favorable conditions
for commercial sugarcane production. At present, de-
spite its remarkable adjustment to climatic conditions,
the best conditions for sugarcane cultivation are those
with hot and humid periods, with high solar radiation
in the growth phase, followed by dry sunny and cold
periods in the ripening and harvest stages. Air tempe-
rature and rain are the main factors that determine the
success of sugarcane harvest and economic use (Brunini
et al., 2010). In this regard, the sugarcane agroindus-
try in Mexico could be improved substantially using
new varieties, and more efficient processes and tech-
nologies, both at industrial and field level, leading to
a sustainable production.
Currently, sugarcane production in an AES is a
complex process, involving an interdependence of sub-
processes such as planting, variety selection, irrigation,
fertilization, cultural operation, crop protection, har-
vest, and marketing. In several instances, this requires
support from the decision-makers for its maximum use
(Aguilar-Rivera et al., 2012). Sugarcane requires a nu-
mber of inter-related operations for weed control, mois-
ture conservation, promotion of microbial action, and
the creation of a better environment during most of
the crop phenological stages (Yadav et al., 2003). Ni-
trogen input by natural and anthropogenic sources are
important in sugarcane crops and are supplemented in
sugarcane AES with nitrogen fertilizer inputs applied
by producers (López-Hernández et al., 2013). Notable
increases in sugarcane yields have been recorded when
drip irrigation systems are combined with fertirriga-
tion, along with water consumption savings of 40.64%
(Sundara, 2011). Surendran et al. (2016b) and Li et
al. (2016) also suggested that residual biomass mana-
4 A. GARCÍA-SALDAÑA et al.
gement as a tillage practice represents another alter-
native to encourage shoot emergence and sustain soil
fertility. Kumar and Chopra (2016) concluded that af-
ter extracting the juice from sugarcane, the waste can
be used as an organic fertilizer. Similarly, these au-
thors reported that vinasse diluted in water, at a ratio
of 1:4, can be used as a fertilizer as long as it is free
of heavy metals. This can be applied using fertirriga-
tion techniques for up to two continuous periods. This
method does not show any negative impact on the dy-
namics of the microbial populations that fix N, and on
the contrary, it promotes their growth.
Socioeconomic situation in sugarcane AES
Sugar production is carried out at an industrial
scale in 133 tropical countries worldwide. Mexico ranks
7th in sugar production worldwide. Sugarcane cultiva-
tion represents 13% of the total agricultural units in
Mexico (SE, 2012) and the State of Veracruz occupies
the first place at national level, accounting for 37% of
the total national sugar production with 2 010 889 t
(PRONAC, 2009). The sugar industry is part of the
rural sector’s economy, and most of the sugar pro-
duced is consumed domestically. Aguilar-Rivera et al.
(2012) mentioned that the sugar consumption in Me-
xico would be 5.2 million tons by 2020 and around 600
million tons by 2030 worldwide (Sundara, 2011). In
Mexico, the per capita consumption for 2012 was 47
kg year−1 .
Since 1975, the government has been reducing cre-
dits and subsidies by up to 8% for this sector. These
strategies have induced the crisis seen in the sugar-
cane sector today. Nevertheless, about 40 000 direct
jobs are generated annually and almost 2.2 million peo-
ple depend on the sugar industry (Aguilar-Rivera et
al., 2012). Since the privatization of the sugarcane mi-
lls (1988 to 1992), the sugarcane industry has experi-
enced the worst economic crisis in its history (Chollett,
1996). With the North American Free Trade Agree-
ment (NAFTA), Mexico exports sugar to the United
States and Canada.
Sugarcane has also been used to produce biodiesel
and biogas (Santos et al., 2016; Surendran et al., 2016a;
Sarker et al., 2017). Sarker et al. (2017) reported dif-
ferent processes for obtaining sugarcane by-products.
These authors mentioned that most of the sugarcane is
harnessed, but a significant part, such as the bagasse,
is not used properly. It can be used for the produc-
tion of ethanol, enzymes, organic acids, cellulose, and
paper. The sugar industry is an area of opportunity
for job creation, in addition to an option for energy
production, thus contributing to decreasing the use of
fossil fuels. In addition, the authors mentioned that,
with the help of new technologies, it is possible to im-
prove the generation of by-products and the efficiency
of the sugar industry.
Technology used in sugarcane AES
The Mexican sugar industry has the potential to
be economically, environmentally, and socially sustai-
nable, with considerable capacity to expand on a large
scale. Along with the expected growth of ethanol pro-
duction, it has the potential to produce high quality
sugarcane in at least some regions (Jalisco, Morelos,
Puebla, and Chiapas), using appropriate technology, u-
tilizing irrigation systems, and applying high mechani-
zation (Brunini et al., 2010). Currently, the sugarcane
sector has little technology for mechanical harvesting,
or technological advances to increase the production
and efficient utilization of sugarcane in a sustainable
way, in order to ensure a stable standard of living in
the sugarcane agricultural society (Aguilar-Rivera et
al., 2012).
The technology management process in sugarcane
production and sugar processing are the most impor-
tant ways to achieve a high level of quality in the su-
garcane industry. Moreover, a reduction in the produc-
tion cost is the key to administrate technological pro-
cesses for the resolution of problems related to sugar-
cane production and productivity (Aguilar-Rivera et
al., 2012). According to Brennan and Malcolm (2003),
one of the characteristics that has driven the sugar-
cane sector in Australia is the significant investment in
research and development, which has allowed the su-
garcane industry to maintain competitiveness through
the adoption of innovations aimed at increasing sugar-
cane yields. Similarly, Galloway (2005) identified that
scientific research in sugarcane played an important
role in the modernization of agriculture in Southeast
Asia. Likewise, Li et al. (2016) reported that the suc-
cess of the sugarcane industry in China, during the last
5 years, has been due to the adoption of new crop ma-
nagement strategies. It is clear that the strategies men-
tioned above must include the genetic improvement of
sugarcane, the preparation of soils, the application of
new fertirrigation and irrigation precision techniques,
the use of by-products, and the mechanization involved
in the harvesting processes, among others.
The above-mentioned studies provide us with
guidelines to identify the future challenges that sugar-
cane industry is facing in Latin America. Concerted
and coordinated efforts are required from all stakehol-
ders, namely, farmers, decision makers, extension agen-
cies, researchers, interested state entities, sugarcane-
FERTIRRIGATION IN SUGARCANE AGROECOSYSTEMS
based industries, and other farm support systems, to
achieve the integration of the necessary technology,
which can result in an increase of sugarcane production
and make its harvest efficient. This can be achieved by
emphasizing cost reduction, mechanization, the adop-
tion of efficient irrigation systems, fertirrigation, con-
servation agriculture, the importance of multi-shoots,
etc. (Yadav et al., 2003; Sundara, 2011). Surendran
et al. (2016a) mentioned that it is imperative to in-
crease efficiency in the management of water resources
available for sugarcane production. According to these
authors and Santos et al. (2016), this can be ac-
complished by adopting agronomic practices such as
micro-irrigation and the efficient application of nutri-
ents through fertirrigation.
In order to implement the proposal outlined in the
previous paragraph, fertirrigation systems based on
efficient irrigation systems are needed. The so-called
perimeter irrigation refers to a set of structures that
enables a specific area to be cultivated with the ap-
plication of water demanded by crops. The irrigation
system consists of a number of components for its pro-
per functioning, although it does not necessarily have
to include all of them, since the requisite set of compo-
nents depends on the type of irrigation system, such as
surface irrigation (mainly in its irrigation by flooding
variant), and sprinkling and drip irrigation. The uni-
form and efficient distribution of irrigation water in a
farm is essential for its maximum utilization to obtain
high yields and improve the quality of harvested pro-
ducts. The technification of irrigation is a component
of the Rehabilitation, Modernization, and Equipping
of Irrigation Districts in Mexico Program, which aims
at achieving, inter alia, “an efficient and sustainable
use of the water resource, through rehabilitation and
modernization of the hydraulic infrastructure granted
in the Irrigation Districts and the technification of irri-
gation, to reduce water losses from the conduction and
distribution network to the plot, increasing its availa-
bility and obtaining better use of the endowment with
greater efficiency, improving the quality and opportu-
nity of the irrigation service, and increasing the pro-
duction and productivity of water” (Olvera Salgado et
al., 2014).
The most common criteria for evaluating the quali-
ty of gravity irrigation are application efficiency and ir-
rigation requirement efficiency (González-Camacho et
al., 2006). Gravity irrigation methods are the most
common ones for applying water to agricultural lands
in arid, semi-arid, and sub-humid areas worldwide.
However, it is necessary to consider other technified
irrigation systems (González-Camacho et al., 2006). In
5
some places with long slopes, adaptations have been
made to take advantage of the available irrigation sy-
stems (furrow or by sprinkling) (Cisneros et al., 2001).
Multi-gate irrigation systems
Low-pressure pipe multi-gate irrigation systems are
a technology developed by the Mexican Institute of
Water Technology (IMTA, from its initials in Spa-
nish). This system uses a main pipeline, a hydrant or
control valve, and pipes with adjustable multi-gates,
through which the water flow is poured out into the fur-
rows in a controlled manner (Fig. 1). According to Fer-
reyra (1989), multi-gate irrigation systems were first
developed in 1986. Then, in 1987, work began to deve-
lop a mobile water distribution system that is suitable
for vegetables, others crop, and fruit trees. This system
made possible to avoid water spills (surface runoff),
which contributes to a more efficient water manage-
ment. In fact, another type of gate irrigation system
used in Europe was found, such as that proposed by
Masseroni et al. (2018), which use gates to control the
water that runs through the open-air channels, but is
quite different from the one described herein.
Lacasta et al. (2014) defined a numerical model for
the design of the gates and the correct distribution
of water in each of them using a proportional-integral-
derivative (PID) controller for its regulation. The main
purpose of multi-gate irrigation systems is the conduc-
tion and efficient use of water. According to Olvera
Salgado et al. (2014), this irrigation is used in north-
ern Mexico to irrigate peanut and alfalfa crops; these
authors reported that producers need a little training
to use it. An improvement to this irrigation system was
proposed by Peries and Enciso (2005), who designed a
multi-gate irrigation system using flexible pipes (poly-
pipes) for surface irrigation. The importance of the use
of a low-pressure multi-gate irrigation system lies in the
fact that it allows for more efficient water management;
at the same time, it avoids or reduces contamination of
aquifers due to the percolation of solid nitrogen fertili-
zers, while also reducing the labor production costs of
fertilization (Flores-Gallardo et al., 2014). This multi-
gate irrigation system is recommended for small pro-
ducers with water scarcity problems, since their cost
is relatively low (Pérez-Martı́nez, 2015). Therefore, its
use represents a viable solution in both technical and
economic terms (SEPAGUA, 2013). A multi-gate ir-
rigation system has the advantages of preventing the
wastage of water by evaporation, providing better con-
trol of irrigation water and labor, preventing erosion in
steep slopes or unstable soils (Ferreyra, 1989), and im-
proving irrigation efficiency in the plot (Peries and En-
6 A. GARCÍA-SALDAÑA et al.
Fig. 1 A picture showing a low-pressure pipeline with multi-gates (part of the irrigation system described herein).
ciso, 2005). Since the operation of the pipes is related
to the slope on which the water moves, with few gates
along the route of the pipe, the head causes extreme-
ly high erosive output speeds, which makes necessary
the installation of energy releasers at the entrance of
the furrows (Cisneros et al., 2001). Both irrigation and
fertirrigation homogeneity are tough issues to investi-
gate in this type of systems; therefore, it is necessary
to carry out studies on these topics. The efficiency of
fertilizer application, and consequently, its distribu-
tion (fertirrigation) in this system, is lower than that
of pressurized systems, as is usually the case with a
drip irrigation system (Dı́az et al., 2007). On the ot-
her hand, in a study by Olvera Salgado et al. (2014),
100% of the producers with cultivation area less than
10 ha said that they would not change their irrigation
system (sprinkling and dripping) for a multi-gate irri-
gation system because it is not adapted to their needs.
Moreover, 100% of the producers with more than 20 ha
said that they would not replace their multi-gate irri-
gation system with other types. Hence, it is perceived
that a multi-gate irrigation system is profitable only on
crops sown on larger areas. In addition, a multi-gate
irrigation system has been used to take advantage of
the hydraulic head on lands with gravitational gradi-
ents, and in this way, it allows water to be transported
and distributed in the furrows without causing erosion
(Cisneros et al., 2001). Dı́az et al. (2007) compared
a multi-gate irrigation system with a drip irrigation
one, demonstrating that the latter is more efficient in
the distribution and application of nitrogen fertilizers.
Dı́az et al. (2007) reported on other irrigation tech-
niques such as multi-gate irrigation and drip irrigation
systems to evaluate the growth of maize with diffe-
rent N levels, although their implementation requires
electrical or combustion energy to distribute the irri-
gation water in the plot. In some places with steep
slopes, adaptations have been made to take advantage
of the available irrigation systems (furrow or by sprin-
kler) (Cisneros et al., 2001).
Fertirrigation
One of the most striking features of fertirrigation
is the application of fertilizers through irrigation water
(Hedley, 2015; Qin et al., 2016). It is a field practice de-
signed to simplify the application of fertilizers and im-
prove their uniformity and distribution (Abbasi et al.,
2012). According to Kant and Kafkafi (2013), fertirri-
gation is the most advanced and efficient fertilization
practice. Fertirrigation allows the proper application
of water and nutrients in multiple applications during
the crop growth stage. The distribution of fertilizers
through fertirrigation can make the nutrients reach the
desired location of the root zone and, therefore, re-
duce the amount of fertilizers applied (Al-Qurashi et
al., 2015). Kant and Kafkafi (2013) discussed the sele-
ction, solubility, and compatibility of fertilizers in fer-
tirrigation systems, in addition to scheduling of fertir-
rigation according to crop need, system requirements,
and fertirrigation details. One of the criteria for evalu-
FERTIRRIGATION IN SUGARCANE AGROECOSYSTEMS
ating the quality of fertirrigation is Christiansen’s uni-
formity coefficient (UCCN ) (González-Camacho et al.,
2006). In addition to it, Yan et al. (2016) studied the
effects of fertirrigation and irrigation on the production
of biomass in Alamo cottonwood trees (Populus). They
pointed out that understanding the impacts of irriga-
tion and fertilization can lead to improved crop mana-
gement. They concluded that, although there are seve-
ral studies on the effects of fertirrigation and the appli-
cation of N, additional studies are needed to investigate
the influence of water and N on the exchange of car-
bon (C) in soils. Kölln et al. (2016) concluded that the
lack of N and poor irrigation distribution reduces the
productive capacity of sugarcane; therefore, irrigation
and fertirrigation practices should be encouraged, that
is, the application of fertilizers such as N through the
use of pressurized irrigation systems in crops. In addi-
tion to the above, these same authors determined that
good fertirrigation practices are essential to increase
sugarcane yields and, therefore, decrease the amount
of N applied.
Dattamudi et al. (2016) discovered that the emi-
ssion of ammonia (NH3 ) from sugarcane crop fields
is a function of N fertilizer application and fertirriga-
tion techniques, as well as application frequency. They
also indicated that ammonia emissions in sugarcane-
cultivated areas can be reduced when an efficient fer-
tirrigation and N application is performed. These re-
sults provide the basis for mitigating the impact on
air quality in the regions close to sugarcane croplands
if efficient management and fertirrigation practices are
used. With fertirrigation implemented in irrigation sy-
stems, proper fertilization and irrigation practices can
reduce the likelihood of fertilizers leaching into ground-
water. The fertirrigation method has certain advan-
tages over the application of water and fertilizers sep-
arately, such as the reduction in fertilizers, energy and
labor, low soil compaction, reduced machinery costs,
healthier and stronger roots, and greater microbial
activity (Abbasi et al., 2012). Compared with conven-
tional fertilization, fertirrigation can result in fertilizer
savings of 50%, with an increase in the yield for se-
veral crops (Solaimalai et al., 2005). Several research
reports indicated that fertilizer savings through fertir-
rigation can be in the range of 25%–30%; however, in a
study carried out by Chawla and Narda (2001), there
was a saving of up to 70%. One disadvantage of apply-
ing nitrogen fertilizers through fertirrigation is that the
amount of N stored in the soil is not regularly taken
into account, so it may be counterproductive to apply
more N than that necessary for the crop, with nega-
tive effects on the quality and quantity of production
7
(Dasberg et al., 1983). Another disadvantage is that
the frequency of irrigation must be combined with the
frequency of fertirrigation for optimum use of N by
the crop (Farneselli et al., 2015). When solid urea dis-
solves, the endothermic reaction can be problematic in
agricultural fertirrigation systems; thus, it is advisable
to use liquid urea (Hedley, 2015), but it is more expen-
sive.
Kölln et al. (2015) evaluated the fertirrigation sy-
stems in sugarcane. They demonstrated that the com-
bination of N fertilizers and irrigation has a positive
effect on crop yield. Drip irrigation along with the abi-
lity to fertirrigate is the most used method (Kant and
Kafkafi, 2013) and offers an advantage over the con-
ventional irrigation method (Takebe et al., 2006), as it
greatly saves on fertilizer and water use, while ensuring
better crops with respect to the yield and the quality of
the product (Chawla and Narda, 2001). Hebbar et al.
(2004) tested several fertirrigation methods, including
fertirrigation with liquid fertilizers in 75% and 100%
water applied by drip irrigation, solid fertilizer applied
by drip irrigation, and half solid fertilizer and half li-
quid fertilizer. As a result, fertirrigation with a soluble
solution was better than fertirrigation with solid fer-
tilizers. Moreover, Ravikumar et al. (2011) developed
an optimal fertirrigation program for sugarcane that
reduces the use of urea by 30%, while at the same time
providing enough N for assimilation at all crop growth
stages. Also, Sun et al. (2015) designed a multi-channel
fertirrigation machine for fertilizer mixing that ensures
the fertirrigation requirements for soilless cultivation in
greenhouses. Consequently, a fertirrigation system can
be designed to achieve optimal fertirrigation solutions
using computer software (Barradas et al., 2014). Pagán
et al. (2015) designed the software “Optifer,” which
allows the selection of a number of fertilizers to be
used. It then calculates the requisite amount of ferti-
lizer, taking into account costs and crop requirements.
The fertilizers are selected from the fertilizer tanks that
contain them. For this reason, the application of preci-
sion agriculture, with the use of GPS, sensors, software,
and controllers, improves fertilizer application through
fertirrigation, compared with aircraft-assisted fertiliza-
tion or spray systems.
The application of fertilizers through the use of
surface fertirrigation is low due to the assumption of
low uniformity and low efficiency of the surface irriga-
tion system (Abbasi et al., 2012). Therefore, the de-
velopment of appropriate water management and fer-
tilizer application strategies is required to maximize
their application efficiency and minimize fertilizer los-
ses through runoff and leaching (Abbasi et al., 2012;
8 A. GARCÍA-SALDAÑA et al.
Otto et al., 2016). Hence, a proper N management is
necessary for efficient production. Nitrogen application
efficiency (NaE) is an index that can be used as a mea-
sure of the effectiveness of a surface N fertirrigation
event, which can help in minimizing N fertilizer los-
ses (Zerihun et al., 2003). Šimůnek et al. (2016) con-
ducted a simulation experiment and found that the
greatest fixation of fertilizers in crop roots is obtained
when fertirrigation is carried out at the beginning or
in the middle of the irrigation cycle. However, Qin et
al. (2016) reviewed the literature and found that fer-
tirrigation must be carried out in the final stage of
the irrigation cycle. Qin et al. (2016) also performed
a computer simulation concerning the application of
N fertilizers. These authors determined that the fer-
tirrigation efficiency is a function of three factors: the
amount of water applied, the N dose, and the time in-
terval in the fertirrigation application. They also com-
mented that determining the optimal strategy for the
implementation of fertirrigation is somewhat complex.
This is because there are soil, water, plant, and climate
factors that must be taken into account for developing
such optimal strategy.
Likewise, Abbasi et al. (2012) evaluated the ferti-
lizer distribution uniformity using fertirrigation in dif-
ferent soil textures. These authors also observed that
one of the problems with fertirrigation practices for
surface-irrigated fields is that the mixture of fertilizers-
water is not always evenly distributed, and fertilizer
losses occur due to runoff. Zerihun et al. (2003) found
that the distribution of nitrates is a function of the
texture and hydraulic parameters of the soil, solute
transport parameters, irrigation parameters, and ferti-
lizer management. Distribution uniformity (DUN ) and
UCCN can be used to evaluate uniformity in the ap-
plication of N fertilizers along the length of a channel
(Zerihun et al., 2003). One such example is a fertir-
rigation system that was evaluated by Merry (2003),
which consisted of a pressurized system with pumps,
an intake manifold, secondary disc filters, a hydrome-
ter, control valves, a Venturi-type injector for fertir-
rigation, backwash valves, and the point injector for
chemigation. Furthermore, Kumar et al. (2016) investi-
gated the impact of hydraulic input pressure and the
frequency of fertirrigation application on soil dynam-
ics in corn cultivation, with respect to the N fixation
process. These authors also determined that this crop
was significantly affected by fertirrigation at different
operating pressures. They concluded that the higher
fertirrigation frequency improved the corn growth, and
the application frequency did not affect the fertilizer
distribution. The combination of biweekly fertirriga-
tion at a hydraulic pressure of 1.0 kg cm−2 was the
best combination for the development of hybrid corn.
On the other side, López-Hernández et al. (2013)
quantified the amount of macronutrients (N, P, and
K) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) entering
the sugarcane AES through rainwater, finding that it
constitutes a significant proportion of the nutrients re-
tained in the sugarcane canopy. Santos et al. (2016)
indicated that it is necessary to develop new irriga-
tion technologies that can satisfy crop water demands.
By 2050, these demands could increase in irrigated ar-
eas by up to 60%. The new irrigation technologies will
minimize the environmental impact caused by this ex-
pansion. They also mentioned that soil studies should
be carried out in tropical areas with sugarcane crops
to plan the irrigation and fertirrigation strategy to be
used. These authors concluded that it is also impor-
tant to take care of the homogeneity in the distribution
of water during the irrigation application, in order to
improve yields per unit area.
STATE OF THE ART
Currently, sugarcane crops, which require a lot of
water, are used for the production of sugar and biofu-
els (Cabral et al., 2012; Cuadra et al., 2012). Sugar-
cane is grown worldwide, particularly in countries such
as India, China, Australia, Brazil, and Mexico (Otto
et al., 2016). In Mexico, sugarcane is produced main-
ly in the Gulf of Mexico. Mexico’s sugarcane industry
is currently in an economic crisis. The obsolete tech-
nology used by the sugarcane mills and the producers
makes investment in this area non-attractive. Howe-
ver, the social security “benefits” that it provides are
attractive to producers, and therefore, it is necessary
to make this activity more profitable by increasing pro-
duction through the use of a better technology related
to irrigation and fertirrigation systems.
The low-pressure multi-gate irrigation systems are
manufactured and used locally in the center and north
of Mexico, which need to be popularized and ado-
pted in other countries for their implementation and
use. There is little evidence of their use and study at a
global level, and therefore, their adoption may be of a
great benefit for farmers to increase the irrigation effi-
ciency. The fertirrigation method is used worldwide to
spatially dose the macro- and micronutrients required
by crops (Otto et al., 2016). Likewise, it is used to
control the amount of N applied and to avoid contami-
nation by fertilizers leaching into the shallow and deep
aquifers of lands, where sugarcane is being cultivated.
Modern sugarcane technologies and labor-saving
devices reduce the cost of crop production. Although
FERTIRRIGATION IN SUGARCANE AGROECOSYSTEMS
the initial financial investments to acquire modern irri-
gation system and equipment is high, the benefits be-
come greater (Yadav et al., 2003). On the other hand,
numerous irrigation methods have been used in sugar-
cane crops. The physiology of the crop requires the
application of large volumes of water, and hence, it
must be used efficiently. There is little technological
transfer in the use of irrigation systems in sugarcane
AES and in sugarcane mills. There are very few stu-
dies in which fertirrigation has been applied to sugar-
cane and evaluated. In some of them, the fertirrigation
technique has been used with drip irrigation systems.
Technical factors, such as the fertirrigation strategy,
the inflow rate, the infiltration capacity of the soil, the
micro-topography of the surface soil, and the slope of
the land, can affect fertirrigation performance (Bai et
al., 2013).
Finally, considerable research is required to deve-
lop effective decision-making support tools for preci-
sion fertirrigation systems (Hedley, 2015). According
to (Bwley, 2002), precision agriculture would soon be
applied to sugarcane crops, which requires the partici-
pation of farmers and researchers in the development
of these technologies.
CONCLUSIONS
Currently, there is a little implementation, at glo-
bal scale, of the multi-gate irrigation systems in sugar-
cane AES, and their popularization is highly necessary
and relevant. In Mexico, such systems are being used
to take advantage of their characteristics in terms of
water conduction efficiency, although there are very
few scientific studies about it. There is little informa-
tion on fertirrigation techniques with multi-gate irri-
gation systems, where the homogeneity and efficiency
of N fertilizer application in sugarcane fields had been
studied. Therefore, this is an area of opportunity to
make important scientific contributions to the fronti-
ers of our knowledge. No written evidence of the use
of low-pressure fertirrigation systems in sugarcane AES
was found. Further research, in terms of the applica-
tion of techniques for fertigation in AES, is necessary
to be carried out in order to develop effective decision-
making support tools for modern agriculture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Colegio de Postgraduados Campus Ve-
racruz and Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologı́a
(CONACYT) for their financial support. Thanks are
also due to Mr. M. C. Juan Manuel Hernández Pérez,
Postgraduate College Campus Veracruz, Mexico, for
9
his assistance in the revision of the manuscript.
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