LESSON 10 – STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE

COMPONENTS OF CELL MEMBRANE

 Phospholipid bilayer – an AMPHIPHATIC MOLECULE = containing polar region (hydrophilic

heads) and non-polar regions (hydrophobic tails).
 Cholesterol
 Proteins
 Glycocalyx/carbohydrates

TWO TYPES OF PROTEIN

1. Peripheral protein – does not penetrate on both ends, only attached at the surface.
2. Integral protein – penetrates on one or both ends of cell membrane. Permanently attached
and serves as transporter or channel proteins.

STRUCTURE OF PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER

 Make up the cell membrane

 Contains 2 fatty acid chains that are nonpolar
 Head is polar & contains a –PO4 group & glycerol

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL

Fluid – because individual phospholipids and proteins can move side-to-side withing the layer, like it’s a
liquid.

Mosaic – because of the pattern produced by the scattered protein molecules when the membrane is
viewed from above.

 Polar heads are hydrophilic

 Nonpolar tails are hydrophobic
 Makes membrane selective in what crosses

FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE

 Provides a binding site for enzymes

 Interlocking surfaces bind cells together (junctions)
 It contains the cytoplasm (fluid in cell)

Cell membrane is flexible and allows a unicellular organism to move.

IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE

 Balanced internal condition of cells, also called equilibrium

 Maintained by plasma membrane controlling what enters & leaves the cell
 Protective barrier
 Regulate transport in & out of cell (selectively permeable)
 Allow cell recognition
 Provide anchoring sites for filaments of cytoskeleton

LESSON 11 – TRANSPORT MECHANISM IN CELLS

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Diffusion – a passive process which means no energy is used to make molecules move, the have a
natural kinetic energy.

 Requires NO energy
 Molecules move from high to low concentration

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) – energy currency of cell

2 TYPES OF DIFFUSION (PASSIVE TRANSPORT)

1. Simple diffusion – Doesn’t require energy. Moves high to low concentration.

Ex. Oxygen or water diffusing into a cell and carbon dioxide diffusing out.
(Materials move down their concentration gradient through the phospholipid bilayer)
2. Facilitated diffusion – Doesn’t require energy. Uses transport proteins to move high to low
concentration.
Ex. Glucose or amino acids moving from blood into cell.
(The passage of materials is aided both a concentration gradient and by a transport protein)

Solute – being dissolved

Solvent – substance in which solute is being dissolved

2 TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROTEIN

Channel proteins – embedded in the cell membrane and have a pore for materials to cross
Carrier proteins – can change shape to move materials from one side of the cell membrane to the
other.
Osmosis – diffusion of water across a membrane. Moves from high water (low solute) potential to low
water potential (high solute)

 Greek word “osmos” meaning moving

 Special type of diffusion

Tonicity – relative concentration of water inside and outside the cell

 Greek word “tonus” meaning tension

3 EXAMPLES OF OSMOSIS

1. Hypotonic – Solute concentration is lower outside the cell than the inside. Water moves into
the cell, causes swelling/burst called cytolysis. Hypo meaning under.
2. Hypertonic – solute concentration is higher outside the cell than the inside. Water moves out
the cell, causes shrinking called plasmolysis. Hyper meaning above.
3. Isotonic – the concentration is the same inside and outside of cell. Iso meaning equal.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Requires energy or ATP.

 Moves material from low to high concentration.
 Against concentration gradient.
 Examples: Pumping Na+ (sodium ions) out and K+ (potassium ions) in against strong
concentration gradients called Na+-K+ Pump (Sodium and Potassium pump) which is necessary
for transmission of nerve impulses

LESSON 12 – ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS

Exocytosis moving things out

 Molecules are moved out of the cell by vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane
 This is how many hormones are secreted and how nerve cells communicate with one another.
 An organelle known as Golgi Apparatus, stores, packages, and transports other cells/molecules

Exocytosis (outside) – the opposite of endocytosis. Large molecules that are manufactured in the cell
are released (moving out) through the cell membrane.

Endocytosis (within) – process of moving in the material within phospholipid bilayer.

3 TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS

Pinocytosis
 Most common form of endocytosis, takes in dissolved (fluid) molecules as a vesicle
 Cells form invagination
 Materials dissolve in water to be brought into cell
 Called “Cell drinking”

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
 Some integral proteins have receptor on their surface to recognize & take in hormones,
cholesterol, etc.

Phagocytosis
 Used to engulf large (solid) particles such as food, bacteria, etc. into vesicles.
 Called “Cell eating”

IMPORTANTCE OF ENDOCYTOSIS

1. Captures pathogens that may danger an organism

2. Disposing of old and damaged cell

LESSON 13a – BIOMOLECULES: CARBOHYDRATES

TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. Proteins  Most biomolecules are organic

2. Lipids  This means they are based on Carbon
3. Nucleic acids and include Hydrogen
4. Carbohydrates  Includes carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids
 Also includes vitamins

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

 Monosaccharides can be linked together through the process of Dehydration Synthesis

 Water is removed from 2 monosaccharides resulting in a covalent bond between the 2
molecules
 Sucrose (table sugar) is made of 2 sugars linked together and these are called Disaccharides
 Require some digestion to be used by cells
HYDROLYSIS

 Dehydration Synthesis is a reversible process called Hydrolysis

 A water molecule is inserted where the monomers join. Breaking their bonds

MACROMOLECULES

 Large biomolecules
 Many of these are polymers
 Polymers – long molecules built by linking together small, similar subunits (monomers). From
the Greek word “poly” meaning many and “meris” meaning part.

CARBOHYDRATES GROUPS OF CARBOHYDRATES

 Carbohydrate means “hydrated” carbon Sugars

 Composing elements C, H, O
 Hydrogen and Oxygen are in ratio of 2:1  Monosaccharides (monomers)
 Can be simple monomers like glucose  Disaccharides (Dimers)
 Can be complex polymers like cellulose Polysaccharides (polymers)

MONOSACCHARIDES

C6H12O6

 Fructose
 Galactose
 Glucose

2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF MONASACHARRIDES

1. Aldose – Carbonyl group in the first part. Example: glyceraldehyde, ribose, glucose, galactose
2. Ketose – Carbonyl group in the second part. Example: dihydroxyacetone, ribulose, fructose

IMPORTANCE

Energy source: used as a reactant in respiration

Monomer unit: used to form:

 Dimers (disaccharides)
 Polymers (polysaccharides)
DISACCHARIDES

 Lactose: glucose + galactose

 Maltose: glucose + glucose
 Sucrose: glucose + fructose
IMPORTANCE

Energy storage: sucrose is a storage of energy in sugarcane and sugar beets

Energy transport: carbohydrate is transported in plants as sucrose

POLYSACCARIDES

 Starch – a polymer of glucose monomer, stores in plants

 Glycogen – composed of glucose monomers. Mainly in liver and muscle cells in humans and
other vertebrates.
 Cellulose – structural polysaccharides, major component of tough walls. Can not be digested by
the body.

STRUCTURAL CARBOHYDRATES

Chitin – arthropod exoskeleton and fungal cell wall. Modified form of cellulose

LESSON 13b – BIOMOLECULES: LIPIDS/FATS

Lipid Structure
Some lipids have a four ringed structure. E.g., Cholesterol and other lipids that are derived from
cholesterol. Atherosclerosis is the cholesterol build up in the blood.
HORMONES

 Progesterone: responsible for changes associated with menstrual cycle and with
differentiation for mammary glands.
 Aldosterone: raises blood pressure and fluid volume, increases Na+ uptake. Regulate salt and
water in the body
 Testosterone: male sex hormone synthesized in the testes, responsible for secondary male sex
characteristics.
 Estradiol: an estrogen, principal female sex hormone, produced in the ovary, responsible for
secondary female sex characteristics
 Cortisol: involved in stress adaptation, elevates blood pressure and Na+ uptake, numerous
effects on the immune system.

SATURATED FATS UNSATURATED FATS

 Their fatty acids have no double bonds  Their fatty acids have some carbon
between carbon atoms (have maximum atoms that are double bonded (not fully
number of hydrogen atoms) hydrogenated)
 Straight structure  Linked in shape
 Unhealthy fats usually from animal  Healthy
sources  From plant sources
 Solid at room temperature (20 degree  Liquid at room temperature (20 degree
C) C)

IMPORTANCE: BIOLOGICAL ROLE

 Used to store energy (approx. 36 kj/gram)

 Lipids are often stored in special adipose tissue, within large fat cells
 Mitochondrion (false color TEM)
 Lipids are concentrated sources of energy and can be broken down (through fatty acid
oxidation in the mitochondria) to provide fuel for aerobic respiration

 An important structural component of membranes

 Phospholipids are the primary structural component of all cellular membranes, such as the
plasma membrane (false color TEM abo)
 Acts as a shock absorber and good insulator
 Fat absorbs shocks. Organs that are prone to bumps and shocks (e.g., kidneys) are
cushioned with a relatively thick layer of fat. (The white fat tissue (Arrows) is visible in this
ox kidney)
 Stored lipids provide insulation in extreme environments. Increased body fat levels in winter
reduce heat losses to the environment.

 Water proofing of some surfaces

  Transmission of chemical messages via hormones
 Waxes and oils, when secreted on to surfaces provide waterproofing in plants and animals

FORMING A TRIGLYCERIDE

 NOT a polymer

LESSON 13c – BIOMOLECULES: NUCLEIC ACID

Composing elements: C, H, O, P, N

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – encodes information used to assemble proteins

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) – reads DNA-encoded information to direct protein synthesis

NUCLEOTIDE STRUCTURE
NUCLEOTIDE CHAIN STRUCTURE

Nucleotides
Nucleotides form a backbone through linkages from the OH group of the 3 rd carbon to a phosphate
group of the adjoining nucleotide. These are called Phosphodiester bonds.

TYPES OF NUCLEOTIDES

For DNA there are 4 different nucleotides categorized as either Purines (double ring) or Pyrimidines
(single ringed). These are usually represented by a letter. These are:

 Adenine
 Cytosine
 Guanine
 Thymine

BASIC PAIRING RULES

Each “Ring” of the DNA “staircase” is formed by the linking of 2 Nucleotides through Hydrogen Bonds.

These Hydrogen bonds form only between specific Nucleotides. This is known as Base pairing. The rules
are as follows:

 Adenine (A) will ONLY bond to Thymine

(T)
 Cytosine (C) will ONLY bond to Guanine
(G)
RNA

 Aka ribonucleic acid

 RNA differs from DNA in several
important ways
 It is much smaller
 It is single-stranded
 It does NOT contain Thymine,
but rather a new nucleotide
called Uracil which will bind to
Adenine