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Cirulatory System Blood 1
Cirulatory System Blood 1
Blood
Dr Ahsan
The cardiovascular system
1) Transportation
• Deliver life-supporting materials, i.e., O2, glucose,
amino acid, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, etc.
• Deliver regulating signals, i.e., hormones to tissue
cells
• Collect waste products from tissue cells and deliver to
special organs (kidney, lung) for disposal
• Distribute heat throughout the body
2) Protection
• Special components of the blood patrol the whole
body and fight against invaded microorganisms and
cancerous cells.
Blood
Functions and Composition of Blood
- pH 7.35 - 7.45
Hematocrit
RBCs as percent of total blood volume
100%
- Female: 37%-48%
- male: 45%-52%
Blood Composition
Hemoglobin
Female: 12-16 g/100 ml
male: 13-18 g/100 ml
Blood
Plasma Protein 7% Water 92% Other Solutes 1% Platelets WBC RBC 99.9%
Albumin
Monocytes
Neatrophils
Globulin Eg. Electrolytes
Basophils
Fibrinogen
Lymphocytes Eosinophils
Regulatory Proteins
Blood Composition
The Composition of Whole Blood
Electrolytes
Sodium 135-145 mEq/L
Potassium 3.5-5.0 mEq/L
Magnesium 1.3-2.1 mEq/L
Calcium 9.2-10.4 mEq/L
Chloride 90-106 mEq/L
Bicarbonate 23.1-26.7 mEq/L
Phosphate 1.4-2.7 mEq/L
Sulfate 0.6-1.2 mEq/L
Composition of Plasma
Nitrogenous Wastes
Ammonia 0.02-0.09 mg/100 ml
Urea 8-25 mg/100 ml
Creatine 0.2-0.8 mg/100 ml
Creatinine 0.6-1.5 mg/100 ml
Uric acid 1.5-8.0 mg/100 ml
Bilirubin 0-1.0 mg/100 ml
Globulins
• ~35% of plasma proteins
• Include immunoglobins which attack foreign
proteins and pathogens
• Include transport globulins which bind ions,
hormones and other compounds
Fibrinogen
• Converted to fibrin during clotting
• Are necessary for blood clotting
• Removal of fibrinogen leaves serum
The Formed Elements (Blood Cells)
Abundance of RBCs
• Erythrocytes (RBC) account for slightly less than
half the blood volume, and 99.9% of the formed
elements.
• Hematocrit measures the percentage of whole
blood occupied by formed elements
• Commonly referred to as the volume of packed
red cells
Structure of RBCs
Erythropoeisis
The formation of new red blood cells
• Occurs in red bone marrow
• Process speeds up with in the presence of EPO
(Erythropoeisis stimulating hormone)
• RBCs pass through reticulocyte and erythroblast
stages
Hematopoiesis
Refers to whole blood cell production.
Stages of RBC Maturation
Stages of erythropoiesis. CFU-E = Colony forming unit-erythrocyte,
CFU-M = Colony forming unit-megakaryocyte, CFU-GM = Colony forming unit-granulocyte/monocyte.
Hematopoiesis
- regulated by renal
oxygen content.
- Erythropoietin, a
glycoprotein hormone, is
produced by renal cells in
response to a decreased
renal blood O2 content.
- Erythropoietin stimulates
erythrocyte production in
the red bone marrow.
A drop in renal blood oxygen level can result from:
• Legal
Raise RBC count by training athletes at
high altitude
• Illegal
Use erythropoietin, androgen, or their
analogs
Dietary Requirements for Erythropoiesis
Iron
vitamin B12
folic acid
Anemia
is a condition in which the blood has an
abnormally low oxygen-carrying capacity.
Common causes of anemia include:
1) an insufficient number of red blood cells
2) decreased hemoglobin content
3) abnormal hemoglobin
Two such examples are Thalassemias and
Sickle-cell anemia, which are caused by genetic
defects.
Erythrocyte Disorders
Polycythemia
is an abnormal excess of erythrocytes that
increases the viscosity of the blood, causing it to
sludge or flow sluggishly.
Common causes of polycythemia include:
1)Bone marrow cancer
2)A response to reduced availability of oxygen as
at high altitudes
Blood types
Rh positive
- RBCs contain Rh agglutinogens.
Rh A
A Rh
A
Rh
Rh
A
- The majority of human beings is Rh positive.
Rh negative
- The RBCs contain no Rh agglutinogens.
- Agglutinins against Rh-positive RBCs are
produced after Rh-negative blood sees Rh-
positive RBCs.
A
A A Rh
Rh
A Rh
A Rh Rh
Rh
B A
A
A
Blood Type Testing
Erythroblastosis Fetalis
The problem with a Rh-negative
mother and her Rh-positive fetus.
First Preganancy
no anti-Rh
Protected by the
placenta-blood no Rh
barrier, the
mother is not
exposed to Rh
agglutinogens
until the time of
childbirth due to
placental tearing.
Generation of anti-
Rh agglutinins
anti-Rh agglutinins
no Rh
Born with severe anemia
Treatment:
use anti-Rh globulin to mask Rh agglutinogens
Rh Factors and Pregnancy
The White Blood Cells
Leukocytes
• Agranular leukocytes
• Agranular leukocytes are formed in red bone
marrow.
• Agranular leukocytes include:
• Monocytes - become macrophage
• Lymphocytes – includes T cells, B cells, and
NK cells
White Blood Cells
Neutrophils
- 40%-70% WBCs
- Nucleus multilobed
- 0.5% WBCs
- Nucleus lobed
- Development: 3-7 days
- Life Span: a few hours to a few days
- Function:
1) Release histamine and other mediators of
inflammation
2) contain heparin, an anticoagulant
Lymphocytes
- T cells and B cells
- 20%-45% WBCs
- Nucleus spherical or indented
- Development: days to weeks
- Life Span: hours to years
- Function
Mount immune response by direct cell attack
(T cells) or via antibodies (B cells)
Three Classes of Lymphocytes
T cells
• Helper T cells or inducer T cells (CD4 cells)
• Cytotoxic T cells or killer T cells (CD8 cells)
• Suppressor T cells.
• Memory T cells.
B cells
• Plasma cells.
• Memory cells.
Natural killer (NK) cells
• Detect and destroy abnormal tissue cells (cancers)
Monocytes
- 4%-8% WBCs
- Nucleus U-shaped
- Development: 2-3 days
- Life Span: months
- Function:
Phagocytosis
develop into macrophages in tissues
WBC Production
1) Margination
2) Diapedesis
3) chemotaxis
Blood Capillary
Leukocytes are deployed
in the infected areas
outside blood vessels via
3 steps.
1) Margination
Blood Capillary
2) Diapedesis:
Leukocytes slip
out of the capillary
blood vessels.
Blood Capillary
3) Chemotaxis:
Chemotaxis is the
attraction of WBCs
towards the injured
tissues by the chemical
substances released
at the site
of injury
Blood Capillary
Phagocytosis
Destroy foreign
substances or
dead cells
Blood Capillary
Leukocyte Disorders
I. Innate immunity.
• It is the inborn capacity of the body to resist pathogens. It is
otherwise called the natural or non-specific immunity.
II. Acquired immunity.
• It is the resistance developed in the body against any
specific foreign body like bacteria, viruses, toxins, vaccines
or transplanted tissues.
• Lymphocytes are responsible for acquired immunity.
Two types of acquired immunity develop in the body:
1. Cellular immunity
2. Humoral immunity
Development And Processing Of Lymphocytes
The two categories are:
1. T lymphocytes or T cells, which are responsible for
the development of cellular immunity.
• Develop in thymus and.
• e.g. CD4, CD8.
2. B lymphocytes or B cells, which are responsible for
humoral immunity.
• Develop in liver (during fetal life) and bone marrow
(after birth)
• e.g. Plasma cells, Memory cells.
Storage: stored in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
and GI tract
ANTIGENS
• Vascular phase
• Local blood vessel constriction (vascular
spasm)
• Platelet phase
• Platelets are activated, aggregate at the site,
adhere to the damaged surfaces
The Vascular and Platelet Phases of Hemostasis
Coagulation phase
Embolus is a clot that comes off the wall of blood vessel and
travel in the blood stream.
1) Thrombocytopenia
• the number of circulating platelets is deficient
(<50,000/l ).
• causes spontaneous bleeding from small blood vessels
all over the body
3) Hemophilia's
Hereditary bleeding disorders due to deficiency of clotting
factors
Bleeding Disorders
1) Thrombocytopenia
• the number of circulating platelets is deficient
(<50,000/l ).
• causes spontaneous bleeding from small blood vessels
all over the body
3) Hemophilia's
Hereditary bleeding disorders due to deficiency of clotting
factors
Blood Volume
Normal Blood Volume
Total amount of blood present in the circulatory
system, blood reservoirs, organs and tissues together
constitute blood volume.
Physiological Variations
1. Age
2. Sex
3. Surface Area of the Body
4. Body Weight
5. Atmospheric Temperature
6. Pregnancy
7. Exercise
8. High Altitude
9. Emotion
PATHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS
1. Hypervolemia hypovolemia
Measurement Of Blood Volume
Direct Method
• Direct method is employed only in animals because it
involves sacrificing the life.
• The animal is killed by decapitation and the blood is
collected.
Indirect Method
1. Determination of plasma volume
i. Indicator or dye dilution technique
ii. Radioisotope method.
2. Determination of blood cell volume
i. By hematocrit value
ii. By radioisotope method.
Regulation Of Blood Volume
1. Hypothalamus
2. Hormones
• Antidiuretic hormone
• Aldosterone
• Cortisol
• Atrial natriuretic peptide
Applied Physiology
Hypervolemia Hypovolemia
1. Hyperthyroidism 1. Hemorrhage or Blood
Loss
2. Hyperaldosteronism
2. Fluid Loss
3. Cirrhosis of the Liver
3. Hemolysis
4. Congestive Cardiac
Failure 4. Anemia
5. Hypothyroidism
Reticuloendothelial System
and Tissue Macrophage
Reticuloendothelial System Or Macrophage System
1. Phagocytic Function
2. Secretion of Bactericidal Agents
3. Secretion of Interleukins
4. Secretion of Tumor Necrosis Factors
5. Secretion of Transforming Growth Factor
6. Secretion of Colony-stimulation Factor
7. Secretion of Platelet-derived Growth Factor
8. Removal of Carbon Particles and Silicon
9. Destruction of Senile RBC
10. Destruction of Hemoglobin
Spleen
Spleen
1. Heart failure.
2. Renal disease.
3. Decreased amount of plasma proteins.
4. Lymphatic obstruction.
5. Increased endothelial permeability.