With reference to medium speed engine cylinder liners:

(a)explain the cause and effects of polishing and glazing;

(b) describe, with the aid of sketches, an anti-polishing
ring, explaining how it is fitted in the liner;
(c ) explain the action of an anti-polishing ring during
operation of the engine.
a.
When a liner and piston rings have run in, the asperities, or
high spots have been worn off the rubbing surfaces, and
ideally, what is left is a microscopic corrugated surface which
will hold the lubricating oil. Combustion, especially of
residual fuels, will produce carbon which tends to build up
around the topland of the piston. As the carbon builds up, it
will eventually touch the liner surface, removing the lub oil
film, and, because the carbon is abrasive, it will polish the
liner surface, removing the microscopic corrugations, and
giving it a highly glazed surface to which a lub oil film cannot
adhere. Carbon build up can be so severe that it jams the top
ring in its groove. The dual action of further carbon abrasion,
and unlubricated contact between rings and liner leading to
microsiezure will accelerate the wear rate of the liner leading
to blow by, loss of power, possible seizure and danger of
crankcase explosion.
b.
The anti polishing ring has a slightly smaller diameter bore
than the liner in which it is located, and is slightly larger than
the top of the piston. When the piston is on top dead centre
the bottom of the anti-polishing ring is just above the top
surface of the top piston ring.
The anti polishing ring is a clearance fit in a step in the top of
the liner, and can be replaced when it wears. On some engines
it incorporates a cooling space, and so the anti-polishing ring
(or fireband) is fitted with O rings for sealing.

c As the piston reciprocates in the cylinder, any carbon build

up forming on the top of the piston will be removed by the
anti-polishing ring. This ensures a good lubricant film on the
liner surface, reducing wear and giving a more consistent lub.
oil consumption.

Explain how analysis of used lubricating oil can be used as

a “Health Monitoring” tool for diesel engine: Condition
Monitoring of used lubricating oil on time-based interval can
be used as a health monitoring tool of a diesel engine. So,
time-based lube oil analysis should be incorporated in an
overall maintenance strategy. An analysis result if plotted at
time-based intervals since the oil is new then it generates
trend curve which helps operator to monitor the health of a
diesel engine. Degradation of oil quality if observed in a trend
curve then it should be considered as an early warning of
possible breakdown. Timely investigation of root cause along
with repairs helps to avoid such breakdown. Condition
monitoring relies on the fact that the majority of failure does
not occur instantaneously but develops over a period of time
according to the potential failure curve.
-
Major lube oil manufacturer provides “Condition Monitoring
Report” along with trend curve for individual machinery when
lube oil sample tested after agreed time interval. So, condition
can be monitored since oil was new. Analysis result normally
indicates the water content, Viscosity: Flash point, Pentane
Insoluble by weight, BN, Additive Elements followed by
“Spectrographic Analysis” for metal (Al, Si.Cr,
Cu,Fe,Ni,Pb,Tn,Boron and Sodium). However, trend curve is
normally prepared for viscosity, Pentene Insoluble, TBN, Cu
and Fe.

Trend curves can be analyzed as follows:

1.A trend change in viscosity is important as it is the single
most important property of lubricating oil. Reduce viscosity
and low FP indicates fuel contamination ( defective
injector/fuel pump seal). Whereas increased viscosity means
oil is admixed with cylinder oil defective stuffing box.
2.TBN trend curve should almost constant or drop very slowly
depending upon the type of fuel used and sulphur content, the
severity of engine operation, the size of oil sump and amount
of top up oil. In case it drops sharply then same needs
investigation.
3. Pentane Insoluble trend curve also should be steady or drop
slowly. A sharp drop defines that the total amount of insoluble
material has increased in oil which may be contamination
from contamination with partially burnt fuel, partially
oxidized fuel or from oxidation of lubricating oil itself.
4. Unusual increase in trend curve for various metals indicates
increased wear of various parts e.g. if Fe level increases then
it might be from wear down journal, crankpin, crosshead pin,
fears and chains, cams, piston rings in trunk piston engine or
from rust in the system
OR
An increase level of Cu, Antimony, Tin indicates wear down
of white metal bearings
OR
Chromium level is increased in steering gear hydraulic oil
then probably it indicates unusual wear down of piston rings,
liners, guides, bearings etc.

Crosshead bearing lubrication

Why it is difficult to lubricate crosshead bearings:
The crosshead bearing is difficult to lubricate effectively,
because the top of the connecting rod swings about the pin
and changes direction each time the piston reaches mid stroke,
the relative speed between bearing and pin at mid stroke is
zero, accelerates to a maximum as the piston approaches TDC
or BDCe and then decelerates back to zero again as the piston
approaches mid stroke and the con rod changes direction.
Since the con rod swings about the pin and changing direction
each stroke, the true hydrodynamic lubrication cannot take
place. Instead the lubrication starts as boundary, and as the
rubbing speed increases, a hydrodynamic film is built up and
when the rubbing speed decreases the lubrication becomes
boundary once again. This combined with the continuously
downward high loading on the pin means that effective
lubrication is difficult.
Why do Sulzer engine need to boost their crosshead oil
supply pressure whereas MAN B&W supply oil to their
crosshead at system pressure. 
 
In MAN B&W engines, a set of channels have been
machined in the lower crosshead bearing, in which the
cooling oil can pass. The geometry is designed in such a way
that all the loaded sq.cm of the pin is flushed with cooling oil
twice every engine cycle. MAN B&W uses the same pump to
supply oil to main bearings as well as crosshead at a much
reduced pressure (around 3 to 5 bar).

Whereas in case of Sulzer engines, the crosshead has a plain

lower bearing without channels. In order to inject oil between
pin and bearing, they have to supply oil at a much higher
pressure by a separate lubricating oil pump delivering oil at
12 to 16 bar for crosshead lubrication.
Both engines run satisfactorily without any crosshead
problems and certainly MAN & B&W arrangement is more
simple.

Which part of crosshead bearing suffers most?

The load on the crosshead pin is always downwards, so it is
the bottom half of the bearing which is subject to wear and
since there is always problem on crosshead bearing
lubrication, the bottom half of the bearing can suffer
unexpected failure.
Material used in crosshead bearing:
Due to high loads on bearing, the bearing material is used tin-
aluminum alloy with 40 % tin content and bonded to a steel
shell. When tin added to the aluminum then it improves
seizure resistance and also helped to prevent brittleness. It
also gives good resistance to corrosion, high thermal
conductivity and high fatigue strength. This alloy is usually
too weak to maintain interference fit if used as solid bearing,
for this reason it has to be bonded to a steel shell.
Note: Also used for main bearing
Design Part: To overcome problem, the actual force on the
oil within the bearing should be kept within reasonable limits
which can be achieved
1.By adding additional booster pump.
2. By offering large bearing area by increasing pin diameter,
which also avoids the loss of oil,
3. By using restrictor plate at the ends of bearing which also
prevents loss of oil.
How larger diameter of the pin helps:
To accommodate the high downward load under difficult
lubrication and to minimize the risk of bearing failure the
actual force on the oil within the bearing should be kept
within reasonable limits. This can be achieved by having as
large a bearing area as possible. By increasing diameter of the
pin which offer a large bearing area and increases the relative
speed between pin and bearing. Furthermore large bearing
area also avoids the problem of pin bending. The bottom
halves of the bearing shells have oil gutters cut in them to
assist the distribution of oil. Oil is supplied to the crosshead
using a swinging arm or a telescopic pipe and is sometimes
boosted in pressure to aid efficient lubrication.
Why it needs greater clearance in proportion to pin
diameter: Since true hydrodynamic lubrication is not possible
and as it starts as boundary, it is required to ensure that the oil
film does not squeeze out during transition period as the load
is continually downward. So, it is required to maintain a
greater clearance than standard so that it helps to maintain an
effective oil film between pin and bearing even at a critical
point of loading.

What are the common defects of crosshead bearing?

Possible defects in these bearings are:
1. Fatigue failure due to breakdown of surface on account of
local stress concentration.
2. Scoring of the crosshead pin and bearing by abrasive
particles in the oil leading to surface roughness. Normally
seen as fine scoring on surface in the radial direction. The
size of contaminates dictate the depth of scoring.
3. Erosion due to excessive bearing clearance caused by
worn bearings or pin ovality or lube oil pressure
fluctuation. Again, this will lead to a breakdown of
hydrodynamic lubrication. Excessively worn bearings will
also mean the width of the tapered "wedges" leading out
from the oil distribution grooves has been reduced, or that
the bearing overlay has been removed.
4. Corrosion: Identified by darkening surface combined
with a roughen surface with some cases metal removal.
Caused by acidic lube oil due to oxidation or ingress of
water or contamination from combustion product.
 5. Overloading: Glossy areas along the two edges of the
bearing indicate bearing is overloaded at two edges.
6. Misalignment: Wiping or overlay removal by
overheating.
7. Wiping: Deformation of the bearing metal will occur,
leading to wiping due to metal to metal contact.
8. Incorrect tensioning of bolts: Incase of under
tightening, the housing will become slack which will lead
to fretting at bearing bolts and possible movement of
shells. Whereas incase of Over tightening there will be
possible yielding of bolt followed by slack housing.

Methods to avoid above defects:

1. Engine should not run in overloaded condition.

2. Bearing clearance to be taken at regular intervals and if
situation demands then concern bearing to be open for
inspection in between CSM.
3. Continuous purification of sump oil and inspection of
crankcase.
4. Condition monitoring of lube oil and lube oil debris by on
board test and periodical laboratory analysis.

(a) Explain why obtaining lubricating oil samples from the

main engine system and turbocharger systems are
essential.
(b)State, with reasons, FOUR desirable properties
required of a crankcase lubricating oil for a crosshead
engine.
( c ) Explain why crankcase lubricating oil for a trunk
piston engine differs from that for a crosshead engine.
( d ) Describe TWO shipboard tests which may be carried
out on crankcase lubricating oil.
(a) Lubricating oil deteriorates with use. Overheating of the
oil may cause oxidation which increases the acidity leading
to corrosive attack. Contamination by fuel or by cylinder oil
in a crosshead engine will cause a change in the viscosity and
thus the ability to form an oil film and to adequately cool.
Contamination with water will cause corrosive attack (esp.
with sea water) and may lead to bacterial attack. Acidic
products of combustion mainly from burning sulphur present
in the fuel will deplete the alkaline reserve in the oil (i.e. the
TBN number). Wear from metal surfaces rubbing together
will cause microscopic particles of metal to be present in the
oil.
For these reasons the oil is regularly sampled and analysed
either using simple on-board tests for viscosity, water, TBN
etc. or by sending the sample to a lab for more detailed
analysis.
(b) :The oil must be able to lubricate effectively over a range
of temperatures. The most important parameter of the
lubricant is the viscosity. Viscosity is a measure of its
thickness or ability to flow. The viscosity of an oil controls
the thickness of the oil film under hydrodynamic lubrication
conditions.  This relationship between an oil viscosity and
how it changes with temperature is called the Viscosity Index
(VI). The higher the VI, the lower the change in viscosity
with temperature. The VI for a 2 stroke crankcase oil is about
98.
The oil must be able to cool effectively. As well as carrying
away the heat from the bearings, the oil on a modern 2 stroke
engine is used to cool the piston without deposits forming in
the piston cooling spaces which would lead to piston crown
burning and cracking. To prevent this the oil has dispersants
and detergents to neutralise the sludges, varnishes, and
products of combustion and keep them in suspension.
The oil must be able to neutralise any strong acids from the
products of combustion which may find their way into the
crankcase. The alkalinity in a 2 stroke crankcase oil is
provided by the detergent additives in the oil and is indicated
by the TBN number.
The oil must contain anti oxidants to prevent the oil oxidising
and becoming acidic. Oxidised oil will cause an increase in
viscosity, affecting lubrication and cooling and allow
formation of gums, lacquers and sludge. Oxidised oil will
cause corrosion in the bearings and journals.
(c ):In a trunk piston engine, the crankcase oil is also used to
lubricate the liner and combat the acids formed caused
mainly by the sulphur in the fuel. The oil must be able to
lubricate effectively at the high liner temperatures (up to
190°C) and also be able to prevent a build up of deposits in
the ring grooves causing the rings to jam. Dispersants must
be able to keep any products of combustion in suspension in
the oil. The TBN number of a trunk piston engine is
generally higher than for a crosshead engine which is usually
6-8, and will depend on the sulphur content of the fuel but
can be as high as 50. The viscosity will be higher (up to
145cSt at 40° compared to 110) as will the viscosity index.
The sulphated ash content which is an indicator of the
additives present (dispersants and detergents) will also be
higher (5.3 compared to 0.75).
( d):Water.
A measured sample of oil is taken and diluted with a
measured amount of clean kerosene. It is placed in the
bottom of the test container. A sachet of the reagent (calcium
carbide) is opened and carefully emptied into a pocket within
the container, so that it does not come into contact with the
sample. The lid which incorporates a pressure gauge is
screwed on tightly and the test container inverted and shaken.
Any water in the sample reacts with the calcium carbide to
form acetylene gas. The gas pressure built up in the container
is related to the water content which is read from the gauge.
If water is present, a further test should be carried out to
establish if it is fresh or salt.
Viscosity
For this test a flowstick is used. Two small reservoirs on a
tiltable plastic moulding are filled to a specified level, one
with new oil and one with the oil under test. The temperatures
of the samples are allowed to stabilise and then the flowstick
is tilted. The oil in the reservoirs will run through holes into
two smooth channels incorporated into the moulding. When
the new oil sample has reached a predetermined datum, the
position of the sample under test is compared. It should be
within two lines marked either side of the datum to be within
limits.
A report on the analysis of the main crosshead engine
crankcase lubricating oil indicates the following
contaminants or property changes. In EACH of the
following cases give reasons for the possible causes of the
contamination or property change, explaining how the
actual cause would be detected;
a. the presence of fresh water; (4)
b. white metal fragments; (4)
 c. reduced alkalinity reserve; (4)
d. reduced anti oxidation reserve. (4)
(a ):Problems will occur, whether visible or not, in any
system in the presence of more than about 0.2% water. The
potential sources of water contamination in a crosshead
engine could be because of:
i. Purifier operating incorrectly - choked with sludge,
wrong size gravity disk, sealing water left on.
ii. Leakage from oil coolers and steam heating coils.
iii. Piston cooling telescopics and seals (in the case of water
cooled piston engines)
iv. Badly maintained piston rod stuffing box seals allowing
water from jacket water leaks, water cooled piston leaks,
water entrained in scavenge air and blowby gases from
combustion to pass through into crankcase.
v. Leakage at breathers and tank vents (especially those
exposed to weather).
Finding the cause is a process of elimination; The first place
to check is the purifier. A water test on the oil to and from
the purifier will indicate if this is the source. Leakage from
oil coolers is unlikely with a plate type cooler and will only
happen if the water pressure is higher than the oil pressure
(i.e. with oil system shut down), otherwise the leakage will
be the other way, leading to contamination of the cooling
system. Check that heating coils are shut off. If opened after
being isolated for a period of time, oil contamination of the 
steam drains is observed, then the coils are holed. If piston
cooling is employed, a visible check of the crankcase may
indicate the source of the contamination. Check the scavenge
space for water, and trace its source; ensure drains are clear
and that the stuffing boxes are in good condition. Ensure that
the crankcase breathers and oil drain tank vent non return
arrangements and covers are in good condition.
( b ):White metal fragments in the oil are a cause for concern
and not to be ignored. The fragments will be from a bearing
and may be because;
i. The white metal has been scraped off the bearing, in the
case of crosshead shoes;.
ii. Wiping, where plastic deformation of the white metal has
occurred due to metal to metal contact causing
overheating.
iii. Cracking and spalling where the metal detaches from the
steel backing shell - can be due to poor manufacture,
fretting of the back of the shell or overloading.
iv. Squeezing of the white metal from the bearing due to
overloading.
In the first instance an inspection of the crankcase is
essential; look for evidence of white metal. Check around the
bearings for evidence of squeezing of the white metal. Take
the bearing clearances and a set of deflections and compare
with manufacturers recommendations and previous readings.
A set of power and draw cards may indicate overloading:-
check fuel pump settings. The samples of white metal may be
sent for analysis which may indicate which bearing they are
from (for instance the crosshead bearing will be tin
aluminium).
( c ):The alkalinity of an oil is indicated by its total base
number and for a crankcase oil in a crosshead engine is
normally around 5 - 8. The alkalinity is indicative of the
detergents present in the oil which are alkaline in nature and
prevent the formation of varnish and sludge. A depletion in
the alkalinity of the oil may be due to
 i. Sulphuric acid formed by combustion of the fuel or
hydrochloric acid arising from seawater, which may find
their way into the crankcase because of leaking piston
rod stuffing boxes. However it should be noted that a
leakage of the used cylinder oil will cause a rise in the
TBN.
ii. Depletions in the anti oxidants in the oil; this will cause
an increase in the acidity of the oil.
By examining the strong acid number (SAN) and the total
acid number (TAN) a guide to the reason for the decrease in
the TBN can be established; an increase in SAN shows a
contamination by sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, whilst an
increase in the TAN with the SAN staying at zero generally
points towards an increase in oxidation of the oil. Again if
there is blow by of products of combustion due to poor
maintenance in the liner/cylinder and a poorly maintained
stuffing box, then this could cause the contamination.
( d ):Antioxidants delay or inhibit the processes of
decomposition that occur naturally in lubricants as they 'age'
or oxidise in the presence of air. Oxidisation can be caused
by:
i. high temperatures.
ii. excessive air entrained in the oil.
iii. Insufficient oil in system not allowing time for the oil to
settle in the drain tank before being recirculated.
iv. catalysts such as wear particles (especially particles of
copper and ferrous materials).
All of which will deplete the anti oxidisation reserve.
Check that the inlet and outlet temperature of the oil is not to
hot ( especially piston cooling return). Check that there is
sufficient oil in the drain tank and top up if necessary. Anti
foaming additives should prevent excessive air entrainment.
Water in the oil can evaporate from the oil whilst in the drain
tank and condense on the cooler surfaces, causing rust to
form. If the condition report has evidence of particles of rust
in the oil, this is one of the first places to check.

Piston cleaning ring (PC ring). This type of ring being used in B&W
SMC engines. The purpose of this ring is to scrape off excessive ash
and carbon formation on the piston topland and thus prevent contact
between the cylinder liner and these deposits, which would remove
part of the cylinder oil from the liner wall.

Advantage of Topland Piston crown: MAN B&W have introduced

pistons with high topland with the aim of protecting the piston rings
against the thermal load from the combustion gases. The performance
of the piston ring pack is thereby improved significantly. The gradual
loss of tension in the piston rings is reduced, resulting in higher TBO
for the pistons. A further benefit is that the high topland has made it
possible to lower the mating surfaces between cylinder liner and
cylinder cover, thus reducing the thermal load on the cylinder liner
and thus the lube oil film. The high heat input is absorbed by the steel
cylinder cover, which has a much higher thermal stability than the
grey cast iron used for the cylinder liners. As a consequence, the
reliability of the cylinder liner is further enhanced by the introduction
of the high topland.