Sugar Corporation

SUGAR ACADEMY

Training Material
On
Sugar Factory Instrumentation and Control
Systems

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 Sugar Factory Instrumentation and Controlling Systems
Introduction
Instrumentation provides the various indications used to operate a process industry. In some
cases, operators record these indications for use in day-to-day operation of the facility. The
information recorded helps the operator evaluate the current condition of the system and take
actions if the conditions are not as expected.

Requiring the operator to take all of the required corrective actions is impractical, or sometimes
impossible, especially if a large number of indications must be monitored. For this reason, most
systems are controlled automatically once they are operating under normal conditions. Automatic
controls greatly reduce the burden on the operator and make his or her job manageable.

Automatic control systems neither replace nor relieve the operator of the responsibility for
maintaining the facility. The operation of the control systems is periodically checked to verify
proper operation. If a control system fails, the operator must be able to take over and control
the process manually. In most cases, understanding how the control system works aids the
operator in determining if the system is operating properly and which actions are required to
maintain the system in a safe condition.

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 Unit One

1. Introduction to Control Systems

A control system is a system of integrated elements whose function is to maintain a process
variable at a desired value or within a desired range of values. The control system monitors a
process variable or variables, then causes some action to occur to maintain the desired system
parameter.

Two terms which help define a control system are input and output. Control system input is the
stimulus applied to a control system from an external source to produce a specified response
fromthe control system.

Control system output is the actual response obtained from a control system.
In the case of process control facilities, the input and output are defined by the purpose of the
control system. Knowledge of the input and output of the control system enables the components
of the system to be identified. A control system may have more than one input or output.

Control systems are classified by the control action, which is the quantity responsible for
activating the control system to produce the output.

The two general classifications are:

A. Open-Loop Control and
B. Closed-Loop Control Systems.

1.1 Open-Loop Control System

An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is independent of the output. An
example of an open-loop control system is a chemical addition pump with a variable speed
control. The feed rate of chemicals that maintain proper chemistry of a system is determined by
an operator, who is not part of the control system. If the chemistry of the system changes, the
pump cannot respond by adjusting its feed rate (speed) without operator action.

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 Fig 1.1 Open Loop Control Systems

1.2 Closed-Loop Control System

A closed-loop control system is one in which control action is dependent on the output.
FigureBelow shows an example of a closed-loop control system. The control system maintains
water levelin a storage tank. The system performs this task by continuously sensing the level in
the tankand adjusting a supply valve to add more or less water to the tank. The desired level is
presetby an operator, who is not part of the system.

Fig 1.2: Closed Loop Control System

1.3 Feed Back
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Feed back is information in a closed-loop control system about the condition of a process
variable. This variable is compared with a desired condition to produce the proper control action
on the process. Information is continually "fed back" to the control circuit in response to control
action. In the previous example, the actual storage tank water level, sensed by the level
transmitter, is feedback to the level controller. This feedback is compared with a desired level to
produce the required control action that will position the level control as needed to maintain the
desired level. Figure below shows this relationship.

Fig 1.3: Feed Back

1.4 Automatic Control System

An automatic control system is a preset closed-loop control system that requires no operator
action. This assumes the process remains in the normal range for the control system. An
automatic control system has two process variables associated with it: a controlled variable and a
manipulated variable.

A controlled variable is the process variable that is maintained at a specified value or within a
specified range. In the previous example, the storage tank level is the controlled variable.

A manipulated variable is the process variable that is acted on by the control system to maintain
the controlled variable at the specified value or within the specified range. In the previous
example, the flow rate of the water supplied to the tank is the manipulated variable.
1.5 Functions of Automatic Control

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In any automatic control system, the four basic functions that occur are:
 Measurement
 Comparison
 Computation
 Correction
In the water tank level control system in the example above, the level transmitter measures the
level within the tank. The level transmitter sends a signal representing the tank level to the level
control device, where it is compared to a desired tank level. The level control device then
computes how far to open the supply valve to correct any difference between actual and desired
tank levels.

1.6 Elements of Automatic Control

The three functional elements needed to perform the functions of an automatic control system
are:
 A measuring element
 An error detection element
 A final control element
Relationships between these elements and the functions they perform in an automatic control
System is shown in Figure below. The measuring element performs the measuring function by
Sensing and evaluating the controlled variable. The error detection element first compares the
value of the controlled variable to the desired value, and then signals an error if a deviation exists
between the actual and desired values. The final control element responds to the error signal by
correcting the manipulated variable of the process.

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 Feed Back Control System

An automatic controller is an error-sensitive, self-correcting device. It takes a signal from the

process and feeds it back into the process. Therefore, closed-loop control is referred to as
Feedback control.

1.7 Key Parameters of Control System

• Controlled Variable = output quantity of system (Level, Temperature, etc.).
• Manipulated Variable = means of maintaining controlled variable at the set point.
• Error signal =equals the difference between the set point and the measurement.
(e = SP . M).
• Set point = desired process level. (SP)
• Measurement = actual process level. (M)
• Closed Loop = automatic control.
• Open Loop = manual control.
• Feedback control is error correction following a disturbance.
• Feed forward control is control of disturbances, which could cause a process error.

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 Unit Two
2 Basic Process Control Strategies
In a simple control system, a process variable (PV) is measured and compared with a set point
value (SP). A manipulated variable (MV, or output) signal is generated by the controller and sent
to a final control element, which then influences the process variable to achieve stable control.
The algorithm by which the controller develops its output signal is typically PID (Proportional-
Integral-Derivative), but other algorithms may be used as well.

This form of simple control may be improved upon and expanded for a greater range of process
applications by interconnecting multiple controllers and/or redirecting measurement and control
signals in more complex arrangements. An exploration of some of the more common control
system configurations is the subject of this unit.

2.1 Supervisory Control

In a manually-controlled process, a human operator directly actuates some form of final
controlelement (usually a valve) to influence a process variable. Simple automatic (“regulatory”)
controlrelieves human operators of the need to continually adjust final control elements by hand,

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replacingthis task with the occasional adjustment of set point values. The controller then
manipulates thefinal control element to hold the process variable at the set point value
determined by the operator.

Supervisory Control
2. Cascade Control
To cascade controllers means to connect the output signal of one controller to the set point of
another controller, with each controller sensing a different aspect of the same process. The first
controller (called the primary, or master) essentially “gives orders” to the second controller
(calledthe secondary or slave) via a remote set point signal. Thus, a cascade control system
consists of two feedback control loops, one nested inside the other.

A very common example of cascade control is a valve Positioner, which receives a command
signal from a regular process controller, and in turn works to ensure the valve stem position
precisely matches that command signal. The control valve’s stem position is the process variable
(PV) for thePositioner, just as the command signal is the petitioner’s set point (SP). Valve

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Positioners thereforeact as “slave” controllers to “master” process controllers controlling
pressure, temperature, flow, orsome other process variable.

The purpose of cascade control is to achieve greater stability of the primary process variable
by regulating a secondary process variable in accordance with the needs of the first. An essential
requirement of cascaded control is that the secondary process variable be faster-responding (i.e.
lesslag time) than the primary process variable.

Cascade Control Strategy

3. Feed Forward Control

A feed forward control system monitors all the factors influencing a process and decides how
to compensate for these factors ahead of time before they have the opportunity to affect the
processvariable. If all loads are accurately measured, and the control algorithm realistic enough
to predictprocess response for these known load values, the process variable does not even need
to be measured at all .
An inherent weakness of any feedback control system is that it can never be pro-active. The best
any feedback control system can ever do is making adjustments to a process after some
disturbance in process variable is detected. This makes deviations from set point inevitable, if
only for short periods of time .Feed forward control address this weakness by taking a
fundamentally different approach, basing final control decisions on the states of load variables
rather than the process variable. In other words, a feed forward control system monitors all the
factors influencing a process and decideshow to compensate for these factors ahead of time
before they have the opportunity to affect the process variable.

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 Feed Forward Control Strategy

4.Ratio Control
In a ratio control system, the true controlled variable is the ratio K of two measured variables x
and y:
K=x/y
Control is usually affected by manipulating a valve influencing one of the variables, while the
other is uncontrolled or “wild.” The obvious way to implement the ratio control function is by
computing x/y, as shownin Fig. But this is not the best way.

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Figure above has a divider within the closed loop, regardless of which variable is affected by the
output of the controller. If x is manipulated, loop gain changes with the wild variable y:
Dk/dx=-1/y dk/dy=x/y2=-k/y
If “y” is manipulated, the loop becomes nonlinear in that the gain changes with controller output.
All these problems can be overcome by moving the calculation out of the closed loop. Ratio
control is then brought about in the set-point.

Ratio Control with Ratio Station

Figure above shows the set-point calculation. In this configuration, one of the variables becomes
controlled and the other serves to generate a set point. The wild variable is multiplied by the
adjustable coefficient K in a device called a “ratio station.”

5. Limit, Selector, and Override Controls

Limit Controls
A common application for select and limit functions is in cascade control strategies, where the
outputof one controller becomes the set point for another. It is entirely possible for the primary

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(master)controller to call for a set point that is unreasonable or unsafe for the secondary (slave)
to attain.
If this possibility exists, it is wise to place a limit function between the two controllers to limit
thecascaded set point signal.

Limit Control
Like the select functions, limit functions may appear in diagrams with nothing more than the
limit symbol inside the bubble, rather than being drawn in a box off to the side.

Limit Function

Rate limit functions place a maximum rate-of-change limit on the input signal, such that the
output signal will follow the input signal precisely until and unless the input signal’s rate-of-
changeover time ( dx /dt ) exceeds the pre-configured limit value.

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Selector Controls
Another category of control strategies involves the use of signal relays or function blocks with
theability to switch between different signal values, or re-direct signals to new pathways. Such
functionsare useful when we need a control system to choose between multiple signals of
differing value inorder to make the best control decisions. The “building blocks” of such control
strategies are special relays (or function blocks in a digital control system) shown here:

Selector Control

High-select functions output whichever input signal has the greatest value. Low-select functions
do just the opposite: output whichever input signal has the least value. “Greater-than” and “Less
than” symbols mark these two selector functions, respectively, and each type may be equipped to
receive more than two input signals.

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High-limit and low-limit functions are similar to high- and low-select functions, but they only
receive one input each, and the limit value is a parameter programmed into the function rather
thanreceived from another source.

Override Controls
An “override” control strategy involves a selection between two or more controller output
signals,where only one controller at a time gets the opportunity to exert control over a process.
All other“de-selected” controllers are thus overridden by the selected controller.

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 Unit Three
Industrial Sensors
Characteristics of Sensors
Sensors are also called transducers. This is because they convert an input phenomenonto an
output in a different form. This transformation relies upon a manufactured device with
limitations and imperfection. Characteristics of sensor expressed in the following parameters.

Accuracy - This is the maximum difference between the indicated and actual reading.For
example, if a sensor reads a force of 100N with a ±1% accuracy, thenthe force could be
anywhere from 99N to 101N.

Resolution -Used for systems that step through readings. This is the small est increment that the
sensor can detect, this may also be incorporated into the accuracy value. For example if a sensor
measures up to 10 inches of linear dis placements,and it outputs a number between 0 and 100,
then the resolution of the device is 0.1 inches.

Repeatability - When a single sensor condition is made and repeated, there will bea small
variation for that particular reading. If we take a statistical range forrepeated readings (e.g., ±3
standard deviations) this will be the repeatability.For example, if a flow rate sensor has a
repeatability of 0.5cfm, readings for anactual flow of 100cfm should rarely be outside 99.5cfm to
100.5cfm.

Linearity - In a linear sensor the input phenomenon has a linear relationship withthe output
signal. In most sensors this is a desirable feature. When the relationshipis not linear, the
conversion from the sensor output (e.g., voltage) to a calculatedquantity (e.g., force) becomes
more complex.

Precision - This considers accuracy, resolution and repeatability or one device relativeto another.

Range - Natural limits for the sensor. For example, a sensor for reading angularrotation may
only rotate 200 degrees.

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Dynamic Response - The frequency range for regular operation of the sensor. Typicallysensors
will have an upper operation frequency; occasionally there will belower frequency limits. For
example, our ears hear best between 10Hz and16KHz.

Environmental - Sensors all have some limitations over factors such as temperature,humidity,
dirt/oil, corrosives and pressures. For example many sensorswill work in relative humidities
(RH) from 10% to 80%.

Calibration - When manufactured or installed, many sensors will need some calibrationto
determine or set the relationship between the input phenomena, andoutput. For example, a
temperature reading sensor may need to be zeroed oradjusted so that the measured temperature
matches the actual temperature. Thismay require special equipment, and need to be performed
frequently.

Cost - Generally more precision costs more. Some sensors are very inexpensive,but the signal
conditioning equipment costs are significant.

3.1. Speed Measurement

3.1.1Tachometers
Tachometers measure the velocity of a rotating shaft. A common technique is tomount a magnet
to a rotating shaft. When the magnetic moves past a stationary pick-upcoil, current is induced.
For each rotation of the shaft there is a pulse in the coil, as shownin Figure below. When the time
between the pulses is measured the period for one rotationcan be found, and the frequency
calculated. This technique often requires some signalconditioning circuitry.

Another common technique uses a simple permanent magnet DC generator (note:you can also
use a small DC motor). The generator is hooked to the rotating shaft. Therotation of a shaft will
induce a voltage proportional to the angular velocity. This techniquewill introduce some drag
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into the system, and is used where efficiency is not anissue.Both of these techniques are
common, and inexpensive.

3.2. Temperature Measurement

Temperature measurements are very common with control systems. The temperature
Ranges are normally described with the following classifications.
 Very low temperatures <-60 deg C - e.g. superconductors in MRI units
 Low-temperature measurement -60 to 0 deg C - e.g. freezer controls
 Fine-temperature measurements 0 to 100 deg C - e.g. environmental controls
 High-temperature measurements <3000 deg F - e.g. metal refining/processing
 Very high-temperatures > 2000 deg C - e.g. plasma systems

3.2.1. Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

When a metal wire is heated the resistance increases. So, a temperature can be measured using
the resistance of a wire. Resistive Temperature Detectors (RTDs) normallyuse a wire or film of
platinum, nickel, copper or nickel-iron alloys. The metals are wound or wrapped over an
insulator, and covered for protection. The resistances of thesealloys are shown in Figure below.

Figure RTD Properties

These devices have positive temperature coefficients that cause resistance toincrease linearly
with temperature. Platinum RTD might have a resistance of 100 ohmsat 0C, that will increase by
0.4 ohms/°C. The total resistance of an RTD might double overthe temperature range.
A current must be passed through the RTD to measure the resistance. (Note: a voltagedivider can
be used to convert the resistance to a voltage.) The current through theRTD should be kept to a
minimum to prevent self heating. These devices are more linearthan thermocouples, and can
have accuracies of 0.05%. But, they can be expensive.

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 RTD using a Wheatstone Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge consisting of an RTD, three resistors, a voltmeter anda voltage source is
illustrated in Figure. In this circuit, when the current flow in the meter is zero (the voltage at
point A equals the voltage at point B) the bridge is said to be in null balance. This would be the
zero or set point on the RTD temperature output. As the RTD temperature increases,the voltage
read by the voltmeter increases. If a voltage transducer replaces the voltmeter, a 4-20 mA signal,
which is proportional to the temperature range being monitored, can be generated.

3.2.2 RTD Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
• The response time compared to thermocouples is very fast in the order of fractions of a
second.
• An RTD will not experience drift problems because it is not self powered.
• Within its range it is more accurate and has higher sensitivity than a thermocouple.
• In an installation where long leads are required, the RTD does not require special extension
cable.
• Unlike thermocouples, radioactive radiation (beta, gamma and neutrons) has minimal effect
on RTDs since the parameter measured is resistance, not voltage.

Disadvantages:
• Because the metal used for a RTD must be in its purest form, they are much more
expensive than thermocouples.
• In general, an RTD is not capable of measuring as wide a temperature range as a
thermocouple.
• A power supply failure can cause erroneous readings

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• Small changes in resistance are being measured, thus all connections must be tight and
free of corrosion, which will create errors.

Failure Modes:
• An open circuit in the RTD or in the wiring between the RTD and the bridge will cause a
high temperature reading.
• Loss of power or a short within the RTD will cause a low temperature reading.

3.2. 3 Thermocouples
Each metal has a natural potential level, and when two different metals touch thereis a small
potential difference, a voltage. (Note: when designing assemblies, dissimilarmetals should not
touch, this will lead to corrosion.) Thermocouples use a junction of dissimilarmetals to generate
a voltage proportional to temperature. This principle was discoveredby T.J. Seebeck.

The basic calculations for thermocouples are shown in Figure below. This calculationprovides
the measured voltage using a reference temperature and a constant specificto the device. The
equation can also be rearranged to provide a temperature given a voltage.

Figure Thermocouple Calculations

The list in Table shows different junction types, and the normal temperatureranges. Both
thermocouples, and signal conditioners are commonly available, and relativelyinexpensive.

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 Figure Thermocouple Temperature Voltage Relationships (Approximate)

The junction where the thermocouple is connected to the measurement instrumentis normally
cooled to reduce the thermocouple effects at those junctions. When using athermocouple for
precision measurement, a second thermocouple can be kept at a knowntemperature for reference.
A series of thermocouples connected together in series producesa higher voltage and is called a
thermopile. Readings can approach an accuracy of

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3.2.4 Thermocouple Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Thermocouples are used on most transformers. The hot junction is inside the transformer oil
and the cold junction at the meter mounted on the outside. With this simple and rugged
installation, the meter directly reads the temperature rise of oil above the ambient
temperature of the location.
• In general, thermocouples are used exclusively around the turbine hall because of their
rugged construction and low cost.
• A thermocouple is capable of measuring a wider temperature range than an RTD.

Disadvantages:
• If the thermocouple is located some distance away from the measuring device, expensive
extension grade thermocouple wires or compensating cables have to be used.
• Thermocouples are not used in areas where high radiation fields are present (for example,
in the reactor vault). Radioactive radiation (e.g., Beta radiation from neutron activation),
will induce a voltage in the thermocouple wires. Since the signal from thermocouple is also
a voltage, the induced voltage will cause an error in the temperature transmitter output.
• Thermocouples are slower in response than RTDs
• If the control logic is remotely located and temperature transmitters (milli-volt to milli- amp
transducers) are used, a power supply failure will of course cause faulty readings.

Failure Modes:
An open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current flow, thus it
will cause a low (off-scale) temperature reading.A short circuit in the thermocouple detector will
also cause a low temperature reading because it creates a leakage current path to the ground and
a smaller measured voltage

3.2.5 Thermistor
Thermistor are non-linear devices, their resistance will decrease with an increasein temperature.
(Note: this is because the extra heat reduces electron mobility in the semiconductor.). The
resistance can change by more than 1000 times. The basic calculation isshown in Figure below

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often metal oxide semiconductors The calculation uses a reference temperatureand resistance,
with a constant for the device, to predict the resistance at another temperature.The expression can
be rearranged to calculate the temperature given the resistance.°F ( )

Thermistors are small, inexpensive devices that are often made as beads, or metalized surfaces.
The devices respond quickly to temperature changes, and they have ahigher resistance, so
junction effects are not an issue. Typical accuracies are 1%, but thedevices are not linear, have a
limited temperature/resistance range and can be self heating.

3.2.6 Temperature sensor accessories

Thermal Wells
The process environment where temperature monitoring is required, is often not only hot, but
also pressurized and possibly chemically corrosive or radioactive. To facilitate removal of the
temperature sensors (RTD and TC), for examination or replacement and to provide mechanical
protection, the sensors are usually mounted inside thermal wells.

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A thermal well is basically a hollow metal tube with one end sealed. It is usually mounted
permanently in the pipe work. The sensor is inserted into it and makes contact with the sealed
end.

A photo of a complete RTD assembly (connection head, RTD, and thermowell) appears in the
next photograph:

A drawback to thermal wells is their long response time because heat must be transferred
through the well to the sensor. An example of the temperature response for bare and thermal well
installed sensors is shown in Figure. Minimizing the air space between the sensor and the well,
however, can decrease this thermal lag.

Response Curves of Bare and Thermal Well Installation

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3.3Liquids and Gases Measurement
There are a number of factors to be considered when examining liquids and gasses.
• Flow velocity
• Density
• Viscosity
• Pressure
There are a number of differences factors to be considered when dealing with fluidsand gases.
Normally a fluid is considered incompressible, while a gas normally followsthe ideal gas law.
Also, given sufficiently high enough temperatures, or low enoughpressures a fluid can be come a
gas.When flowing, the flow may be smooth, or laminar. In case of high flow rates orunrestricted
flow, turbulence may result. The Reynold’s number is used to determine thetransition to
turbulence. The equation below is for calculation the Reynold’s number forfluid flow in a pipe.
A value below 2000 will result in laminar flow. At a value of about3000 the fluid flow will
become uneven. At a value between 7000 and 8000 the flow willbecome turbulent.
PV= nRT Where,P= the gas pressure
V= the volume of the gas
N= the number of moles of the gas
R= the ideal gas constant
T= the gas temperature
R= VDρ/ uWhere,R= Reynolds number
V= velocity
D= pipe diameter
p=fluid density
u =viscosity

3.3.1Pressure Measurement
In many ways, pressure is the primary variable for a wide range of process measurements.
Many types of industrial measurements are actually inferred from pressure, such as:
• Flow (measuring the pressure dropped across a restriction)
• Liquid level (measuring the pressure created by a vertical liquid column)
• Liquid density (measuring the pressure difference across a fixed-height liquid column)
• Weight (hydraulic load cell)
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Even temperature may be inferred from pressure measurement, as in the case of a fluid-filled
chamber where fluid pressure and fluid temperature are directly related. As such, pressure is a
very important quantity to measure, and measure accurately. This section describes different
technologies for the measurement of pressure.

General Theory
Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the power plant. It
includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure, condenser pressure, lubricating
oil pressure and many more.Pressure is actually the measurement of force acting on area of
surface.We could represent this as

The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) inBritish units or Pascals
(Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000Pa, we often use kPa and MPa as units of
pressure.

3.3.2 Pressure Scales

Before we go into how pressure is sensed and measured, we have to establish a set of ground
rules. Pressure varies depending on altitude abovesea level, weather pressure fronts and other
conditions.The measure of pressure is, therefore, relative and pressure measurementsare stated as
either gauge or absolute.

Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tireratings are in gauge
pressure).A gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down toatmospheric
pressure (i.e., gauge pressure is referenced to atmosphericpressure). Gauge pressure is denoted
by a (g) at the end of the pressureunit [e.g., kPa (g)].

Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with thegauge pressure. It is
denoted by an (a) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g.,kPa (a)]. An absolute pressure indicator
would indicate atmosphericpressure when completely vented down to atmosphere - it would not
indicate scale zero.

Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure

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Figure below illustrates the relationship between absolute and gauge. Notethat the base point for
gauge scale is [0 kPa (g)] or standard atmosphericpressure 101.3 kPa (a).The majority of
pressure measurements in a plant are gauge. Absolutemeasurements tend to be used where
pressures are below atmosphere.Typically this is around the condenser and vacuum building.

Relationship between Absolute and Gauge Pressures

Pressure Measurement
The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, controloperation or a standard (4 -
20 mA) electronic signal that represents thepressure in a process.To accomplish this, most
pressure sensors translate pressure into physicalmotion that is in proportion to the applied
pressure. The most commonpressure sensors or primary pressure elements are described below

3.3.3 Mechanical Pressure Elements

Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm, and the bourdon tube.
Each of these devices converts a fluid pressure into a force. If unrestrained, the natural elastic
properties of the element will produce a motion proportional to the applied pressure.

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3.3.4 Electrical Pressure Elements
Several different technologies exist for the conversion of fluid pressure into an electrical signal
response. These technologies form the basis of electronic pressure transmitters: devices designed
to measure fluid pressure and transmit that information via electrical signals such as the 4-20 mA
analog standard, or in digital form such as HART or FOUNDATION Fieldbus.

3.3.5 Differential pressure transmitters

One of the most common, and most useful, pressure measuring instruments in industry is
thedifferential pressure transmitter. This device senses the difference in pressure between two
ports and outputs a signal representing that pressure in relation to a calibrated range. Differential
pressure transmitters may be based on any of the previously discussed pressure-sensing
technologies, so this section discusses practical application rather than internal workings.

In a similar manner, an increasing pressure applied to the “high” port of a DP transmitter

willdrive the output signal to a greater level (up), while an increasing pressure applied to the
“low” port of a DP transmitter will drive the output signal to a lesser level (down)

We can use metal or plastic tubes (or pipes) to connect one or more ports of a pressure
transmitter to points in a process. These tubes are commonly called impulse lines, or gauge lines,
or sensing lines. This is equivalent to the test wires used to connect a voltmeter to points in a

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circuit for measuring voltage. Typically, these tubes are connected to the transmitter and to the
process by means of compression fittings which allow for relatively easy disconnection and
reconnection of tubes.

3.3.6Pressure Sensor Accessories

Multiple accessories exist for pressure-sensing devices to function optimally in challenging
process environments. Sometimes, we must use special accessories to protect the pressure
instrument against hazards of certain process fluids.

Valve Manifolds
An important accessory to the differential pressure transmitter is the three-valve manifold. This
device incorporates three manual valves to isolate and equalize pressure from the process to the
transmitter, for maintenance and calibration purposes.

The following illustration shows the three valves comprising a three-valve manifold (within the
dotted-line box), as well as a fourth valve called a “bleed” valve used to vent trapped fluid
pressure to atmosphere.

In normal operation, the two block valves are left open to allow process fluid pressure to reach
the transmitter. The equalizing valve is left tightly shut so no fluid can pass between the “high”
and “low” pressure sides. To isolate the transmitter from the process for maintenance, one must
first close the block valves, then open the equalizing valve to ensure the transmitter “sees” no
differential pressure. The “bleed” valve is opened at the very last step to relieve pent-up fluid
pressure within the manifold and transmitter chambers:

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Bleed Fittings
Before removing a pressure transmitter from live service, the technician must “bleed” stored
fluid pressure to atmosphere in order to achieve a zero energy state prior to disconnecting the
transmitter from the impulse lines. Some valve manifolds provide a bleed valve for doing just
this, but many do not12. An inexpensive and common accessory for pressure-sensing
instruments (especially transmitters) is the bleed valve fitting, installed on the instrument as a
discrete device. The most common bleed fitting is equipped with 1/4 inch male NPT pipe
threads, for installation into one of the 1/4 inch NPT threaded pipe holes typically provided on
pressure transmitter flanges.

The bleed is operated with a small wrench, loosening a ball-tipped plug off its seat to allow
process fluid to escape through a small vent hole in the side of the fitting.

Bleed Fitting Position.

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Mounting Brackets
An accessory specifically designed for differential pressure transmitters, but useful for other field
mounted instruments as well, is the 2 inch pipe mounting bracket. Such a bracket is
manufactured from heavy-gauge sheet metal and equipped with a U-bolt designed to clamp
around any 2 inch black iron pipe. Holes stamped in the bracket match mounting bolts on the
capsule flanges of most common differential pressure transmitters, providing a mechanically
stable means of attaching a differential pressure transmitter to a framework in a process area.

Mounting Bracket.

3.4 Level Measurement

Liquid level measuring devices are classified into two groups: (a) direct method,and (b) inferred
method.
Types of level measuring instrumentation:
a. Gauge glass
b. Ball float
c. Chain float
d. Magnetic bond
e. Conductivity probe
f. Differential pressure (P)
G.ultrasonic transmitter

31
A. Gauge Glass
A very simple means by which liquid level is measured in a vessel is by the gauge glass method
(Figure below). In the gauge glass method, a transparent tube is attached to the bottom and top
(top connection not needed in a tank open to atmosphere) of the tank that is monitored. The
height of the liquid in the tube will be equal to the height of water in the tank.

Boiler Drum Level Gauge

B. Ball Float
The ball float method is a direct reading liquid level mechanism. The most practical design for
the float is a hollow metal ball or sphere. However, there are no restrictions to the size, shape,or
material used. The design consists of a ball float attached to a rod, which in turn is connectedto a
rotating shaft which indicates level on a calibrated scale (Figure below). The operation of theball
float is simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in the tank. If the liquid level changes,the float
will follow and change the position of the pointer attached to the rotating shaft.

Ball Float

32
The travel of the ball float is limited by its design to be within ±30 degrees from the horizontal
plane which results in optimum response and performance. The actual level range is determined
by the length of the connecting arm.The stuffing box is incorporated to form a water-tight seal
around the shaft to prevent leakagefrom the vessel.

C. Chain Float
This type of float gauge has a float ranging in size up to 12 inches in diameter and is used where
small level limitations imposed by ball floats must be exceeded. The range of level measured
will be limited only by the size of the vessel. The operation of the chain float is similar to the ball
float except in the method of positioning the pointer and in its connection to the position
indication. The float is connected to a rotating element by a chain with a weight attached to the
other end to provide a means of keeping the chain taut during changes in level.

Chain Float

D. Magnetic Bond Method

The magnetic bond method was developed to overcome the problems of cages and stuffing
boxes. The magnetic bond mechanism consists of a magnetic float which rises and falls with
changes in level. The float travels outside of anon-magnetic tube which houses an inner magnet
connected to a level indicator. When the float rises and falls, the outer magnet will attract the
inner magnet, causing the inner magnet to follow the level within the vessel (Figure below)

33
 Magnetic Bond Detector
E. Conductivity Probe Method
Conductivity probe level detection system consists of one or more level detectors, an operating
relay, and a controller. When the liquid makes contact with any of the electrodes, an electric
current will flow between the electrode and ground. The current energize relay which causes the
relay contacts to open or close depending on the state of the process involved. The relay in turn
will actuate an alarm, a pump, a control valve, or all three. A typicalsystem has three probes: a
low level probe, a high level probe, and a high level alarm probe.

Conductivity Probe Level Detector

34
F. Differential Pressure Methods

G. Ultrasonic Level Measurement

Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter (located at some high
point) to the surface of a process material located further below. The time-of-flight for a sound
pulse indicates this distance, and is interpreted by the transmitter electronics as process level.
These transmitters may output a signal corresponding either to the fullness of the vessel (fillage)
or the amount of empty space remaining at the top of a vessel (ullage)

Ullage is the “natural” mode of measurement for this sort of level instrument, because the sound
wave’s time-of-flight is a direct function of how much empty space exists between the liquid
surface and the top of the vessel. Total tank height will always be the sum of fillage and ullage,
though. If the ultrasonic level transmitter is programmed with the vessel’s total height, it may
calculate fillage via simple subtraction:

Fillage = Total Height − Ullage

The instrument itself consists of an electronics module containing all the power, computation,
and signal processing circuits; plus an ultrasonic transducer to send and receive the sound aves.
This transducer is typically piezoelectric in nature, being the equivalent of a very high-frequency
audio speaker. A typical example is shown in the following photograph:

35
3.5 Flow Measurement
There are various methods used to measure the flow rate of steam, water, lubricants, air, etc., in
industry. However, in this module will look at the most common, namely the DP type flow
detector.

3.5.1 Flow Detectors

To measure the rate of flow by the differential pressure method, some form of restriction is
placed in the pipeline to create a pressure drop. Since flow in the pipe must pass through a
reduced area, the pressure before the restriction is higher than after or downstream. Such a
reduction in pressure will cause an increase in the fluid velocity because the same amount of
flow must take place before the restriction as after it. Velocity will vary directly with theflow and
as the flow increases a greater pressure differential will occuracross the restriction. So by
measuring the differential pressure across arestriction, one can measure the rate of flow.

36
3.5.2 Orifice Plate
The orifice plate is the most common form of restriction that is used in flow measurement. An
orifice plate is basically a thin metal plate with a holebored in the center. It has a tab on one side
where the specification of theplate is stamped. The upstream side of the orifice plate usually has
a sharp,edge. Figure below shows a representative orifice plate

Orifice Plate
When an orifice plate is installed in a flow line (usually clamped between apair of flanges),
increase of fluid flow velocity through the reduced area atthe orifice develops a differential
pressure across the orifice. This pressure is a function of flow rate.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Orifice Plates

Advantages of orifice plates include:
• High differential pressure generated
• Exhaustive data available
• Low purchase price and installation cost
• Easy replacement
Disadvantages include:
• High permanent pressure loss implies higher pumping cost.
• Cannot be used on dirty fluids, slurries or wet steam as erosion will alter the differential
pressure generated by the orifice plate.

3.5.3 Vortex Flow Meter

Fluid flowing past a large (typically flat) obstacle will shed vortices. The frequency of the
vortices will be proportional to the flow rate. Measuring the frequency allows an estimate of the
37
flow rate. These sensors tend be low cost and are popular for low accuracy applications. The
relationship between sensor frequency (f) and volumetric flow rate (Q) may be expressed as
proportionality, with the letter k used to represent the constant of proportionality for any
particular flow meter:
f = kQWhere,f = Frequency of output signal (Hz)
Q =Volumetric flow rate (e.g. gallons per second)27
k = “K” factor of the vortex shedding flow tube (e.g. pulses per gallon
Applications area example diffuser plant

Vortex Flow Meter

Flow Tube Assembly of Vortex

3.5.4 Magnetic Flow Meters

When an electrical conductor moves perpendicular to a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in
that conductor perpendicular to both the magnetic flux lines and the direction of motion. This

38
phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction, and it is the basic principle upon which all
electro-mechanical generators operate.
In a generator mechanism, the conductor in question is typically a coil (or set of coils) made of
copper wire. However, there is no reason the conductor must be made of copper wire. Any
electrically conductive substance in motion is sufficient to electromagnetically induce a voltage,
even if that substance is a liquid (or a gas).
Consider water flowing through a pipe, with a magnetic field passing perpendicularly through
the pipe:

The direction of liquid flow cuts perpendicularly through the lines of magnetic flux, generating a
voltage along an axis perpendicular to both. Metal electrodes opposite each other in the pipe wall
intercept this voltage, making it readable to an electronic circuit.
A voltage induced by the linear motion of a conductor through a magnetic field is called
motional EMF, the magnitude of which is predicted by the following formula (assuming perfect
perpendicularity between the direction of velocity, the orientation of the magnetic flux lines, and
the axis of voltage measurement):
E = BlvWhere,E = Motional EMF (volts)
B = Magnetic flux density (Tesla)

39
 l = Length of conductor passing through the magnetic field (meters)
v = Velocity of conductor (meters per second)
Assuming a fixed magnetic field strength (constant B) and an electrode spacing equal to the
fixed diameter of the pipe (constant l = d), the only variable capable of influencing the
magnitude of induced voltage is velocity (v). In our example, v is not the velocity of a wire
segment, but rather the average velocity of the liquid flow stream (v). Since we see that this
voltage will be proportional to average fluid velocity, it must also be proportional to volumetric
flow rate, since volumetric flow rate is also proportional to average fluid velocity30. Thus, what
we have here is a type of flow meterbased on electromagnetic induction. These flow meters are
commonly known as magnetic flow meters or simply mag-flow meters.
We may state the relationship between volumetric flow rate (Q) and motional EMF (E) more
precisely by algebraic substitution. First, we will write the formula relating volumetric flow to
average velocity, and then manipulate it to solve for average velocity:
Q = Av

Next, we re-state the motional EMF equation, and then substitute Q A for v to arrive at an
equation relating motional EMF to volumetric flow rate (Q), magnetic flux density (B), pipe
diameter (d),and pipe area (A):

A few conditions must be met for this formula to successfully infer volumetric flow rate from
induced voltage:
• The liquid must be a reasonably good conductor of electricity
• Both electrodes must contact the liquid
• The pipe must be completely filled with liquid
• The flow tube must be properly grounded to avoid errors caused by
stray electric currents in the liquid

40
Applications area example mixed juice, scalding juice, clear juice flow meters

3.6 Analytical Measurements

A great many chemical composition measurements may be made indirectly by means of
electricity, if those measurements are related to the concentration of ions (electrically charged
molecules). Such measurements include:
• pH of an aqueous solution
• Oxygen concentration in air
• Ammonia concentration in air
• Lead concentration in water
The basic principle works like this: two different chemical samples are placed in close proximity
to each other, separated only by an ion-selective membrane able to pass the ion of interest. As
the ion activity attempts to reach equilibrium through the membrane, an electrical voltage is
produced across that membrane. If we measure the voltage produced, we can infer the relative
activity of the ions on either side of the membrane.
Not surprisingly, the function relating ion activity to the voltage generated is nonlinear.
Thestandard equation describing the relationship between ionic activity on both sides of the
membrane and the voltage produced is called the Nernst equation:

41
V = RT/nFln_(a1/a2)Where,
V = Electrical voltage produced across membrane due to ion exchange (volts)
R = Universal gas constant (8.315 J/mol·K)
T = Absolute temperature (Kelvin)
n = Number of electrons transferred per ion exchanged (unitless)
F = Faraday constant (96,485 coulombs per mole)
a1 = Activity of ion in measured sample
a2 = Activity of ion in reference sample (on other side of membrane)
A practical application for this technology is in the measurement of oxygen concentration inthe
flue gas of a large industrial burner, such as what might be used to heat up water to generate
steam. The measurement of oxygen concentration in the exhaust of a combustion heater (or
boiler) is very important both for maximizing fuel efficiency and for minimizing pollution
(specifically, the production of NOx molecules)

3.6.1 pH
The pH of a solution is a defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration.
Instrumentally, hydrogen ion concentrations cannot be directly measured, and must be inferred
using the electrochemistry of positively-charged hydrogen ions moving across a glass membrane.
The pH of the solution can be calculated by comparing the voltage produced across the glass
membrane with voltage from a constant voltage reference electrode.

A very important measurement in many liquid chemical processes (industrial, pharmaceutical,

manufacturing, food production, etc.) is that of pH: the measurement of hydrogen ion
concentration in a liquid solution. A solution with a low pH value is called an "acid," while one
with a high pH is called a "caustic." The common pH scale extends from 0 (strong acid) to 14
(strong caustic), with 7 in the middle representing pure water (neutral):

42
pH is defined as follows: the lower-case letter "p" in pH stands for the negative common (base
ten) logarithm, while the upper-case letter "H" stands for the element hydrogen. Thus, pH is a
logarithmic measurement of the number of moles of hydrogen ions (H+) per liter of solution.
Incidentally, the "p" prefix is also used with other types of chemical measurements where a
logarithmic scale is desired, pCO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and pO2 (Oxygen) being two such
examples.

The logarithmic pH scale works like this: a solution with 10-12 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH
of 12; a solution with 10-3 moles of H+ ions per liter has a pH of 3. While very uncommon, there
is such a thing as an acid with a pH measurement below 0 and a caustic with a pH above 14.
Such solutions, understandably, are quite concentrated and extremely reactive.

While pH can be measured by color changes in certain chemical powders (the "litmus strip"
being a familiar example from high school chemistry classes), continuous process monitoring
and control of pH requires a more sophisticated approach. The most common approach is the use
of a specially-prepared electrode designed to allow hydrogen ions in the solution to migrate
through a selective barrier, producing a measurable potential (voltage) difference proportional to
the solution's pH:

43
The design and operational theory of pH electrodes is a very complex subject, explored only
briefly here. What is important to understand is that these two electrodes generate a voltage
directly proportional to the pH of the solution. At a pH of 7 (neutral), the electrodes will produce
0 volts between them. At a low pH (acid) a voltage will be developed of one polarity, and at a
high pH (caustic) a voltage will be developed of the opposite polarity.

An unfortunate design constraint of pH electrodes is that one of them (called the measurement
electrode) must be constructed of special glass to create the ion-selective barrier needed to screen
out hydrogen ions from all the other ions floating around in the solution. This glass is chemically
doped with lithium ions, which is what makes it react electrochemically to hydrogen ions. Of
course, glass is not exactly what you would call a "conductor;" rather, it is an extremely good
insulator. This presents a major problem if our intent is to measure voltage between the two
electrodes. The circuit path from one electrode contact, through the glass barrier, through the
solution, to the other electrode, and back through the other electrode's contact, is one of
extremely high resistance.

The following table shows the relationship between hydrogen ion activity, pH value, and probe
Voltage

This numerical progression is reminiscent of the Richter scale used to measure

earthquakemagnitudes, where each ten-fold (decade) multiplication of power is represented by
one more increment on the scale (e.g. a 6.0 Richter earthquake is ten times more powerful than a
5.0 Richter earthquake). The logarithmic nature of the Nernst equation means that pH probes –
and in fact all potentiometric sensors based on the same dynamic of voltage produced by ion

44
exchange across a membrane – have astounding rangeability: they are capable of representing a
wide range of conditions with a modest signal voltage span.
Of course, the disadvantage of high rangeability is the potential for large pH measurement errors
if the voltage detection within the pH instrument is even just a little bit inaccurate. The problem
is made even worse by the fact that the voltage measurement circuit has extremely high
impedance due to the presence of the glass membrane. The pH instrument measuring the voltage
produced by a pH probe assembly must have input impedance that is orders of magnitude greater
yet, or else the probe’s voltage signal will become “loaded down” by the voltmeter and not
register accurately.

In order for a pH instrument to accurately infer a solution’s pH value from the voltage generated
by a glass electrode, it must “know” the expected slope of the Nernst equation. Since the only
variable in the Nernst equation beside the two ion concentration values (C1 and C2) is
temperature (T), a simple temperature measurement will provide the pH instrument the
information it needs to function accurately. For this reason, many pH instruments are constructed
to accept an RTD input for solution temperature sensing, and many pH probe assemblies have
built-in RTD temperature sensors ready to sense solution temperature.
The slope of a pH instrument is generally set by performing a two-point calibration using buffer
solutions as the pH calibration standard. A buffer solution is a specially formulated solution that
maintains a stable pH value even under conditions of slight contamination. The pH probe
assembly is inserted into a cup containing a buffer solution of known pH value, then the pH
instrument is “standardized” to that pH value. After standardizing at the first calibration point,

45
the pH probe is removed from the buffer, rinsed, then placed into another cup containing a
second buffer with a different pH value.
After another stabilization period, the pH instrument is standardized to this second pH value.
It only takes two points to define a line, so these two buffer measurements are all that is required
by a pH instrument to define the linear transfer function relating probe voltage to solution pH

Most modern pH instruments will display the calculated slope value after calibration. This value
should (ideally) be 59.17 millivolts per pH unit at 25 degrees Celsius, but it will likely be a bit
less than this. The voltage-generating ability of a glass electrode decays with age, so a low slope
value may indicate a probe in need of replacement.

46
pH AND TEMPERATURE RELATIONS

No TEMPERATURE pH VALUES
(0C) pH-4 pH-7 pH-9
1 0 4.01 7.10 9.46
2 5 4.01 7.07 9.40
3 10 4.00 7.04 9.33
4 15 4.00 7.02 9.28
5 20 4.00 7.00 9.23
6 25 4.01 6.98 9.18
7 30 4.01 6.97 9.14
8 35 4.02 6.96 9.10
9 40 4.03 6.96 9.07
10 45 4.04 6.95 9.04
11 50 4.06 6.95 9.01
12 55 4.07 6.96 8.99
13 60 4.09 6.96 8.96
14 70 4.12 6.97 8.92
15 80 4.16 9.98 8.89
16 90 4.20 7.00 8.85
17 95 4.23 7.01 8.83

47
 Unit Four
Final Control Elements
4.1 Control Valves
One of the most common final control elements in industrial control systems is the control valve.
A “control valve” works to restrict the flow of fluid through a pipe at the command of an
automated signal, such as the signal from a loop controller or logic device .Some control valve
designs are intended for discrete (on/off) control of fluid flow, while others are designed to
throttle fluid flow somewhere between fully open and fully closed (shut), inclusive. The
electrical equivalent of an on/off valve is a switch, while the electrical equivalent of a throttling
valve is a variable resistor.
Control valves are comprised of two major parts: the valve body, which contains all the
mechanical components necessary to influence fluid flow; and the valve actuator, which provides
the mechanical power necessary to move the components within the valve body. Often times, the
major difference between an on/off control valve and a throttling control valve is the type of
actuator applied to the valve1: on/off actuators need only position a valve mechanism two one of
two extreme positions (fully open or fully closed). Throttling actuators must be able to accurately
position a valve mechanism anywhere between those extremes.

4.1.1Sliding-Stem Valves
A sliding-stem valve body is one that actuates with a linear motion

48
Most sliding-stem control valves are direct acting, which means the valve opens up wider as the
stem is drawn out of the body. Conversely, a direct-acting valve shuts off (closes) when the stem
is pushed into the body. Of course, a reverse-acting valve body would behave just the opposite:
opening up as the stem is pushed in and closing off as the stem is drawn out.

4.1.1.1 Gate Valves

Gate valves work by inserting a dam (“gate”) into the path of the flow to restrict it, in a manner
similar to the action of a sliding door. Gate valves are more often used for on/off control than for
throttling.

Gate Valve Partially Open

49
Valve Packing
Regardless of valve type, all stem-actuated control valves require some form of seal allowing
motion of the stem from some external device (an actuator) while sealing process fluid so no
leaks occur between the moving stem and the body of the valve. The general term for this sealing
mechanism is packing

4.1.2 Rotary-Stem Valves

A different strategy for controlling the flow of fluid is to insert a rotary element into the flow
path. Instead of sliding a stem into and out of the valve body to actuate a throttling mechanism,
rotary valves rely on the rotation of a shaft to actuate the trim. An important advantage of rotary
control valves over sliding-stem designs such as the globe valve and diaphragm valve is a
virtually obstruction less path for fluid when the valve is wide-open.

50
4.1.2.1 Ball Valves
In the ball valve design, a spherical ball with a passageway cut through the center rotates to
allow fluid more or less access to the passageway. When the passageway is parallel to the
direction of fluid motion, the valve is wide open; when the passageway is aligned perpendicular
to the direction of fluid motion, the valve is fully shut (closed). When used in throttling service, a
more common variation of the simple ball valve is the characterized ball valve which uses a
partial sphere rather than a metal sphere to throttle flow, with the throttling edge of the partial
sphere notch-shaped to provide the desired characteristic for smooth throttling.

51
 Ball Valve Partially Open

4.1.2.2 Butterfly Valves

Butterfly valves are quite simple to understand: the “butterfly” element is a disk that rotates in
the path of fluid flow. When parallel to the axis of flow, the disk presents minimal obstruction;
when perpendicular to the axis, the disk completely blocks any flow. Fluid-tight shut-off is
difficult to obtain in the classic butterfly design unless the seating area is lined with a soft
(elastic) material.

4.1.2.3 Disk Valves

Disk valves (often referred to as eccentric disk valves or as high-performance butterfly valves)
are a variation on the butterfly design intended to improve seat shut-off. The disk’s center is
offset from the shaft centerline, causing it to approach the seat with a “cam” action that results in
high seating pressure. Thus, tight shut-off of flow is possible even when using metal seats and
disks.

52
 Disk Valve

4.1.2.3 Dampers and Louvres

A damper (otherwise known as a louvre) is a multi-element flow control device generally used to
throttle large flows of air at low pressure. Dampers find common application in furnace and
boiler draft control, and in HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) systems.

Common damper designs include parallel and radial. Parallel-vane dampers resemble a Venetian
blind, with multiple rectangular vanes synchronously rotated to throttle flow through a
rectangular opening. Radial-vane dampers use multiple vanes arranged like petals of a flower to
throttle flow through a circular opening. A photograph of a radial-vane damper is shown here
(note the levers and linkages on the periphery of the tube, synchronizing the motions of the vanes
so they rotate at the same angle).

53
 Lavoures

4.2 Control Valve Actuators and Its Accessories

The purpose of a control valve actuator is to provide the motive force to operate a valve
mechanism.Both sliding-stem and rotary control valves enjoy the same selection of actuators:
pneumatic, hydraulic, electric motor, and hand (manual).

4.2.1Throttling Pneumatic actuators

Pneumatic actuators use air pressure pushing against either a flexible diaphragm or a piston to
move a valve mechanism. The following photograph shows a cut-away control valve, with a
pneumatic diaphragm actuator mounted above the valve body. You can see the large coil spring
providing default positioning of the valve (air pressure acting against the diaphragm moves the
valve against the spring) and the rubber diaphragm at the very top. Air pressure applied to the
bottom side of the diaphragm lifts the sliding stem of the valve in the upward direction, against
the spring’s force which tries to push the stem down:

54
 Pneumatic Actuator

4.2.2I to p Converter
It is a signal transducer (or converter) translating an electrical signal into an air pressure signal.
Such transducers are commonly known as I/P or “I to P” converters, since they typically translate
an electric current signal (I) of 4 to 20 mA DC into an air pressure signal (P) of 3 to 15 PSI.

I to p Converter

55
Accepting an analog DC current signal input and a clean supply air pressure of about 20 PSI,
outputting a variable air pressure signal proportional to the electric current input.

4.2.3 Valve Positioners

A Positioner is a motion-control device designed to actively compare stem position against the
control signal, adjusting pressure to the actuator diaphragm or piston until the correct stem
position is reached. In other words, a position is a secondary control system13 unto itself, acting
within its limits to maintain valve stem position in close correspondence to the control signal’s
command

Control Valve with Positioner

Positioners essentially act as control systems within themselves: the valve’s stem position is the
process variable (PV), the command signal to the positioner is the setpoint (SP), and the
positioner’s signal to the valve actuator is the manipulated variable (MV) or output. Thus, when
a process controller sends a command signal to a valve equipped with a positioner, the positioner
receives that command signal and does its best to ensure the valve stem position follows along.

4.2.4 Micro Processor Based Positioners

Positioners such as containing digital electronic microprocessors to monitor and control valve
stem position in accordance with the control signal, and also store data relevant to diagnostics.
Control valve Positioners are typically constructed in such a way to source and vent high air flow
rates, such that the Positioner also fulfills the functionality of a volume booster. Thus, a

56
Positioner not only ensures more precise valve stem positioning, but also faster stem velocity
(and shorter time delays) than if the valve actuator were directly “powered” by an I/P transducer.

Modern Positioner

4.3 Control Valve Problems

Control valves are subject to a number of common problems. This section is dedicated to an
exploration of the more common control valve problems, and potential remedies.

Mechanical Friction
Control valves are mechanical devices having moving parts, and as such they are subject to
friction, primarily between the valve stem and the stem packing.

Valve Noise
A troublesome phenomenon in severe services is audible noise produced by control valves.

Choked Flow

57
Both gas and liquid control valves may experience what is generally known as choked flow.
Simply put, “choked flow” is a condition where the rate of flow through a valve does not change
substantially as downstream pressure is reduced.

Cavitations
Fluid passing through a control valve experiences changes in velocity as it enters the narrow
constriction of the valve trim (increasing velocity) then enters the widening area of the valve
body downstream of the trim (decreasing velocity). These changes in velocity result in the fluid
molecules kinetic energies changing.

Valve Seat Leakage

The control valve can not be able to completely stop fluid flow when placed in the “closed”
position.

4.4 Control Valve Failure Mode

An important design parameter of a control valve is the position it will “fail” to if it
loses motive power. For electrically actuated valves, this is typically the last
position the valve was in before loss of electric power.
The fail-safe mode of a pneumatic/spring valve is a function of both the actuator’s action and the
valve body’s action. For sliding-stem valves, a direct-acting actuator pushes down on the stem
with increasing pressure while a reverse-acting actuator pulls up on the stem with increasing
pressure.
Sliding-stem valve bodies are classified as direct-acting if they open up when the stem is lifted,
and classified as reverse-acting if they shut off (close) when the stem is lifted. Thus, a sliding-
stem, pneumatically actuated control valve may be made air-to-open or air-to-close simply by
matching the appropriate actuator and body types. The most common combinations mix a direct-
acting valvebody with either a reverse- or direct-acting valve actuator, as shown in this

58
illustration

Valve Action on Fail Safe Condition

4.5 On/off Actuators

SOLENOIDS
Solenoids are the most common actuator components. The basic principle of operationis there is
a moving ferrous core (a piston) that will move inside wire coil as shownin Figure below.
Normally the piston is held outside the coil by a spring. When a voltage isapplied to the coil and
current flows, the coil builds up a magnetic field that attracts thepiston and pulls it into the center
of the coil. The piston can be used to supply a linearforce. Well known applications of these
include pneumatic valves.

59
The flow of fluids and air can be controlled with solenoid controlled valves. Anexample of a
solenoid controlled valve is shown in Figure below. The solenoid is mounted on the side. When
actuated it will drive the central spool left. The top of the valve body has two ports that will be
connected to a device such as a hydraulic cylinder. The bottom of thevalve body has a single
pressure line in the center with two exhausts to the side. In the topdrawing the power flows in
through the center to the right hand cylinder port. The lefthand cylinder port is allowed to exit
through an exhaust port. In the bottom drawing thesolenoid is in a new position and the pressure
is now applied to the left hand port on thetop, and the right hand port can exhaust. The symbols
to the left of the figure show theschematic equivalent of the actual valve positions. Valves are
also available that allow thevalves to be blocked when unused.

Solenoid Valve Types

Valve types are listed below. In the standard terminology, the ’n-way’ designatesthe number of
connections for inlets and outlets. In some cases there are redundant portsfor exhausts. The
normally open/closed designation indicates the valve condition whenpower is off. All of the
valves listed are two position valve, but three position valves arealso available.
2-way normally closed– these have one inlet, and one outlet. When unenergized,the valve is
closed. When energized, the valve will open, allowing flow. Theseare used to permit flows.
2-way normally open– these have one inlet, and one outlet. When unenergized, thevalve is
open, allowing flow. When energized, the valve will close. These areused to stop flows. When
system power is off, flow will be allowed.

60
3-way normally closed– these have inlet, outlet, and exhaust ports. When un energized, the
outlet port is connected to the exhaust port. When energized, the in letis connected to the outlet
port. These are used for single acting cylinders.
3-way normally open– these have inlet, outlet and exhaust ports. When de-energized,the inlet is
connected to the outlet. Energizing the valve connects the outletto the exhaust. These are used
for single acting cylinders
3-way universal– these have three ports. One of the ports acts as an inlet or outlet,and is
connected to one of the other two, when energized/de-energized. Thesecan be used to divert
flows, or select alternating sources.
4-way– These valves have four ports, two inlets and two outlets. Energizing thevalve causes
connection between the inlets and outlets to be reversed. These areused for double acting
cylinders.
Some of the ISO symbols for valves are shown in Figure below. When using the symbolsin
drawings the connections are shown for the un energized state. The arrows showthe flow paths in
different positions. The small triangles indicate an exhaust port.

Solenoid Valve Selection

When selecting valves there are a number of details that should be considered, aslisted below.
Pipe Size– inlets and outlets are typically threaded to accept NPT (national pipethread).

61
Flow Rate– the maximum flow rate is often provided to hydraulic valves.
Operating Pressure– a maximum operating pressure will be indicated. Some valveswill also
require a minimum pressure to operate.
Electrical– the solenoid coil will have a fixed supply voltage (AC or DC) and current.
Response time– this is the time for the valve to fully open/close. Typical times forvalves range
from 5ms to 150ms.
Enclosure– the housing for the valve will be rated as,
Type 1 or 2 – for indoor use, requires protection against splashes
Type 3 – for outdoor use, will resists some dirt and weathering
Type 3R or 3S or 4 – water and dirt tight
Type 4X – water and dirt tight, corrosion resistant

4.6 Cylinders
A cylinder uses pressurized fluid or air to create a linear force/motion as shown inFigure below.
In the figure a fluid is pumped into one side of the cylinder under pressure,causing that side of
the cylinder to expand, and advancing the piston. The fluid on theother side of the piston must be
allowed to escape freely - if the incompressible fluid was trapped the cylinder could not advance.
The force the cylinder can exert is proportional to the cross sectional area of the cylinder.

A Cross Section of a Hydraulic Cylinder

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Single acting cylinders apply force when extending and typically use a spring to retract the
cylinder. Double acting cylinders apply force in both directions.
For Force:
P= F/ A
F=PA
Where,P = the pressure of the hydraulic fluid
A = the area of the piston
F = the force available from the piston rod

Schematic Symbols for Cylinders

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 Unit Five
Hydraulics System
Introduction
Hydraulics use incompressible fluids to supply very large forces at slower speeds and limited
ranges of motion. If the fluid flow rate is kept low enough, many of the effectspredicted by
Bernoulli’s equation can be avoided. The system uses hydraulic fluid (normallyoil) pressurized
by a pump and passed through hoses and valves to drive cylinders.At the heart of the system is a
pump that will give pressures up to hundreds orthousands of psi. These are delivered to a
cylinder that converts it to a linear force and displacement

5.1 Components of Hydraulics System

Hydraulic systems normally contain the following components;
1. Hydraulic Fluid
2. An Oil Reservoir
3. A Pump to Move Oil, and Apply Pressure
4. Pressure Lines
5. Control Valves - to regulate fluid flow
6. Piston and Cylinder - to actuate external mechanisms
The hydraulic fluid is often a non corrosive oil chosen so that it lubricates the components. This
is normally stored in a reservoir as shown in Figure below. Fluid is drawn from the reservoir to a
pump where it is pressurized. This is normally a geared pump so that it may deliver fluid at a
high pressure at a constant flow rate. A flow regulator is normally placed at the high pressure
outlet from the pump. If fluid is not flowing in other parts ofthe system this will allow fluid to re
circulate back to the reservoir to reduce wear on thepump. The high pressure fluid is delivered to
solenoid controlled vales that can switch fluid flow on or off. From the vales fluid will be
delivered to the hydraulics at high pressure,or exhausted back to the reservoir.

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 Hydraulic System
Hydraulic systems can be very effective for high power applications, but the use of fluids, and
high pressures can make this method awkward, messy, and noisy for other applications.

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 Unit Six
Pneumatics
Introduction
The word pneumatics is a derivative of the Greek word pneuma, which means air, wind, or
breath. It can be defined as that branch of engineering science that pertains to gaseous pressure
and flow. in this manual,pneumatics is the portion of fluid power in which compressed air, or
other gas, is used to transmit and control power to actuating mechanisms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
Recall from secondary school that gas is one of the three states of matter. It has characteristics
similar to those of liquids in that it has no definite shape but conforms to the shape of its
container and readily transmits pressure.

Gases differ from liquids in that they have no definite volume. That is, regardless of the size or
shape of the containing vessel, a gas will completely fill it. Gases are highly compressible,while
liquids are only slightly so. Also, gases are lighter than equal volumes of liquids, makinggases
less dense than liquids.

6.1 COMPRESSED AIR

Compressed air is a mixture of all gases contained in the atmosphere. In this unit, compressed air
is referred to as a gas when it is used as a fluid medium.
The unlimited supply of air and the ease of compression make compressed air the most widely
used fluid for pneumatic systems. Although moisture and solid particles must be removed from
the air, it does not require the extensive distillation or separation process required in the
production of other gases.

6.2 Qualities of Compressed Air

Compressed air has most of the desired properties and characteristics of a gas for pneumatic
systems.

It is nonpoisonous and nonflammable but does contain oxygen, which supports combustion. One
of the most undesirable qualities of compressed air as a fluid medium for pneumatic systems is

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moisture content. The atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture in vapor form. Changes
in the temperature of compressed air will cause condensation of moisture in the pneumatic
system. This condensed moisture can be very harmful to the system, as it increases corrosion,
dilutes lubricants, and may freeze in lines and components during cold weather. Moisture
separators and air driers (dehydrators) are installed in the compressed air lines to minimize or
eliminate moisture in systems where moisture would deteriorate system performance.
The supply of compressed air at the required volume and pressure is provided by an air
compressor.

In most systems the compressor is part of the system with distribution lines leading from the
compressor to the devices to be operated. In these systems a receiver is installed in-line between
the compressor and the device to be operated to help eliminate pulsations in the compressor
discharge line, to act as a storage tank during intervals when the demand for air exceeds the
compressor’s capacity, and to enable the compressor to shut down during periods of light load.
Other systems receive their supply from cylinders which must be filled at a centrally located air
compressor and then connected to the system

Pneumatic systems are very common, and have much in common with hydraulic csystems with a
few key differences. The reservoir is eliminated as there is no need to collectand store the air
between uses in the system. Also because air is a gas it is compressibleand regulators are not
needed to re circulate flow. But, the compressibility also meansthat the systems are not as stiff or
strong. Pneumatic systems respond very quickly, and arecommonly used for low force
applications in many locations on the factory floor.When designing pneumatic systems care must
be taken to verify the operating location. In particular the elevation above sea level will result in
a dramatically different air pressure. For example, at sea level the air pressure is about 14.7 psi,
but at a height of 7,800 ft (Mexico City) the air pressure is 11.1 psi. Other operating
environments, such as in submersibles, the air pressure might be higher than at sea level.

6.3 Symbols of Pneumatic System

Some symbols for pneumatic systems are shown in Figure below. The flow control valve is used
to restrict the flow, typically to slow motions. The shuttle valve allows flow in one direction, but

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blocks it in the other. The receiver tank allows pressurized air to be accumulated. The dryer and
filter help remove dust and moisture from the air, prolonging the life of the valves and cylinders.

Pneumatic Components

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 Unit Seven
Instrumental Calibration

Introduction
To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its response so the out put
accurately corresponds to its input throughout a specified range. In order to do this, one must
expose the instrument to an actual input stimulus of precisely known quantity. For a pressure
gauge, indicator, or transmitter, this would mean subjecting the pressure instrument to known
fluid pressures and comparing the instrument response against those known pressure quantities.
One cannot perform a true calibration without comparing an instrument’s response to known,
physical stimuli.

To range an instrument means to set the lower and upper range values so it responds with the
desired sensitivity to changes in input. For example, a pressure transmitter set to a range of 0
to200 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA output; 200 PSI = 20 mA output) could be re-ranged to respond on a
scaleof 0 to 150 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA ; 150 PSI = 20 mA).

7.1Zero and Span Adjustments (Analog Transmitters)

The purpose of calibration is to ensure the input and output of an instrument corresponds to
oneanother predictably throughout the entire range of operation. We may express this
expectation inthe form of a graph, showing how the input and output of an instrument should
relate.

69
This graph shows how any given percentage of input should correspond to the same percentageof
output, all the way from 0% to 100%.Things become more complicated when the input and
output axes are represented by units ofmeasurement other than “percent.” Take for instance a
pressure transmitter, a device designed tosense a fluid pressure and output an electronic signal
corresponding to that pressure. Here is a graphfor a pressure transmitter with an input range of 0
to 100 pounds per square inch (PSI) and anelectronic output signal range of 4 to 20 milliamps
(mA) electric current.

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7.2Damping Adjustments
The vast majority of modern process transmitters (both analog and digital) come equipped with a
feature known as damping. This feature is essentially a low-pass filter function placed in-line
withthe signal, reducing the amount of process “noise” reported by the transmitter.In order for
damping to be a useful tool for the technician in mitigating measurement noise, it must be
adjustable.

7.3Calibration Procedures
7.3.1Linear Instruments
The simplest calibration procedure for a linear instrument is the so-called zero-and-span method.
The method is as follows:
1. Apply the lower-range value stimulus to the instrument, wait for it to stabilize
2. Move the “zero” adjustment until the instrument registers accurately at this point
3. Apply the upper-range value stimulus to the instrument, wait for it to stabilize
4. Move the “span” adjustment until the instrument registers accurately at this point
5. Repeat steps 1 through 4 as necessary to achieve good accuracy at both ends of the range.

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The aim of the procedure is to check the instrument’s response at several pointsbetween the
lower- and upper-range values. A common example of this is the so-called five-pointcalibration
where the instrument is checked at 0% (LRV), 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (URV) ofrange. A
variation on this theme is to check at the five points of 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 90%,while
still making zero and span adjustments at 0% and 100%. Regardless of the specific
percentagepoints chosen for checking, the goal is to ensure that we achieve (at least) the
minimum necessaryaccuracy at all points along the scale, so the instrument’s response may be
trusted when placed intoservice.

7.3.2 Nonlinear Instruments

The calibration of inherently nonlinear instruments is much more challenging than for
linearinstruments. No longer are two adjustments (zero and span) sufficient, because more than
twopoints are necessary to define a curve.

7.4 Typical Calibration Errors

Recall that the slope-intercept form of a linear equation describes the response of a linear
instrument:

Where,y = Output
m = Span Adjustment
x = Input
b = Zero Adjustment
A zero shift calibration error shifts the function vertically on the graph. This error affects
allcalibration points equally, creating the same percentage of error across the entire range.

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A span shift calibration error shifts the slope of the function. This error’s effect is unequal at
different points throughout the range.

A linearity calibration error causes the function to deviate from a straight line. This type
oferror does not directly relate to a shift in either zero (b) or span (m) because the slope-
interceptequation only describes straight lines. If an instrument does not provide a linearity

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adjustment, thebest you can do for this type of error is “split the error” between high and low
extremes, so themaximum absolute error at any point in the range is minimized.

A hysteresis calibration error occurs when the instrument responds differently to an

increasinginput compared to a decreasing input. The only way to detect this type of error is to do
an up-downcalibration test, checking for instrument response at the same calibration points going
down as goingup.

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Hysteresis errors are almost always caused by mechanical friction on some moving
element(and/or a loose coupling between mechanical elements) such as bourdon tubes, bellows,
diaphragms,pivots, levers, or gear sets.In practice, most calibration errors are some combination
of zero, span, linearity, and hysteresisproblems.

7.4 Calibration Data Handling (Documentation)

An important principle in calibration practice is to document every instrument’s calibration as it
was found and as it was left after adjustments were made. The purpose for documenting both
conditions is to make data available for calculating instrument drift over time. If only one of
these conditions is documented during each calibration event, it will be difficult to determine
how well an instrument is holding its calibration over long periods of time. Excessive drift is
often an indicator of impending failure, which is vital for any program of predictive maintenance
or quality control. Typically, the format for documenting both As-Found and As-Left data is a
simple table showingthe points of calibration, the ideal instrument responses, the actual
instrument responses, and thecalculated error at each point. The following table is an example for
a pressure transmitter with arange of 0 to 200 PSI over a five-point scale.

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Up-Tests and Down-Tests
It is not uncommon for calibration tables to show multiple calibration points going up as well
asgoing down, for the purpose of documenting hysteresis and deadband errors. Note the
following
example, showing a transmitter with a maximum hysteresis of 0.313 % (the offending data points
are shown in bold-faced type).

Error =Out Put Current (m) – Out Put (i) *100%

Span

=3.99-4.00 *100%
16

=-0.0625%

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 Unit Eight
Calibration Standards

8.1 Temperature Standards

The most common technologies for industrial temperature measurement are electronic in nature:
RTDs and thermocouples. As such, the standards used to calibrate such devices are the same
standards used to calibrate electrical instruments such as digital Multimeter (DMMs).However,
there are some temperature-measuring instruments that are not electrical in nature. This category
includes bimetallic thermometers, filled-bulb temperature systems, and optical pyrometers. In
order to calibrate these types of instruments, we must accurately create the calibration
temperatures in the instrument shop.

8.2 Pressure Standards

In order to accurately calibrate a pressure instrument in a shop environment, we must create fluid
pressures of known magnitude against which we compare the instrument being calibrated. As
withother types of physical calibrations, our choices of instruments fall into two broad
categories: devicesthat inherently produce known pressures versus devices that accurately
measure pressures createdby some (other) adjustable source.A deadweight tester (sometimes
referred to as a dead-test calibrator) is an example in the formercategory. These devices create
accurately known pressures by means of precise masses and pistonsof precise area.\

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After connecting the gauge (or other pressure instrument) to be calibrated, the technician adjusts
the secondary piston to cause the primary piston to lift off its resting position and be suspended
by oil pressure alone. So long as the mass placed on the primary piston is precisely known, Earth
sgravitational field is constant, and the piston is perfectly vertical, the fluid pressure applied to
the instrument under test must be equal to the value described by the following equation:

Where,P = Fluid pressure

F =Force exerted by the action of gravity on the mass (Fweight = mg)
A = Area of piston
The primary piston area, of course, is precisely set at the time of the deadweight tester’s
manufacture and does not change appreciably throughout the life of the device.

8.3 Flow Standards

Most forms of continuous flow measurement are inferential; that is, we measure flow indirectly
by measuring some other variable (such as pressure, voltage, or frequency) directly. With this in
mind, we may usually achieve reasonable calibration accuracy simply by calibrating the primary
sensor and replacing the flow element (if inspection proves necessary). In the case of an orifice
plate used to measure fluid flow rate, this would mean calibrating the differential pressure
transmitter to measure pressure accurately and replacing the orifice plate if it shows signs of
wear.

8.4 Analytical Standards

An analyzer measures intrinsic properties of a substance sample such as its density, chemical
content,or purity. Whereas the other types of instruments discussed in this chapter measure
quantitiesincidental to the composition of a substance (pressure, level, temperature, and flow
rate), an analyzermeasures something related to the nature of substance being processed.As
previously defined, to calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary)
itsresponse so the output accurately corresponds to its input throughout a specified range. In
order todo this, one must expose the instrument to an actual input stimulus of precisely known
quantity. Thisis no different for an analytical instrument. In order to calibrate an analyzer, we

78
must exposed it toknown quantities of substances with the desired range of properties.A classic
example of this is the calibration of a pH analyzer. pH is the measurement of hydrogenion
activity in an aqueous solution. The standard range of measurement is 0 pH to 14 pH, thenumber
representing a negative power of 10 approximately describing the hydrogen ion morality ofthe
solution (how many moles of active hydrogen ions per liter of solution.

Thanks
GUGSA HAILE
2021

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LOGICAL SENSORS
INTRODUCTION
Sensors allow a controller to detect the state of a process. Logical sensors can onlyDetect a state
that is either true or false. Examples of physical phenomena that is typicallydetected are listed
below.
• inductive proximity - is a metal object nearby?
• capacitive proximity - is a dielectric object nearby?
• optical presence - is an object breaking a light beam or reflecting light?
• mechanical contact - is an object touching a switch?
This chapter will begin by examining the various electrical wiring techniques forsensors, and
conclude with an examination of many popular sensor types.

SENSOR WIRING
When a sensor detects a logical change it must signal that change to the processor. Thisis
typically done by switching a voltage or current on or off. In some cases the output ofthe sensor
is used to switch a load directly, completely eliminating the processor.
Objectives:
• Understand the different types of sensor outputs.
• Know the basic sensor types and understand application issues.
• Sensor wiring; switches, TTL, sourcing, sinking
• Proximity detection; contact switches, photo-optics, capacitive, inductive and
ultrasonic typical outputs from sensors are listed below in relative popularity.
Sinking/Sourcing - Switches current on or off.
Plain Switches - Switches voltage on or off.
Solid State Relays - These switch AC outputs.
TTL (Transistor Transistor Logic) - Uses 0V and 5V to indicate logic levels.

Switches
The simplest example of sensor outputs is switches and relays. A simple exampleis shown
below.

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In the figure a NO contact switch is connected to input 01. A sensor with a relayoutput is also
shown. The sensor must be powered separately; therefore the V+ and V- terminalsare connected
to the power supply. The output of the sensor will become activewhen a phenomenon has been
detected. This means the internal switch (probably a relay)will be closed allowing current to flow
and the positive voltage will be applied to input 06.

Sinking/Sourcing
Sinking sensors allow current to flow into the sensor to the voltage common, whileSourcing
sensors allow current to flow out of the sensor from a positive source. For both ofthese methods
the emphasis is on current flow, not voltage. By using current flow, insteadof voltage, many of
the electrical noise problems are reduced.

When discussing sourcing and sinking we are referring to the output of the sensorthat is acting
like a switch. In fact the output of the sensor is normally a transistor that willact like a switch
(with some voltage loss). A PNP transistor is used for the sourcing output,and an NPN transistor
is used for the sinking input. When discussing these sensors the term sourcing is often
interchanged with PNP, and sinking with NPN. A simplified exampleof a sinking output sensor

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is shown in Figure. The sensor will have some part thatdeals with detection, this is on the left.
The sensor needs a voltage supply to operate, so avoltage supply is needed for the sensor. If the
sensor has detected some phenomenon thenit will trigger the active line. The active line is
directly connected to an NPN transistor.(Note: for an NPN transistor the arrow always points
away from the center.) If the voltageto the transistor on the active line is 0V, then the transistor
will not allow current to flowinto the sensor. If the voltage on the active line becomes larger (say
12V) then the transistorwill switch on and allow current to flow into the sensor to the common.

Aside: The sensor responds to a physical phenomenon. If the sensor is inactive (nothingdetected)
then the active line is low and the transistor is off, this is like an openswitch. That means the
NPN output will have no current in/out. When the sensor isactive, it will make the active line
high. This will turn on the transistor, and effectivelyclose the switch. This will allow current to
flow into the sensor to ground(hence sinking). The voltage on the NPN output will be pulled
down to V-. Note: thevoltage will always be 1-2V higher because of the transistor. When the
sensor is off,the NPN output will float, and any digital circuitry needs to contain a pull-up
resistor.

Sourcing sensors are the complement to sinking sensors. The sourcing sensors usea PNP
transistor, as shown in Figure 4.4. (Note: PNP transistors are always drawn with thearrow
pointing to the center.) When the sensor is inactive the active line stays at the V+value, and the
transistor stays switched off. When the sensor becomes active the activeline will be made 0V,
and the transistor will allow current to flow out of the sensor.

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 A Simplified Sourcing/PNP Sensor

Most NPN/PNP sensors are capable of handling currents up to a few amps, andthey can be used
to switch loads directly. (Note: always check the documentation for ratedvoltages and currents.)
An example using sourcing and sinking sensors to control lights isshown in Figure 4.5. (Note:
This example could be for a motion detector that turns onlights in dark hallways.)

Aside: The sensor responds to the physical phenomenon. If the sensor is inactive
(nothingdetected) then the active line is high and the transistor is off, this is like an open
switch.That means the PNP output will have no current in/out. When the sensor is active, itwill
make the active line high. This will turn on the transistor, and effectively close theswitch. This
will allow current to flow from V+ through the sensor to the output (hencesourcing). The voltage
on the PNP output will be pulled up to V+. Note: the voltagewill always be 1 – 2V lower because
of the transistor. When off, the PNP output willfloat, if used with digital circuitry a pull-down
resistor will be needed.

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 Direct Control Using NPN/PNP Sensors

In the sinking system in Figure 4.5 the light has V+ applied to one side. The otherside is
connected to the NPN output of the sensor. When the sensor turns on the currentwill be able to
flow through the light, into the output to V- common. (Note: Yes, the currentwill be allowed to
flow into the output for an NPN sensor.) In the sourcing arrangementthe light will turn on when
the output becomes active, allowing current to flow fromthe V+, thought the sensor, the light and
to V- (the common).

At this point it is worth stating the obvious - The output of a sensor will be an inputfor a PLC.
And, as we saw with the NPN sensor, this does not necessarily indicate wherecurrent is flowing.
There are two viable approaches for connecting sensors to PLCs. Thefirst is to always use PNP
sensors and normal voltage input cards. The second option is topurchase input cards specifically
designed for sourcing or sinking sensors. An example ofa PLC card for sinking sensors is shown
in Figure 4.6.

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PRESENCE DETECTION
There are two basic ways to detect object presence; contact and proximity. Contactimplies that
there is mechanical contact and a resulting force between the sensor and theobject. Proximity
indicates that the object is near, but contact is not required. The followingsections examine
different types of sensors for detecting object presence. These sensorsaccount for a majority of
the sensors used in applications.

Contact Switches
Contact switches are available as normally open and normally closed. Their housingsare
reinforced so that they can take repeated mechanical forces. These often have rollersand wear
pads for the point of contact. Lightweight contact switches can be purchasedfor less than a
dollar, but heavy duty contact switches will have much higher costs. Examplesof applications
include motion limit switches and part present detectors.

Reed Switches
Reed switches are very similar to relays, except a permanent magnet is usedinstead of a wire
coil. When the magnet is far away the switch is open, but when the magnetis brought near the
switch is closed as shown in Figure 4.10. These are very inexpensivean can be purchased for a
few dollars. They are commonly used for safety screens anddoors because they are harder to
trick than other sensors.

Optical (Photoelectric) Sensors

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Light sensors have been used for almost a century - originally photocells wereused for
applications such as reading audio tracks on motion pictures. But modern opticalsensors are
much more sophisticated.

Optical sensors require both a light source (emitter) and detector. Emitters willproduce light
beams in the visible and invisible spectrums using LEDs and laser diodes.Detectors are typically
built with photodiodes or phototransistors. The emitter and detectorare positioned so that an
object will block or reflect a beam when present. A basic opticalsensor is shown in Figure.

In the figure the light beam is generated on the left, focused through a lens. At thedetector side
the beam is focused on the detector with a second lens. If the beam is brokenthe detector will
indicate an object is present. The oscillating light wave is used so that thesensor can filter out
normal light in the room. The light from the emitter is turned on andoff at a set frequency. When
the detector receives the light it checks to make sure that it isat the same frequency. If light is
being received at the right frequency then the beam is notbroken. The frequency of oscillation is
in the KHz range, and too fast to be noticed. A sideeffect of the frequency method is that the
sensors can be used with lower power at longerdistances.

An emitter can be set up to point directly at a detector, this is known as opposedmode. When the
beam is broken the part will be detected. This sensor needs two separat

86
87
In the figure, the emitter sends out a beam of light. If the light is returned from thereflector most
of the light beam is returned to the detector. When an object interrupts thebeam between the
emitter and the reflector the beam is no longer reflected back to thedetector, and the sensor
becomes active. A potential problem with this sensor is thatreflective objects could return a good
beam. This problem is overcome by polarizing thelight at the emitter (with a filter), and then
using a polarized filter at the detector. Thereflector uses small cubic reflectors and when the light
is reflected the polarity is rotatedby 90 degrees. If the light is reflected off the object the light
will not be rotated by 90degrees. So the polarizing filters on the emitter and detector are rotated
by 90 degrees, asshown in Figure 4.14. The reflector is very similar to reflectors used on
bicycles.

For retroreflectors the reflectors are quite easy to align, but this method stillrequires two
mounted components. A diffuse sensors is a single unit that does not use areflector, but uses
focused light as shown in Figure 4.15.

Diffuse Optical Sensor

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Diffuse sensors use light focused over a given range, and a sensitivity adjustmentis used to select
a distance. These sensors are the easiest to set up, but they require wellcontrolled conditions. For
example if it is to pick up light and dark colored objects problemswould result.When using
opposed mode sensors the emitter and detector must be aligned so thatthe emitter beam and
detector window overlap, as shown in Figure 4.16. Emitter beamsnormally have a cone shape
with a small angle of divergence (a few degrees of less).Detectors also have a cone shaped
volume of detection. Therefore when aligning opposedmode sensor care is required not just to
point the emitter at the detector, but also the detectorat the emitter. Another factor that must be
considered with this and other sensors is thatthe light intensity decreases over distance, so the
sensors will have a limit to separation

Capacitive Sensors
Capacitive sensors are able to detect most materials at distances up to a few centimeters.Recall
the basic relationship for capacitance.

In the sensor the area of the plates and distance between them is fixed. But, thedielectric constant
of the space around them will vary as different materials are broughtnear the sensor. An
illustration of a capacitive sensor is shown in Figure 4.23. An oscillatingfield is used to
determine the capacitance of the plates. When this changes beyond aselected sensitivity the
sensor output is activated.

C= Ak/dWhere, C = Capacitance (Farads)

k= Dielectric Constant
A= Area of Plates
d= Distance between Plates (Electrodes)

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 A Capacitive Sensor

NOTE: For this sensor the proximity of any material near the electrodes willIncrease the
capacitance. This will vary the magnitude of the oscillating signaland the detector will decide
when this is great enough to determine proximity.

These sensors work well for insulators (such as plastics) that tend to have highdielectric
coefficients, thus increasing the capacitance. But, they also work well for metalsbecause the
conductive materials in the target appear as larger electrodes, thus increasingthe capacitance as
shown in Figure 4.24. In total the capacitance changes are normally inthe order of pF.

The sensors are normally made with rings (not plates) in the configuration shownin Figure 4.25.
In the figure the two inner metal rings are the capacitor electrodes, but athird outer ring is added
to compensate for variations. Without the compensator ring thesensor would be very sensitive to
dirt, oil and other contaminants that might stick to thesensor.

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 Electrode Arrangement for Capacitive Sensors

The range and accuracy of these sensors are determined mainly by their size.Larger sensors can
have diameters of a few centimeters. Smaller ones can be less than acentimeter across, and have
smaller ranges, but more accuracy.

91