Table of Contents Acknowledgments Foreword Introduction Fundamentals of Vibration 1 Vibration The Basic Vibration Signal Frequency Amplitude Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration ‘The Vibration of Machines Rotation and Precession Free Vibration Forced Vibration Resonance Self-Excited Vibration Summary Phase? Why Is Phase Important? The Keyphasor Event Phase Measurement Absolute Phase Relative Phase Differential Phase Summary ibration Vectors Unfiltered Vibration Filtering and the Vibration Vector Working with Vibration Vectors The Slow Roll Vector Summary xvii xxi xxvii 19 21 21 22 23 25 26 29 31 31EI vii Fundamentals of Rotating Machinery Diagnostics Data Plots 4 Timebase Plots 51 The Structure of a Timebase Plot 52 The Keyphasor Mark 54 Compensation of Timebase Plots 54 Information Contained in the Timebase Plot 56 Summary 66 5 The Orbit 69 The Construction of the Orbit 70 The Keyphasor Mark 72 Compensation of Orbits 74 Information Contained in the Orbit 79 The Orbit/Timebase Plot 94 Summary 95 6 Average Shaft Centerline Plots 97 The Construction of the Average Shaft Centerline Plot 98 Information Contained in the Average Shaft Centerline Plot 101 The Complete Picture: Orbit Plus Average Shaft Centerline Position 108 Summary 109 7 Polar, Bode, and APHT Plots 1 The Structure of Polar and Bode Plots 12 Slow Roll Compensation 115 Information Contained in Polar and Bode Plots 117 APHT Plots 127 Acceptance Region Plots 129 Summary 130 References 130 8 Half and Full Spectrum Plots 131 The Half Spectrum Plot 133 Technical Issues 135 ‘The Full Spectrum 138 Spectrum Cascade Plots 148 Spectrum Waterfall Plots 150 Summary 153Table of Contents 9 Trend and XY Plots 155 Trend Plots 155 XY Plots 160 Summary 161 References 161 ‘The Static and Dynamic Response of Rotor Systems 10 The Rotor System Model 165 Introduction to Modeling 167 Assumptions 170 ‘The Coordinate System and Position Vector 172 Lambda (): A Model of Fluid Circulation 175 Fluid-film Bearing Forces and Stiffnesses 179 Other Sources of Spring Stiffness 180 ‘The Damping Force 182 ‘The Perturbation Force 183 The Free Body Diagram 185 The Equation of Motion 186 Solution of the Equation of Motion 187 Nonsynchronous Dynamic Stiffness 189 ‘Amplitude and Phase of the Vibration Response 189 ‘The Attitude Angle: Rotor Response to a Static Radial Load 191 Synchronous Rotor Response 192 Synchronous Dynamic Stiffness 192 Predicted Rotor Vibration 193 Nonlineariti 198 ‘The Benefits and Limitations of the Simple Model 198 Extending the Simple Model 200 Summary 206 References 207 11 Dynamic Stiffness and Rotor Behavior 209 What Is Dynamic Stiffness? 209 Rotor Parameters and Dynamic Stiffness 214 Synchronous Rotor Behavior 217 Synchronous Behavior Below Resonance 217 Synchronous Behavior At The Balance Resonance 218 Synchronous Behavior Above Resonance 221Fundamentals of Rotating Machinery Diagnostics How Changes In Dynamic Stiffness Affect Vil bration Summary 12 Modes of Vibration Mode Shapes Forced Mode Shapes and Multimode Response ‘Modal Parameters ‘The Measurement of Mode Shape Mode Identification Probes Summary 13 Anisotropic Stiffness Anisotropic Stiffness Split Resonances Measured Rotor Behavior and Anisotropic Stiffness Probe Mounting Orientation and Measured Response Virtual Probe Rotation Forward and Reverse Vectors Summary References 14 Rotor Stability Analysis: The Root Locus Whaat is Stability? Stability and Dynamic Stiffness Stability Analysis State-Space Formulation of the Eigenvalue Problem The Root Locus Plot The Root Locus and Amplification Factors Parameter Variation and the Root Locus The Root Locus of Anisotropic and Multimode Systems The Root Locus and the Logarithmic Decrement The Root Locus and the Campbell Diagram Root Locus Analysis of Machine Stability Problems Summary References 15 Torsional and Axial Vibration The Torsional View of the Rotor Static and Dynamic Torsional Response Torsional/Radial Cross Coupling 222 225 227 228 236 239 243 246 248, 249 250 253 256 262 265 268 270 272 273 274 278 280 286 289 295 302 304 308 310 312 312 314 315 316 321 326Table of Contents ‘Torsional Vibration Measurement Axial Vibration Summary References 16 Basic Balancing of Rotor Systems Unbalance and Rotor Response Vibration Transducers And Balancing Balancing Methodology Locating the Heavy Spot Using a Polar Plot Using Polar Plots Of Velocity and Acceleration Data Selecting the Calibration Weight Relating Balance Ring Location To Polar Plot Location Single Plane Balancing With Calibration Weights Weight Splitting The Influence Vector ‘The Influence Vector And Dynamic Stiffnes Multiple Modes And Multiplane Balancing Multiplane Balancing With Influence Vectors How Balancing Can Go Wrong Summary References Malfunctions 17 Introduction to Malfunctions 385 What is a Malfunction? 385 Detection of Malfunctions 387 18 Unbalance 391 Rotor System Vibration Due To Unbalance 391 Stress and Damage 393 Other Things That Can Look Like Unbalance 394 Runout 396 Rotor Bow 396 Electrical Noise in the Transducer System 398 Coupling Problems 398 Shaft Crack 398 Loose Part or Debris 399 xiNN —_— xii Fundamentals of Rotating Machinery Diagnostics Rub 400 Changes in Spring Stiffness 400 Electric Motor Related Problems 400. Loose Rotating Parts 405 Summary 407 19 Rotor Bow 409 What is Rotor Bow? 409 Causes of Rotor Bow 410 Rotor Dynamic Effects of Rotor Bow 418 Thermal Bow During Operation 420 Diagnosing Rotor Bow 424 Removing Rotor Bow 425 Summary 426 References 427 20 High Radial Loads and Misalignment 429 Static Radial Loads 429 What Is Misalignment? 432 ‘Temperature Changes and Alignment 434 Causes of Misalignment 435 Symptoms of High Radial Load and Misalignment 437 Bearing Temperature 437 Vibration Changes 439 Stresses and Wear 440 Abnormal Average Shaft Centerline Position 440 Orbit Shape 445 Rub 445 Fluid-Induced Instability 446 Summary 447 21 Rub and Looseness 449 Rub and Looseness 449 Partial Radial Rub 450 Full Annular Rub 455 Rub-Induced Forces and Spring Stiffness Changes 456 Rub and Steady State 1X Vibration 458 Rub and 1X Vibration During Resonance 461 Subsynchronous Vibration 462 Symptoms of Rub 467Table of Contents xiii Other Malfunctions with Similar Symptoms 470 Summary 473, 22 Fluid-Induced Instability 475 ‘The Cause of Fluid-Induced Instability 476 Modes of Instability: Whirl and Whip 480 Symptoms of Fluid-Induced Instability 486 Other Malfunctions That Can Produce Similar Symptoms 488 Locating the Source of Instability 492 Eliminating Fluid-induced Instability 492 Summary 496 23 Externally Pressurized Bearings and Machinery Diagnostics Types of Bearings Internally Pressurized Fluid-Film Bearings Externally Pressurized Fluid-Film Bearings Stiffness and Modal Damping in Fluid-Film Bearings Variable Stiffness in Internally Pressurized Bearings Variable Stiffness in Externally Pressurized Bearings Rotor Dynamic Implication of Variable Stiffness Bearings Diagnostic Implications of Variable Stiffness Bearings Summary References 24 Shaft Cracks Crack Initiation, Growth, and Fracture Reduction of Shaft Stiffness Due To a Crack Shaft Asymmetry and 2X Vibration ‘The First Rule of Crack Detection (1X) The Second Rule of Crack Detection (2X) Other Malfunctions That Produce 1X Vibration Changes Other Malfunctions That Produce 2X Vibration Design and Operating Recommendations Monitoring Recommendations Summaryxiv Fundamentals of Rotating Machinery Diagnostics Case Histories 25 High Vibration in a Syngas Compressor Train Steady State Analysis ‘Transient Data Analysis Inspection and Modification of the Machine Summary 26 Chronic High Vibration in a Draft Fan The First Balancing Attempt The Real Problem 27 A Generator Vibration Puzzle Unusual Vibration Behavior Data Analys Conclusions 28 High Vibration in an Electric Motor Data Analysis Diagnosis 29 Problems with a Pipeline Compressor The Machine Train ‘Tests With Pinned Seals Tests With Unpinned Seals ‘Tests With Damper Bearing Additional Analysis, Conclusions and Recommendations References Appendix Al Phase Measurement Conventions The Instrumentation Convention The Mathematical Convention Converting Between The Two Conventions Phase On Bode and APHT Plots 549 551 556 559 561 562 568 569 571 576 579 579 582 588 588 591 595 596 599 599 600 602 603A2 Filtered Orbit and Timebase Synthesis ‘Timebase Synthesis Orbit Synthesis A3 The Origin of the Tangential Stiffness Term Modeling the Pressure Wedge ‘Transformation to Stationary Coordinates Reference A4 SAF Calculation Peak Ratio Method Phase Slope Method Polar Plot Method A5 Vector Transforms Virtual Probe Rotation The Forward and Reverse Transform and Full Spectrum References ‘AG Eigenvalues of the Rotor Model The Threshold of Instability References A7 Units of Measurement Metric/US Customary Unit Conversions Unit Prefixes Unit Abbreviations Force, Weight, and Mass in the US Customary System A8 Nomenclature Upper case Roman Lower case Roman Upper ease Greek Lower case Greek Glossary Index About the Authors About Bently Nevada Table of Contents 607 608 612 615 615 619 620 621 623 624 626 629 629 633 638 723 725 xv