ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVENESS OF EDUCATIONAL RADIO

BROADCASTING FOR ADULT LITERACY IN LAGOS STATE, NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

Education has been identified as one of the most important ways to achieve national
development. With three million non-literate adults in Lagos State, radio becomes a veritable
medium to teach such adults who, as a result of their economic activities, may not have the
opportunity of formal schooling. The study assessed the effectiveness of educational radio
broadcasting for adult literacy in Lagos State, Nigeria.

The study adopted survey design. The population of the study comprised 604 non-literate adult
participants in Lagos is Learning project. Total enumeration was used to include all the 604 adult
learners for the study. Two executive personnel of the project were purposively selected for
interview and three learning centers were purposively selected for observation exercise.
Validated questionnaire, interview guide and the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED)
standardized observation form were used to collect data for the study. Cronbach’s Alpha
coefficients for the constructs in the questionnaire were: perceived literacy skills (0.64) and radio
instruction (0.76). Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential (T-test, One-way
ANOVA procedure and regression analyses) statistics. The interview and observation were
content-analyzed.

Findings revealed that there was a significant influence of instructional radio broadcasting
techniques on literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State (R²=.065; p<0.05).
Results also indicated that there was a significant influence of frequency of use of the radio
instructional programme, Mooko Mooka on literacy skills among the participants (F (2,498) = 4.322,
p<.05). However, there was no significant influence of gender (T (453) = -0.812, p>.05) and age
(F(2,502)= .102, p> .05) on literacy skills acquisition among the study participants. Findings from
observation revealed that Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) was found to have been used in
classroom but the degree of use differed from one classroom to another. Findings also showed
that majority (62.4%) of the study participants used the instructional radio programme, Mooko
Mooka to prepare for classroom instruction, while 53.5% of the study participants used the
programme for revision. Findings from interview indicated that cooperation existed among the
different agencies involved in the project, while learners’ participation was encouraged.

The study concluded that radio instructional techniques were effective in promoting adult
literacy in Lagos State. The study recommended that educational radio programmes targeting
adult learners should be geared towards participation.

Keywords: Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI), Educational broadcasting, Effectiveness,

Learning, Literacy

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Word Count: 375

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Table of Contents vi
List of Tables x
List of Figures xiii
Abbreviations xiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 4
1.3 Objective of the Study 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Hypotheses 6
1.6 Scope of Study 7
1.7 Significance of the Study 8
1.8 Operational Definition of Terms 8

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2
2.1 The Conceptual Model Explained 11
2.2 Defining Literacy 12
2.2.1 Types of Literacy 13

Content Page
2.3 Teaching, Learning and Listening 17
2.3.1 Steps in Learning 18
2.3.1(i) The John Carrol Model of Learning 18
2.3.1(ii) Gagne Nine Teaching/Learning Process 21
2.3.1(iii)Designing Literate Visuals to aid Learning 25
2.4 Adult Education, Experience and Learning 25
2.5 Principles for Effective Adult Learning 29
2.6 Participation, Learning and Feedback 31
2.7 Adult Literacy in Nigeria 32
2.8 Innovations in Adult Education Programmes in Nigeria 38
2.9 Mass Media and Education: A Brief History of Educational Broadcasting 41
2.10 Educational Broadcasting in Africa 43
2.11 Historical Development of Educational Broadcasting in Nigeria 45
2.12 The Medium of Radio and Learning 47
2.12.1 Types of Educational Programme on Radio 49
2.12.2 Interactive Radio Instruction: Implication for Education 51
2.12.3 Problems with Using Radio for Instruction 52
2.13 Wilbur Schramm on Effective Communication 55
2.14 Literacy by radio Current Status 56
2.14 (i)Methods Adopted by Radio Lagos Mooko Mooka 57
2.14(ii) The Primer 58
2.14(iii) Expectations from the State 58
2.15 Radio Lagos 59
2.16 Lagos State 60
2.17 Theoretical Framework 61

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2.18 Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy) – Brief History 61
2.18.1 Knowles Andragogy Learning Theory 62
2.18.2 Issues with Knowles’ Andragogy Learning Theory 66
2.18.3 Application of Andragogy Learning Theory to Study 66
Content Page
2.19 Brief History of McGuire Information processing Theory 68
2.19.1 McGuire Information Processing Theory 69
2.19.2 Application of Information processing theory 70
2.20 Hovland’s (Message) Learning Theory 71
2.20.1 Application of Hovland’s (Message) Theory to the Study 73
2.21 Empirical Review 73
2.22 Gaps in Literature 76

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design 78
3.2 Population 80
3.3 Sample size and sampling Technique 82
3.4 Instrumentation 82
3.5 Validity of Instrument 83
3.6 Reliability of Instrument 84
3.7 Data Collection Procedure 85
3.8 Method of Data Analysis 86

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS

AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.1 Presentation of Findings Based on the Responses from the Field Survey 87
4.2 Presentation of Findings Based Non-participant Observation 107
4.3 Presentation of Findings from the Interview Session 117
4.4 Hypothesis Testing 118
4.5 Discussion of Findings Based on Objectives of the Study 122

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4.6 Discussion of Findings Based on the Research Question 126

Content Page
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION
AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary 133

5.2 Conclusion 135
5.3 Recommendations 136
5.4 Limitation of the Study 136
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge 136
5.6 Suggestion for Further Studies 137
REFERENCES 138
APPENDICES

5
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. Population figures in Nigeria Showing Literacy Rate in 2005 35

2. Population Literacy figures of 2005 by Adult Age Group in Nigeria 36

3. Distribution of Target Illiterate Population by Age Group and Sex 37

4. Projected Target Illiterate population in Nigeria (2005-2015) 38

5. Enrollment of Mass Literacy Adult by Gender in 2015 81

6. Item-Total Statistics of Perceived Radio Instructional programme 84

7. Item-Total Statistics of Adult Literacy Skills Acquisition 85

8. Frequency Distribution of Questionnaire and Response Rate 87

9. Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Gender 88

10. Frequency Distribution by Age 90

11. Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status 92

12. Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Occupation 94
13. Distribution of Respondents’ Education before Joining 96
Mooko Mooka Adult Class

14. Distribution Showing Educational level of Respondents 97

Before Joining Adult Class

15. Frequency Distribution showing Respondents’ Ability to Read 98

Read and Write Before joining Adult Class

16. Respondents Frequency of Listening to Mooko Mooka 98

17. Frequency Distribution of Respondents on Perceived Instructional Radio Use 100

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18. Frequency Distribution Showing Respondents’ Perceived Literacy Skills 105

19. Teacher/Teaching Observation for learning Center One 107

Table Page

20. Learners/Learning Session Observation at Learning Center One 109

21. Use of Interactive Radio Instruction in Classroom at Learning Center One 110

22. Teacher/Teaching Observation for Learning Center Two 111

23. Learners/Learning Session Observation at Learning Center Two 112

24. Use of Interactive Radio Instruction in Classroom at Learning Center Two 113

25. Teacher/Teaching Observation for Learning Center Three 114

26. Learners/Learning Session Observation at Learning Center Three 115

27. Use of Interactive radio Instruction in Classroom at Learning Center Three 116

28. Simple Linear Regression Analysis of Literacy Skills Acquisition 118

By Radio instructional Use

29. Chi-square Showing Association between Frequency of Educational 120

Radio Use and Literacy Skills

30. Chi-square Showing Association between Gender and Literacy Skills 121

31. Chi-square Showing Association between Age and Literacy Skills 122

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1 Conceptual Model of Adult Literacy by Radio 11

2 John Carroll’s Model of School Learning 19

3 Gagne Teaching and Learning Model 22

4 Physiological Process of Human Learning 53

5 Schramm’s Model of Communication 56

6 The Five Concepts of Andragogy 63

7 Knowles Four Principles of Andragogy 65

8 McQuire information Processing Theory 68

9 Assumption of Hoveland’s (Message) Learning Theory 71

8 Distribution of Respondents’ Gender 89

9 Distribution of Respondents by Age 91

10 Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status 93

11 Distribution of Respondents by Occupation 95

12 Respondents Educational Level before Joining Adult class 97

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 ABBREVIATIONS

AM Amplitude Modulation

ARHD African Region Human Development

IRI Interactive Radio Instruction

EFA Education for All

ENTV Eastern Nigerian Television

ETV Educational Television

FM Frequency Modulation
GMR Global Monitoring Report

IRC Interactive Radio Counseling

KTV Kaduna Television

LAMED Lagos State Agency for Mass Education

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

NEEDS National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy

NGO Non-governmental Organizations

NMEC National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education

NTA Nigerian Television Authority

OFSTED Office of Standard in Education

SPSS Statistical Product and Service Solution

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UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

WNTV Western Nigerian Television

UBE Universal Basic Education

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

One major problem that has continued to affect the issue of development in most Third World
countries is literacy level of the citizenry. This problem can be attributed to other problems like
poverty and a national development that has failed to meet international standards. To achieve
worldwide human development, 189-member states of the United Nations came together to
develop eight international development goals known as Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs). The aim of the MDGs was to promote development by improving social and economic
conditions in the world's poorest countries. Beyond setting the goals, the United Nations also set
2015 as dates for achieving the goals. The second goal on the MDGs targeted children, with the
hope of ensuring that they complete a full course of primary schooling.

With prospect of education in Africa looking gloomy, world leaders again gathered in 2015 at
the United Nations in New York to adopt the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The
fourth agenda on the 2030 agenda for sustainable Development is “quality education for all”.
With this agenda Lagos State (and by extension Nigeria) is once again given the opportunity to
redirect its focus on education. But, if the country is to improve on its poor performance towards
achieving education for all, it must avail itself of the use of every available channel to bring
education to its entire citizenry.

As observed by Crossroads (2003) in a publication of the United Nation Embassy in Nigeria,

education is the most “important way to approach community (national) development. A sound
educational system is (the) prerequisite to achieving progress, from the individual to the society
to the economy” (p.3). By implication, the quality of human resource of a nation is judged by the

10
number of its literate population. This is to say that education is a must if a nation aspires to
achieve growth and development and more importantly sustain it. Perhaps the most captivating
view of the role of education in the reformation process is captured by Licuanan (2003):

At all levels of governance, a central role of education has been recognized in

relation to poverty alleviation and social development. There is a universal
consensus among policy makers on the correlation between education and
employment, of literacy and economic productivity and of knowledge/skills and
formation of social capital that can withstand the destabilizing effects of sudden
economic and political changes. (p. 1)

Despite the ideals of the MDGs on education and the momentum of early stage of the Education
for All (EFA) programme, United Nations in its Millennium Development Goals Report 2013
noted that “globally, 123 million young people are still unable to read or write” (p.14). The
report further stated that in 2011, “57 million children of primary school age were out of school,
down from 102 million in 2000” (p.14). The report also added that “globally, 123 million
youth (aged 15 to 24) lack basic reading and writing skills; 61 per cent of them are young
women” (p.14).

The situation is not different in Nigeria. Birdsall, Levine and Ibrahim (2005), explained that
going by the millennium goal on education, “government is to ensure that, by 2015, children
everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary education” (p.
21). However, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
statistics on literacy level in Nigeria shows that, “there are over 62 million Nigerians who are
illiterates as at November 2015, a situation the organization described as “dangerous to the
development of the country” (Oluwole, 2015, para. 1).

To emphasize the magnitude of the problem, UNESCO also said “it would take Nigeria another
58 years to completely eradicate illiteracy, even with innovations like information and
Communications Technology and other learning mechanisms” (Oluwole, 2015, para. 2). While
identifying why illiteracy level is so high in the country, Animasaun (2013) noted that Nigeria’s
budget allocation to education is a far cry to what its neighboring countries ear marked for
education in their budget which invariably will make executing any meaningful project
impossible. According to Animasaun (2013):
11
 Nigeria’s annual average budgetary education expenditure during the last two
decades was 5.8%, whereas Niger spent 28%; Côte d’Ivoire 30%; Burkina Faso
16.8%; Liberia 11.9%; Gambia 14.2%; Ghana 30%; South Africa, 19.3% of its
annual budget on education, while Egypt committed 11.1% on average and Kenya
23%.So it is lunacy when you pay peanuts and expects gold nuggets (Animasaun,
2013, para. 8).

Writing on the 2014 Global Monitoring Report (GMR) on the literacy level of Nigeria and the
country’s dismal commitment to the 1990 World Conference on Education for All (EFA) goals
on education, The Daily Trust Online newspaper, wrote that the country recorded more illiteracy
in 2008 than in 1991. The GMR, according to Daily Trust Online editorial, there are “17 million
more illiterate adults in Nigeria in 2008 than there were in 1991, a staggering increase of 71
percent” (Daily Trust, 2015, para. 2). The paper in its editorial also noted that half of Nigerian
adults (51 percent) are illiterate (Daily Trust Online, 2015, para.2).

Getting everyone to be literate meant using every available channel for teaching and learning.
One of the channels available for learning is the mass media. The use of the media for
educational purposes is based on the perceived influence the media can exert on the public. Of
these functions two readily applies to the subject of discussion – transmission of values and
education. Commenting on the transmission of values and function of the media, Sanusi (2011)
noted that without the media, “events in history, traditions and customs of the people would have
died with the past generation” (p. 148). The culture, customs and traditions of the people would
have been lost if the media had not recorded history and from time to time relay it to the next
generation. Dominick (2002) calls this functional socialization which he interprets to mean “the
ways an individual comes to adopt the behavior and values of a group” (p. 40).

Schramm (1964) avers that the mass media are agents of social change and as such are expected
to help accomplish transition to new customs and practices and, in some cases, to different social
relationships. According to him, the mass media can be of help “in all forms of teaching, adult
education, and skills training; where teachers, trainers, monitors are scarce, the media can carry
a proportionally greater share of the instruction; and that once the basic skills have been learned,
the media can provide further opportunities to learn” (p. 144).

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Of these channels of mass communication the broadcast media is regarded as the most powerful
agent of socialization. Radio with its audio element enables audiences to identify personally with
its contents. Television on the other hand combines motion with the audio-visual elements,
giving audiences a vivid experience. Scholars however have always advocated for the use of
radio for teaching basic skills. But, if the country is to improve on its poor performance towards
achieving education for all; if efforts to use television for education failed in the past (Onabajo,
2002; Moemeka, 1981) and if there is a consensus that radio can be used to teach basic skills
(Schramm, 1964; Moemeka, 1981; Onabajo, 2002) the question then is how can radio be used
effectively in the advancement of adult literacy in Lagos state?

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The benefit of education to the individual and the nation as a whole, according to Brabzon
(2007) is to provide “alternatives, answers, views and trajectories in an environment of blame
and grievances” (p. 149). With three million non-literate adults in Lagos State, radio becomes a
veritable medium to teach such adults who, as a result of their economic activities, may not have
the opportunity of formal schooling, but how successful would using radio be.

Studies on past radio educational/instructional programme have revealed a dysfunctional use of

radio for learning. Onabajo (2002) in a study of the rural people of Badagry in 1995, 1997 and
2000 found out that the people and their leaders were not consulted in the conceptualization,
planning and execution of development programmes targeted at them. This dysfunctional media
use is what Moemeka (1981) described as the “shot-in-the-dark approach to programming which
leaves the target audience ‘forgotten’ while programmes are being planned, ‘remembered’ just
before the programmes go on air, and ‘forgotten’ again as soon as the programs have been
broadcast”(p.35). This dysfunctional approach to programming led to the inability of past
educational radio broadcasting to achieve its objectives.

Again, while some studies (Schramm, 1964; Moemeka, 1981; Sanusi, 2011; Chandar and
Sharma, 2003;) have explored and established the use of the broadcast media in education, other
studies have examined the use of radio in the classroom from the perspectives of curriculum
integration and communication skilthis ls (ERIC Digest, 1999). There are however, scarcity of

13
studies on the use of radio for teaching and learning targeting adult learners. This study therefore
set out partially to fill this gap.

In view of the above issues, the study attempted to assess the role of radio in educational
broadcasting particularly in adult literacy skill acquisition in Lagos State; the participation of the
various organizations and learners in the production, transmission and evaluation of instructional
programme to ascertain whether radio can effectively be used to teach and improve the literacy
skill of adult learners in Lagos State.

1.3 Objective of the Study

The general objective of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the use of radio in adult
literacy skill acquisition. The specific objectives are to:

1. examine the pattern of use educational radio broadcasting among adult learners in
Lagos State;

2. examine the influence of educational radio broadcasting on literacy skills acquisition

among adult learners in Lagos State;

3. investigate the influence of frequency of educational radio broadcasting use on

literacy

4. examine the influence of gender on literacy skill acquisition among adult learners in
Lagos State.

5. examine the influence of age on literacy skill acquisition among adult learners in Lagos
State based on age;

6. determine if there is any form of cooperation among the various organizations in the
conception, production and evaluation of instructional content.

7. determine the extent to which learners’ participation is encouraged.

1.4 Research Questions

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This study answered the following research questions:

1. What is the pattern of educational radio broadcasting used among adult learners in
Lagos?

2. To what extent does educational radio broadcasting influence literacy skills acquisition
among adult learners in Lagos State?

3. To what degree does frequency of educational radio broadcasting influence literacy skills
acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State?

4. To what extent does gender influence literacy skill acquisition among adult learners in
Lagos State?

5. To what extent does age influence literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in
Lagos State?

6. To what extent are the agencies involved in the conception, production and evaluation of
instructional content?

7. To what extent is learner’s participation encouraged?

1.5 Hypotheses

The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:

Ho1 There is no significant influence of educational radio broadcasting on literacy skills

acquisition among adult learners in Lagos.

Ho2 There is no significant difference in the level of skills acquisition among adult learners in
Lagos State based on frequency of educational radio broadcasting.

Ho3 There is no significant difference in the level of skills acquisition among adult learners in
Lagos State based on gender.

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Ho4 There is no significant difference in the level of literacy skills acquisition among adult
learners in Lagos State based on age.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The fact that there are more radio receiving sets in homes (Dominick, 2002) and because radio is
believed to present huge opportunities for learning for the less privileged, this study was limited
in scope to:

Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) targeting adult learners in Lagos State;

Men and women currently undergoing literacy skill training under the Lagos State
Agency for Mass Education;

Radio Lagos Mooko Mooka – educational program designed to help adult learners learn
how to read and write as well as improve them culturally and socially.

By virtue of the points two and three above, the study is limited to Lagos State. The
researcher selected Lagos specifically because of its huge investment in the education of
all and sundry resident in Lagos irrespective of their state of origin or nationality. For
instance, in a Vanguard report filed in by Abayomi (2016) the Lagos State government
reportedly disclosed that its N113.3bn education budget (representing 27.11% of the
state’s budget) is about one-third of the N369bn budgeted by the Federal Government for
the entire country (Vanguard online, 2016). The state government is also poised to
upgrade infrastructure in all public schools.

The study covers a period of eight months. That is, the study covers the period of May to
December, 2016. The Month of May was chosen as the starting point because it is
believed that learners would have settled into the programme which usually takes off in
January. In addition to that it is assumed that by May, learners who joined the program in

16
 January would have gone through a number of lessons to qualify for the survey exercise.
December was chosen because classroom interaction ends in the month, and in addition
to that the annual quiz completion is held in December to evaluate learners’ performance.

1.7 Significance of the Study

Past studies on educational broadcasting revealed a lack of cooperation amongst and

within the various organizations involved in past educational programs. Studies have also
revealed that such educational programs have ignored the target audience at every stage
of the programme. The findings of this study will therefore provide empirical facts to
operators and practitioners of communication in Lagos State and other states of the
Federation on the need to involve the target audience at every stage of program
production.

More importantly, the inherent dangers posed by the absence of cooperation among the
various agencies involved in the conceptualization, production and execution of
educational programs and subsequent failure to assess the success of the program
collectively owing to lack of team spirit are those issues that are addressed in the study.
As such the findings of this study would be beneficial to agents of development
communication. Lastly, this work provides a platform for tertiary institutions offering
mass communication to adopt practical approaches to courses in the broadcast sequence,
especially courses bordering on educational broadcasting. The study would also add to
the body of knowledge as well as provide springboard for future studies.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

Educational Broadcasting: in this study, educational programs are those radio or television
programs that either teach morals or values in an entertaining way (like drama, folklore among

17
others) and those programs designed in line with formal school learning like Nigerian Television
Authority (NTA) Instructional programmes.

Instructional Media: simply refers to radio and television stations airing programmes with
instructional intent.

Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI): IRI is a education system that combines radio broadcasts
with active learning to improve educational quality and teaching practices.

Instruction: instruction is a deliberate arrangement of experience(s) to help a learner achieve a

desirable change in performance.

Instructional Material: as used in this study, instructional material is a collection of item

designed for teaching/learning. In this case the instructional material use for Mooko Mooka is
called the primer.

Learning: learning is a lasting change in behaviors or beliefs that results from experience.

Listening: The researcher adopted the International Listening Association definition of listening
which states that listening is the process of recognizing receiving, constructing meaning from,
and responding too spoken and/or nonverbal messages.

Effectiveness: this refers to the outcome of listening to educational radio programme.

Illiteracy: As used in this study refers to those who can not read and write their language of
communication

Literacy: literacy is the ability to read and write, with understanding, a short simple sentence
about one’s daily life.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Among the drivers of learning is the need to improve and expand a learner’s experiential field.
Thus, this chapter takes an exploratory look at educational broadcasting as presented in the
conceptual model shown in figure one. It also took an exploratory look at educational
broadcasting across the major continents as well as adult education and innovations in adult
education in Nigeria.

For a better understanding of the key issues, the study was anchored on three theories - adult
learning (andragogy) theory which is based on the assumption that interactivity is key in adult
learning; information processing theory which is based on the assumption that attitude change
involves a variety of steps with each step being a necessary precedent for the next; and
Hovland’s learning theory which is based on the assumption that learning can not occur unless
the learner goes through the four stages involved in learning and these are attention,
comprehension, yielding and retention. The study also reviewed studies in the field of study.

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 EDUCATIONAL
RADIO
BROADCASTING ADULT LITERACY
FREQUENCY OF SKILL ACQUISITION
LISTENING

EXPERIENCE (REAL
LIFE EXPERIENCES)

GENDER

AGE

Figure 1: Conceptual Model of Adult Literacy by Radio

Source: Researcher, 2017

2.1 The Conceptual Model Explained

It is often said that man learns everyday. The moment man stop learning, scholars assert that
such individual is dead. Halpern and Donaghey (2017) defined as a “lasting change in behaviors
or beliefs that results from experience” (p.1). The ability to learn provides every living organism

20
with the ability to adapt to a changing environment. As presented in the diagram above
educational radio broadcasting serves as the independent variable while adult literacy skill
acquisition, is the dependent variable. By implication educational radio broadcasting or
instructional program can influence a learner’s skill acquisition.

The ability to be influenced would depend on the frequency of transmission of the programme
and the frequency of exposure on the part of the adult learner. This means that, for learning to
take place, the learner must create time to listen to the programme overtime to be able to
comprehend and hopefully change for the better. However, a learner does not come into the
learning activity empty handed, he or she come into the learning with real life experiences that
will either aid learning or interfere with learning. When an experience aid learning, the adult
learner is able to provide real life examples to buttress the point of discussion. On the other hand,
when such real life experiences interfere with listening which the adult learner needs to be able
to internalize and interpret what the instructor is saying, learning cannot take place. Both age and
gender are also intervening variables which proponents of cognitive theory like Wlihem Wundt
says are “appropriate and necessary components for understanding the processes of learning”
(Halpern & Donaghey, 2017, p.1)

2.2 Defining Literacy

The word literacy can be defined to mean the ability to read, write, carryout simple arithmetic,
use language, images, and other basic means to understand, communicate, gain useful knowledge
and “using these skills in ways that contribute to socio-economic development, to developing the
capacity for social awareness and critical reflection as a basis for personal and social change”
(UNESCO, 2006, p.147). UNESCO, also describe literacy on its website as “a driver for
sustainable development in that it enables greater participation in the labour market; improved
child and family health and nutrition; reduces poverty and expands life opportunities”
(unesco.org, para 2).

Scholars and policy makers have asserted that literacy is important in two ways: (i) to the
individual and (ii) thee community. Writing on why literacy is important, My Blog (2013) noted
that literacy is a fundamental human right and the basis for any individual’s ability to learn. It is
essential for social and human development and provides individual the skills and empowers
21
them to transform their lives, in turn, an improved standard of health and ability to earn a higher
income (My Blog, para 8). Writing on why literacy is important to individuals, Geiger (2014)
asserted that:

Without literacy, individuals would lack the tools they need to learn efficiently as
the lessons of the past and other societies are lost to those who cannot read and
write. At the same time, global events more than ever affect every aspect of our
lives, thus the illiterate cannot make informed decisions (Geiger, 2014, para.3).

2.2.1 Types of Literacy Skills

The society for Quality assurance (n.d) identified five skills that are targeted in education. The
skills are (i) literacy (ii) numeracy (iii) health and wellbeing (iv) employability, enterprise and
citizenship and (v) thinking skills.

Literacy: SAQ identify three main activities under literacy. The activities include ability to
communicate by reading, writing, listening and talking (SQA, p.2).

Reading: Reading means the ability to understand and interpret ideas, opinions and information
presented in texts, for a purpose and within a context. It includes handling information to make
reasoned and informed decisions. In the context of qualifications, ‘texts’ are defined as word-
based materials (sometimes with supporting images) which are written, printed, Braille or
displayed on screen, and which are presented in a way that is accessible for the intended
audience. Texts which allow learners to demonstrate these skills are most likely to be non-fiction
(i.e. functional and transactional) in nature (SQA, p.2).

Writing: Writing means the ability to create texts which communicate ideas, opinions and
information, to meet a purpose and within a context (SQA, p.2).

In the context of qualifications, ‘texts’ are defined as word-based materials (sometimes with
supporting images) which are written, printed, Braille or displayed on screen. Texts which allow
learners to demonstrate these skills are most likely to be non-fiction (i.e. functional and
transactional) in nature (SQA, p.2).

22
Listening and talking: Listening means the ability to understand and interpret ideas, opinions
and information presented orally for a purpose and within a context, drawing on non-verbal
communication as appropriate. Talking on the other hand means the ability to communicate
orally ideas, opinions and information for a purpose and within a context (SQA, p.2).

Numeracy: is described as the ability to use numbers in order to solve problems by counting,
doing calculations, measuring, and understanding graphs and charts. This is also the ability to
understand the results. SAQ identify three activities under numeracy and these include: number
processes; money, time and measurement; and information handling (SQA, p.3).

Number processes: carrying out calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division using whole numbers, fractions, decimal fractions, and percentages making informed
decisions based on the results of these calculations understanding these results (SQA, p.3).

Money, time and measurement: This means using and understanding money, time and
measurement to solve practical problems in a variety of contexts using relevant units and suitable
instruments, and to appropriate degrees of accuracy (SQA, p.3).

Information handling: Information handling means being able to interpret data in tables, charts
and other graphical displays to draw sensible conclusions. It involves interpreting the data and
considering its reliability in making reasoned deductions and informed decisions. It also involves
an awareness and understanding of the chance of events happening (SQA, p.3).

Health and wellbeing: this refers to the ability to take care of yourself and others, and to be
responsible for ones learning and welfare. It includes managing ones feelings, developing a
positive and active attitude to life, and building relationships with others. There are five activities
under health and wellbeing: personal learning, emotional wellbeing, physical wellbeing,
planning for, and making, choices and changes and relationships (SQA, p.3).

Personal learning: Personal learning means being actively engaged in learning and how it can
be planned, sourced, implemented, and sustained. It also includes following-up on curiosity,
thinking constructively, reflecting, and learning from experience (SQA, p.3).

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Emotional wellbeing: Emotional wellbeing includes taking responsibility for yourself and
being aware of the impact your behaviour may have on others; developing ways to manage your
feelings; developing positive attitudes and resilience; practicing assertive behaviours; building
confidence; and, based on an understanding of any risks, making informed decisions (SQA, p.3).

Physical wellbeing: Physical wellbeing means recognizing the importance and benefits of
healthy and active living and practicing skills to make the most of positive aspects of activity,
such as enjoyment and challenge (SQA, p.3).

Planning for, and making, choices and changes: This includes planning, making decisions and
taking action based on achievements for the next stage in life then making a successful move to
the next stage of education or work (SQA, p.4).

Relationships: This includes building various types of social and working relationships and
practicing interpersonal skills successfully, showing respect and a sense of care for self and
others (SQA, p.4).

Employability, enterprise and citizenship: This is the ability to develop the skills,
understandings and personal attributes — including a positive attitude to work, to others and to
the world’s resources. There are six activities under this and they are; Employability,
Information and communication technology (ICT), Working with others, Enterprise and
Leadership (SQA, p.4).

Employability: Employability is the ability to gain employment by developing the personal

qualities, skills, knowledge, understanding, and attitudes required in rapidly changing economic
environments. It is the ability to maintain employment by making transitions between jobs and
roles, and the ability to obtain new employment if, and when, required (SQA, p.4).

Information and communication technology (ICT): This involves having the ability to use
ICT systems and emerging technologies to handle information. It means having the ability to use
the internet safely and to make informed decisions based on information obtained using
technology (SQA, p.4).

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Working with others: Working with others means knowing and practicing what is involved in
working co-operatively and sensitively with others; having the ability to recognize need and
opportunity; to influence and negotiate with others to take ideas forward; being adaptable and
having a determination to succeed; being able to discuss, set and meet roles and expectations in a
working environment; and accessing, providing and creating information (SQA, p.4).

Enterprise: Enterprise involves having the ability to be creative, flexible and resourceful with a
positive attitude to change; understanding when and how to use initiative and innovation; being
able to evaluate risk to inform individual and collective decision making; and having the ability
to persuade others to undertake a joint venture (SQA, p.4).

Leadership: Leadership involves being a role model for others; being able to take the initiative
in working with and guiding others; and having self-awareness, optimism, integrity, and an open
mindset. Leadership involves skills and values which develop trust in and from others (SQA,
p.5).

Citizenship: Citizenship includes having concern for the environment and for others; being
aware of rights and responsibilities; being aware of the democratic society; being outward
looking towards society; being able to recognize one’s personal role in this context; and being
aware of global issues, understanding one’s responsibilities within these, and acting responsibly
(SQA, p.5).

Thinking skills: This is the ability to develop the cognitive skills of remembering and
identifying, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating.

Remembering: this is the ability to identify, recognize and recall facts, events and sequences
(SQA, p.5).

Understanding: Understanding is the ability to demonstrate the meaning of items of

information, to explain the order of events in a sequence, and to interpret in a different setting or
context (SQA, p.5).

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Applying: Applying is the ability to use existing information to solve a problem in a different
context, and to plan, organize and complete a task (SQA, p.5).

Analyzing and evaluating: This covers the ability to identify and weigh-up the features of a
situation or issue and to use your judgment of them in coming to a conclusion. It includes
reviewing and considering any potential solutions (SQA, p.5).

Creating: Creating is the ability to design something innovative or to further develop an existing
thing by adding new dimensions or approaches It also includes the ability to make, write, say or
do something new (SQA, p.5).

2.3 Teaching, Learning and Listening

In any activities that involve learning, two factors are vital to learning. Firstly, the instructor is
vital to how the instructional material is perceived or interpreted. In this sense therefore, learning
cannot take place unless the material is right, the instructor understands the material, understands
the learner and learners must possess the ability to listen to what the instructor is saying.

The on-air instructor as well as the classroom moderator/instructor must be able to prepare the
learner for the learning experience ahead. The material to be used, according to Heinich,
Molenda and Russell (1985), should sufficiently be “within the learner’s field of experience so
that he/she can learn what is to be learned and enough outside his/her field of experience to
challenge and extend the field of experience” (p.5). However one of the keys to having a
successful learning outcome is for the instructor to preview the materials, practice presentation,
prepare the environment and the audience before going to the studio to record or stand before the
class.

The second key to a successful outcome is the ability of the learner to have good listening skill.
Good listening means ability to sense, attend to, understand and remember what the other person
is talking about. Gangel and Canine (2002) explain that: “in sensing they receive stimuli through
the senses. In attending they select one or more of the stimuli and allow them to register in their
brains. In understanding they interpret and evaluate what they have sensed. In remembering they
recall the understood message and, if necessary, act upon it” (p.6)
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Crucial to listening is clarity of message. The instructor must arrange his information in a way
that the learner will understand. In this sense, the instructor must provide ample information and
explanation that will aid internalization of the information.

2.3.1 Steps in Learning

Learning is a continuous process. From the moment man came into this world to the moment he
dies man is exposed to informal and formal learning that will help shape is life. There are stages
that a learner must go through before he/she can acquire experience. These stages help him/her
acquire new skills. accountlearning.blogspot.com (2013) identified four stages in learning. The
stages are:

Stimulus: refers to those factors that motivate learner and which must be simplified for
him (accountlearning.blogspot.com, 2013, para. 1);

Motivation: this implies that learners must be motivated to impart required skills and
knowledge from the training. Hence, an effective motivation package consisting of
rewards and prizes should be provided to the learners to motivate them)
(accountlearning.blogspot.com, 2013, para. 3);

Response: refers to learners feedback which will give instructor an insight into whether
learning has taken place (accountlearning.blogspot.com, 2013, para. 2); and

Rewards: that is the idea is that if a motivated learner is rewarded, he will do better
(accountlearning.blogspot.com, 2013, para. 4.)

2.3.1(i)The John Carroll Model of Learning

In 1993, John Carroll proposed a model for school learning which he believes will help educators
and everyone involve in development communication solve any likely problems that they may
come across. The model consists of five elements that contribute to the effectiveness of

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instruction. Reeves (2006) states that the model has six elements with one output variable, one
input variable and 4 intermediate variables. Carroll (2006) model is presented in figure 2.

Figure 2: John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

Source: Carroll (1993)

Academic Achievement: is the output (as measured by various sorts of standard

achievement tests)

Aptitude: according to Carroll (1989), aptitude is the main explanatory variable defined
as the "the amount of time a student needs to learn a given task, unit of instruction, or
curriculum to an acceptable criterion of mastery under optimal conditions of instruction
and student motivation". Carroll (1989), defined time needed as a function of aptitude,
ability to understand instruction and quality of instruction. To Carroll (2006), aptitude
meant the ability to learn academic material.
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 By ability to understand instruction, Carroll meant the preparedness of the student for
understanding the specific material to be learned. In addition, Carroll was able to identify
the different levels of aptitude as high aptitude and low aptitude. According to him,
"High aptitude is indicated when a student needs a relatively small amount of time to
learn, low aptitude is indicated when a student needs much more than average time to
learn" (Carroll, 1989).

Opportunity to learn: this refers to the amount of time available to the learner to learn.
He noted that "frequently, opportunity to learn is less than required in view of the
students’ aptitude (Carroll, 1998).

Ability to understand instruction: relates to learning skills, information needed to

understand and language comprehension which every instructor must take cognizance of.

Quality of instruction: good instructional design is believed to be vital to how a learner

acquire new skills. If quality of instruction is bad, time needed will increase because it
will take longer for the learner to learn the new skill.

Perseverance: Amount of time a student is willing to spend on a given task or unit of

instruction. This is particularly necessary in adult learning. Commenting on John Carrol’s
model of School Learning, McIlrath and Huitt (1995) noted that:

….the that time spent is the result of opportunity and perseverance. Opportunity
in Carroll's model is determined by the classroom teacher; the specific measure is
called allotted or allocated time (i.e., time allocated for learning by classroom
teachers.) Perseverance is the student's involvement with academic content during
that allocated time. Carroll proposed that perseverance be measured as the
percentage of the allocated time that students are actually involved in the learning
process and was labeled engagement rate. Allocated time multiplied by
engagement rate produced the variable Carroll proposed as a measure of time
spent, which came to be called engaged time or time-on-task (p.1).

Although Carroll (1989) presented what is needed for learning to go right in his model, he
however failed to take cognizance of other variables like social family or even economy that
could interfere with learning. But scholars like Bloom (1976) in his Mastery Learning Model

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observed that in traditional schooling a student's aptitude for learning academic material (IQ) is
one of the best predictor's of school achievement. His research demonstrated that if time is not
held constant for all learners (as it is in traditional schooling) then a student's mastery of the
prerequisite skills, rather than aptitude, is a better predictor of school learning (McIlrath & Huitt,
1995). The basic principle of mastery learning model as presented by McIlrath and Huitt (1995)
is that almost all students can earn A's if

Students are given enough time to learn normal information taught in school; and

Students are provided quality instruction.

By quality instruction Bloom meant that teachers should:

Organize subject matter into manageable learning units;

Develop specific learning objectives for each unit;

Develop appropriate formative and summative assessment measures; and

Plan and implement group teaching strategies, with sufficient time allocations,
practice opportunities and corrective reinstruction for all students to reach the desired
level of mastery (Bloom, 1976).

2.3.1(ii) Gagne Nine Teaching/Learning Process

Robert Gagne is one of the pioneers of instructional design. As an educational psychologist, he

pioneered the science of instruction in the 1940s. Gagne proposed a model for effective teaching
and learning in his model of instructional design which Khadjooi, Rostami and Sauid Ishaq
(2011) say is based on the information processing model of the “mental events that occur when
adults are presented with various stimuli and focuses on the learning outcomes” (p.116). Ideally,
Gagne’s effective teaching and learning model consists of determining the current state and
needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction (which is developed from the needs of

30
the learner) and creating some intervention (instruction that is easy to assimilate) to assist in the
learner’s bid to acquire new skill.

There are two steps to Gagne’s instructional design. In the first step, Gagne specified the kind of
outcomes to be achieved. He categorized these outcomes into five types: verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills (Gagne, Briggs & Wager,
1998). In the second step (organizing appropriate instruction), Gagne identified nine levels of
learning. This model, presented in figure 2 is arranged in ascending order – showing the level the
learner was before he/she was exposed to instructional material or programme and the final level
showing learner’s ability to retain and perform.

Figure 3: Gagne Teaching and Learning Model

Source: Gagne, 1998
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Level 1: Gaining Attention (Reception): Gaining attention refers to directing learners’ attention
to instruction, in other words the instructor must start the learning experience by gaining the
attention of your audience. According to Khadjooi, Rostami and Sauid Ishaq (2011) “when
students arrive at class, their attention can be directed toward many other things, so in order for
any learning to take place, first their attention must be captured and their interest should be
aroused” (p. 117). In other words, there are other factors in the environment that can interfere
with learners’ attention, so to gain or direct listening raise points or issues that could get the
learner thinking and contributing to the learning activities. Heinich et al (1985) suggest that to
direct learner listening:

…before orally presenting a story or lesson, give the students some objectives or
questions to guide their listening. Start with short passages and or one or two
objectives, then gradually increase the length of the passage and the number and
complexity level of the objectives or questions (p.6).

Level 2: Informing Learners of the Objective (Expectancy): Every learner wants to know the purpose
of whatever they are being exposed to even if they did not express it openly, Gagne process clearly stated
that before introducing learner to the subject of the day, the instructor must inform the learner of the
objective of the learning or undergoing a particular training. By exposing the learner to list of learning
objectives early in the learning activity according to Khadjooi et al (2011, p.117), will initiates the
internal process of expectancy and helps motivate the learner to complete the lesson.

Level 3: Stimulating Recall of Prior Learning (Retrieval): The instructor must be aware that a learner
is not coming into the learning activity empty; some may be aware of the subject under discussion before
but may not have the privilege of having an in-depth knowledge. Gagne model states that the instructor
must associating new information with prior knowledge and personal experience and getting the
learners to think about what they already know can facilitate the learning process (Khadjooi et al,
2011, p. 117).

Level 4: Presenting the Stimulus (Selective Perception): Each learner has a different level of
assimilation this is why it is important that the instructor present the new information to the group in

32
an effective manner. According to Khadjooi et al (2011, p.118), content should be organized
meaningfully and explained and demonstrated using a variety of media.

Level 5: Providing Learning Guidance (Semantic Encoding): To help your team learn and retain the
information, provide alternative approaches that illustrate the information that you're trying to
convey. To Khadjooi et al (2011) this means:

Showing what appropriate actions constitute correct performance, plus additional

suggestions, including use of examples, case studies, graphical representations,
and mnemonics to help learners encode information for long-term storage, or in
simple terms, “make the stimulus as meaningful as possible”. As this is a practical
procedure, if learners first observe the procedure they are in a better position to
perform it themselves. The teacher shows the equipment and performs the
procedure on a dummy, including the sterile technique, explaining it step by step
(p.118).

Level 6: Eliciting Performance (Responding): During this phase the learner retrieves and actively
uses the information that has been stored in long-term memory. The learner demonstrates
through an active performance that the learning has taken place. At this stage it is important that
the instructor demonstrate what is expected of the learner. In other words, the teacher must show
the student how to do the activity so that the learners see the teacher doing it.

Level 7: Providing Feedback (Reinforcement): The emphasis here is whether the learner is doing what
he had been taught or shown. The concern at this stage is to ensure that the performance indicates
acceptable result as stated in the objective. Reinforcement interacts heavily with motivation.

Level 8: Assessing Performance (Retrieval): There must be parameters to test whether the student has
actually acquired the skill he has been exposed to some form of checking whether learning has taken
place. The parameters for testing the learner’s performance should have been stated in the objectives.

Level 9: Enhancing Retention and Transfer (Generalization): In this last stage, your team
members show that they've retained information by transferring their new knowledge or skill to
situations that are different from the ones you've trained them on. According to Dalto (2012) this
phase of learning rest with the teacher to help the learner retain the information for a long time.
One way to do this according to him is to:

33
 Provide frequent opportunities to practice after the training is complete. This is
the “use it or lose it” rule. Another way is to put them in a situation that would
allow them to use the new learning in a new context. This is what instructional
designers call transferring (Dalto, 2012, para. 15).

2.3.1(iii) Designing Literate Visuals aid for Learning

The level of impact of instructional radio on learner’s literacy skill depends, to a large extent, on
the material used or designed for the learning process. Komoski (1978) affirmed this when he
wrote that 90 to 95 percent of instructional class time is spent on activities based on the use of
instructional materials (as cited in Heinich et al, 1985). Thus it is important to obtain appropriate
materials that fit the characteristics of the learner, the objectives of the programme and the
medium of communication.

One way to get materials is to use the ones available on the shelf. For instance, there are good
elementary school books on the shelf that the Nigerian educational board approved that could be
adapted for the programme. The other way to use appropriate material for the learning process is
to design materials specifically for a programme and the learner. Usually this is where the
problems occur. To overcome probable problems, Heinich et al, (1985) suggested the following
mnemonic device to programmers: to use arrangement, balance and colour to maximize
dynamism emphasis, fidelity and graphic harmony. The arrangement, according to them, meant
that the visual and verbal elements of the layout should be arranged in a pattern that captures the
learner’s attention and directs it toward the relevant details. In balance, they assert that:

A psychological sense of equilibrium or balance is achieved when the “weight” of

the elements in a display is equally distributed on each side of the axis-either
horizontally, vertically, or both. When the design is repeated on both sides, the
balance is symmetrical or formal. In most cases, though, for displays that aims to
catch the eye and serve an informational purpose the designer aims to achieve an
asymmetrical or informational balance (p. 81).

2.4 Adult Education, Experience and Learning

Continuing education to Tahir (2000) connotes that subset of adult education that seeks to
positively link the needs and aspirations of individuals with educational activities, for

34
development of their potentialities and for the socioeconomic and political development of a
nation state (Heinich et al, 1985, p. 89).

Akinpelu (1988) defines continuing education as a form of education activity organieed and run
outside the formal school system at times, parallel to it but often times go beyond the purview of
the school system (Hussain et al, 2013). In Osuji’s (2001) opinion it is strictly an adult education
concept which stresses the provision of educational opportunities for adults after cessation of
formal schooling (Hussain et al, 2013, p.169). Hussain et al (2013) highlights features that set
adult education apart from other formal educational learning system:

Continuing Education is essentially a part-time rather than a full time learning

activity. The vast majority of programs of continuing education are organized for
clients / learners who have some pre-occupation or jobs other than studying. Such
participants attend evening, night week-end or summer –vacation classes, or even
study on their own in their homesteads (as in distance education): but they
normally have other occupational or professional duties which constitute their
major pre-occupation. Continuing Education programs are [therefore] designed to
meet identified or expressed adult learning needs (p.170).

Adult educational needs differ from one person to the other so also is their level of assimilation.
In addition to that, there are other variables, as identified earlier in this study, which may affect
the how and timing of learning. On the basis of adult educational needs, Malcolm Knowles in his
study of adult education identified six ideologies that underpin adult learning.

Adults are internally motivated and self-directed: The perception is that adults learn
effectively only when they have a strong inner motivation to develop a new skill or acquire a
particular type of knowledge. Adult learners, according to Wolowiec (2013), resist learning
when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions or when the teacher appears
unprepared or inexperienced. To encourage more self-directed and intentional learning, as well
as to foster the learner’s internal motivation to learn, Wolowiec (2013) advised
instructors/teachers to do develop interactive learning exercises that are challenging, but not
overwhelming; show genuine interest in the thoughts, opinions and questions of their audience;
provide feedback to learners, as appropriate, that is, both constructive and specific; and support
the disparity in learning styles by employing a variety of learning methods (Wolowiec , 2013,
para. 5)
35
Adults bring life experiences and knowledge to learning experiences. Adults like to be given
the opportunity to use their existing foundation of knowledge and apply their various life
experiences to their own professional development. To achieve the best result, instructors are
advised to:

Draw correlations between past experiences and current problem-solving

challenges;

Facilitate opportunities for reflective learning; and

Examine existing biases or habits that may influence future learning or skill
development Wolowiec (2013, para. 5).

Adults will learn only what they feel they need to learn (adults are goal oriented): Adults are
practical in their approach to learning so they want to know what they stand to benefit from the
experience; and as Wolowiec (2013) adult learners become ready to learn when they experience
a need to learn in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems. To facilitate a
learner’s readiness in the learning experience, there is need to:

Provide meaningful learning experiences that are clearly linked to personal/professional

goals;

Share real-life case studies that connect the dots between theory and practice; and

Ask questions that motivate reflection, inquiry and further research.

Adults are relevancy oriented: Adult learners want to know the relevance of what they are
learning to what they want to achieve. To support learners in their quest for seeking and
identifying relevancy, content leaders should:

Ask learners at the beginning of the learning experience what they expect to learn;

Check for meaning, understanding and relevance (to the context of work) throughout the
learning experience;
36
 Identify what skills, knowledge or expertise learners gained as a result of participating in
the learning experience; and

Determine how learners might apply what they learned in the future (and in the context of
their everyday lives).

Adults are practical. Through hands-on exercises and collaborative brainstorming, learners

move from classroom and textbook mode to hands-on problem solving where they can recognize
first-hand how what they are learning applies to life and the context of work. To support this
transformation, content leaders should:

Clearly explain their rationale when presenting new ideas or innovative solutions;

Be explicit about how the content is useful and applicable to the learners’ work;

Promote active participation by allowing learners to try new things, offer suggestions or
share healthy skepticism rather than simply observe; and

Provide ample opportunities for repetition to promote skill development, confidence and
competence.

Adult learners like to be respected: Content leaders can demonstrate respect by:

Taking an active interest in the development of all learners;

Acknowledging the wealth of experiences that the learners bring to their work;

Regarding learners as colleagues with unique perspectives and valuable life experience;

Encouraging the expression of new ideas, reasoning and feedback at every opportunity.

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2.5 Principles of Effective Adult Learning

That adults have a wide range of experience is an understatement; however the unique thing that
makes these experiences relevant in adult learning is that they aid classroom interaction. Scholars
have identified twelve principles for effective learning, they include:

Needs Assessment: according to information supplied in one of the document released

by Lagos State Agency for Mass Education (LAMED), doing an adequate needs
assessment is both standard practice and a basic principle of adult learning, which
honours the fact that while people may register for the same programme they all come
with different experience and expectations. To what learners want, experts suggested
listening to them even before the course starts.

Principle of Safety: safety is a principle linked to respect for learners as decision

makers of their own learning. But in addition to that, safety also means that the design of
learning tasks, the atmosphere in the room and the very design of small groups and
materials convey to the adult learners that this experience will work for them. In other
words the context is safe.

Sound Relationships: sound relationships for learning involve respect, safety, open
communication, listening, and humility. In order to be sound, this relationship must
transcend personal likes and dislikes and obvious differences in wealth and power. In
such instances, the instructor knows that he/she must be even more careful about
showing respect, affirming, and listening carefully.

Sequence and Reinforcement: sequence and reinforcement are vital tools in adult
learning. Sequence means the programming of knowledge, skills and attitude in an order
that goes from simple to complex and from group supported to solo efforts.
Reinforcement on the other hand, means the repetition of facts, skills and attitudes in

38
diverse, engaging and interesting ways until they are learned. It is the duty of the
instructor and others involve in adult learning to ensure that the principles of sequence
and reinforcement are honoured within learning programme.

Praxis: praxis is a Greek work that means “action with reflection”. There is little doubt
among educator that participating is the right way adults learn anything.

Respect for Learners as Decision Makers: respecting learners as decision makers of

their own learning is a principle that involves the recognition that adults are in fact
decision makers in a large part of their lives.

Ideas, Feelings and Action: learning with the mind, emotions and muscles and giving
attention to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspects of adult learning is a vital
principle that is often neglected. When the formalities of teaching and learning in the
classroom and university take over without reflection, adult learners can be faced with a
mass of cognitive matter: information, data and facts that may seem impossible to
comprehend or learn. Using the principle that there are three aspects of learning, namely
ideas (cognitive), feelings (affective), and actions (psychomotor), programme developers
and instructors can prevent that initial fear at the outset of a new adult learning event.

Immediacy: research recognizes that adult learners need to see the immediate usefulness
of new learning they are working to acquire. A large percentage of adult learners start a
course and then decide to give it up because they cannot see the immediate usefulness of
what they are learning. Such immediacy is not a quick fix in a mechanistic sense, rather
it is perceived usefulness, related to respect for the learner’s context, sequence of
learning tasks, and the data shared in the need assessment. The immediacy perceived by
adult learners will affect their determination to continue working.

Clear Role: another vital principle of adult learning is recognition of the impact of clear
roles in the communication between the learner and the instructor. It is important to note
that adult learners need reinforcement of the human equity between teacher and the
learners and among learners it is equally important to note that it takes time for adults to
see themselves and the instructor in new roles.
39
 Teamwork: teams provide, in the adult learning experience, a quality of safety that is
effective and helpful. The assurance of safety and shared responsibility available in team
has always proved welcome, no matter what the cultural setting.

Engagement: team engagement in the learning and action plans for a strategic session is
a vital principle to ensure the quality of the team’s learning. When learners are deeply
engaged, working in small groups or teams, it is often difficult to extricate them from the
delight of that learning.

Accountability: accountability is one of the foremost principles of adult learning.

Learners are accountable to themselves and to members of their team.

2.6 Participation, Learning and Feedback

Popular participation in government refers to various schemes that get the public involved in
their country's government. When learners feel they are part of a programme that is targeted at
changing their lives they are more receptive towards change. The term popular participation is a
political principle that suggests that the public has the right to participate in decision making
process that will affect their lives. According to Aborisade (2012, paara. 1) the term suggests a
process of involving wider sections of people in decision making on issues that concern them. By
implication, interaction with the learner is important for those who will develop the instructional
material as this will provide information about the learners’ area of interest and learning style
they would prefer. This thus implies that:

There is effective information transfer between and among participant this will increase
the chances of succeeding. Information transfer implies communication where both the
sender and receiver share meaning.

Information provided will give the agent of change information on whether to modify the
materials, or maybe news ones are needed that will be goal-oriented.

The idea of interacting with the target audience is borne out of the fact that when change agent,
media practitioners and other players interact with the audience, feedbacks will be constant and

40
fast, making it possible for feedback to be incorporated into subsequent lesson. Feedback is
assured only if both the sender and the receiver share meaning. Sharing meaning implies that the
signs are mutually accepted, recognized and held in common ownership or use by each person
taking part in the exchange.

In his affirmation of the above assertion, Oloyede (2008) adds that that all participants in a
communication process have something to give, either in the form of information, experience
and/or receivers needs (which identifies the missing link in learning (p.9). The sharing element in
communication is transformed into a trust/mutual relationship between the sender and the
receiver. This is why Moemeka (1981), says effective communication can only take place
between the communicator and his target audience if there is mutual understanding arising from
identical socio-cultural background or knowledge and opinion about the society (p. 10).
Moemeka (1997) is therefore of the opinion that communication should not just be an exchange
of ideas and opinions but rather it should be about “relationship and knowledge acquisition; it
has to be concerned with relevant content, suitable style of presentation, timing, rapport, access
and participation” (p.58).

2.7 Adult Literacy in Nigeria

Efforts to promote adult education began in 1922, when the Phelp-Stoke Fund was set up to look
into education in Western and Equitorial Africa. The Commission released a report titled:
education in Africa, which emphasized the need for a policy on adult and community education
(Nnazor, 2005). The report recommended the establishment of a policy on adult education. It
was clearly evident from the report that there were more illiterate adult in the society which the
commission believed should be developed alongside the educational system in place at the time.

The British colonial government issued the first education policy in 1925, it ignored the Report’s
recommendation for the development of community and adult education. Perhaps the fear of the
colonial masters was that if adult education was developed, there may be threats to the
stronghold they had on the country. But what was clear from the execution of the policy
introduced in 1925 was that the British colonial masters was more interested in the schooling
system that took care of the younger generation.

41
By 1951, the British colonial government knew its hold on the nation was soon to come to an
end, so 29years after the Phelp-Stoke Fund report was released, the Central Board of Education
endorsed a policy on adult education. The aim of adult education as articulated in the policy,
according to Fafunwa (1974) (as cited by Nnazor, 2005), was to “organize remedial primary
education for adults. This included basic adult literacy and craft-making. The policy also stressed
the importance of women’s participation in adult education” (p.531).

The new policy paved the way for adult literacy across the four regions, but not for long.
According to Nnazor (2005) the introduction of free primary education schemes initiated from
1955 and 1957 resulted in the waning of the enthusiasm and decline in government support for
adult literacy (p.531). Nnazor (2005) writes further:

In 1959, the Ashby Commission was appointed to determine Nigeria’s human

resources needs, as well as the country’s needs for post-secondary education over
the next twenty years, 1960-1980. Reviewing Nigeria’s primary, secondary and
post-secondary education, the commission noted that the country had made
progress in these levels and recommended further expansion. The commission
was, however, curiously, silent on adult education. Consequently, very little
attention was paid to its development…. There has hardly been a sustainable,
virile, and coherently comprehensive set of programs demonstrating
government’s commitment to adult education as a strategic priority in Nigeria’s
development. (p.531)

In 1990 the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-Formal Education (NMEC)
was established to monitor and coordinate adult education programs, as well as to conduct
research related to the development of adult and non-formal education in the country. The
philosophy of Nigeria’s education is based on:

The development of the individual into a sound and effective citizen;

The full integration of the individual into the community; and

The provision of equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the
country at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the
formal school system (davidebooks.wordpress.com, 2011).

42
The above philosophy is also captured in chapter two section 18 subsections 1 -3 of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria Constitution of 1999, which states in part the responsibility of all organs of
government to promote the educational objectives of the country. The section states that:

Government shall direct its policy towards ensuring that there are equal and adequate
educational opportunities at all levels.

Government shall promote science and technology

Government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy; and to this end government shall as and
when practicable provide –

Free, compulsory and universal primary education;

Free university education; and

Free adult literacy programme

In line with the 1999 Federal Constitution therefore, objectives of National Policy on Educationn
are:

The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity;

The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual
and the Nigerian society;

The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around; and

The acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social
abilities and competencies as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the
development of the society.

43
Table 2.1: Population Figures in Nigeria Showing Literacy Rate in 2005

Age Male Literacy Female Literacy Total Literacy

Group Rate Rate Rate

6-9 7,786,622 30.8 7,489,700 29.7 15,276,322 30.3

10-14 8,343,059 66.1 8,018,444 65.2 16,361,503 65.7

15-19 6,938,592 84.2 6,910,361 79.5 13,848,953 82.0

20-24 5,741,218 86.9 5,656,509 69.5 11,397,727 77.4

25-29 5,206,199 84.5 5,164,157 62.8 10,370,356 71.2

30-34 4,310,713 77.7 4,419,669 58.0 8,730,382 66.4

35-39 3,259,415 76.8 3,707,974 58.8 6,967,389 67.5

40-44 2,710,906 72.0 1,106,233 54.6 5,817,139 63.3

45-49 2,398,133 72.4 2,567,356 52.5 4,965,489 63.5

50+ 6,550,636 57.5 6,238,496 35.0 12,789,132 48.3

Total 53,245,493 56.3 53,278,899 47.6 106,524,392 52.0

Source: National Population Commission, Abuja (2005)

Form the Table 2.1, presently by the population literacy profile of Nigeria, those in the age
bracket of 25-29 was put at 10, 370,356 while the literacy rate was put at 71.2 %. Those in the
35-39 age bracket stood at 6,967,389 (67.5%). Those in the 50+ age category are put at
612,789,132 (48.3). Target illiterate population for over 10year-period also put the total number

44
of illiterate male and female within the age bracket of 25-49 at 6,069,682; while those in the 50+
(for male and female) were put at 3,306,725.

Table 2.2: Population Literacy Figures of 2005 by Adult Age Group in Nigeria

Age Group Male Literacy Female Literacy Total Literacy

Rate Rate Rate

15-24 12,679,810 85.4 12,566,870 75.0 25,246,680 79.9

25-49 17,885,366 77.9 18,965,389 58.2 36,850,755 67.1

50+ 6,550,636 57.5 6,238,496 35.0 12,789,132 48.3

Total 37,115,812 76.9 37,770,755 59.9 74,886,567 68.2

Source: National Population Commission, Abuja (2005)

By National Population Commission literacy census, the total literacy rate for men in 2005 stood
at 37,115,812 (76.9%). This figure almost equal women’s literacy rate figure which stood at,
37,770,755 (59.9), however, the literacy rate differs significantly with men standing at 76.9%
while that of the women stood at 59.9%.

45
Table 2.3: Distribution of Target Illiterate Population by Age Group and Gender

Year 15 – 24 25 – 49 50+

Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total

2005 92,423 157,219 294,942 197,394 396,507 593,891 139,232 202,883 342,116

2006 95,094 161,763 256,856 203,088 407,967 611,055 143,256 208,747 352,003

2007 107,626 183,081 290,707 229,853 461,732 691,596 162,136 236,258 398,394

2008 110,736 188,372 299,109 236,496 475,077 711,572 166,822 243,085 409,907

2009 124,295 211,436 335,731 265,452 533,243 798,695 187,247 272,848 460,095

2010 138,544 235,675 374,219 295,883 594,375 890,258 208,713 304,128 512,841

2011 131,583 223,834 355,416 281,016 564,510 845,526 198,226 288,846 487,072

2012 124,103 211,111 335,214 265,043 532,422 797,465 186,958 272,428 459,386

2013 127,690 217,212 344,901 272,703 547,809 820,512 192,362 280,301 472,663

2014 119,436 203,172 322,608 255,076 512,401 767,477 179,928 262,183 442,111

2015 122,888 209,044 331,932 262,448 527,209 789,657 185,128 269,760 454,888

Source: National Population Commission, Abuja (2005)

46
Table 2.4: Projected Target Illiterate Population in Nigeria (2005-2015)

Year PROJECTION REDUCTION BALANCE CARRIED

FORWARD

Average Annual Male Female Total % Male Female Total Male

Growth Rate

2005 2.9 4,290,388 7,566,100 11,856,487 10 429038.8 756,610 1,185,649 3,861,349

2006 2.9 4,414,380 7,784,760 12,199,140 10 441438.0 778,476 1,219,914 3,543,903

2007 2.9 4,541,955 8,009,739 12,551,695 11 4996615.1 881,071 1,380,686 3,171,864

2008 2.9 4,673,218 8,241,221 12,914,439 11 514054.0 906,534 1,420,588 2,347,135

2009 2.9 4,808,272 8,479,392 13,287,666 12 576692.9 1,017,527 1,594,520 1,842,954

2010 2.9 4,947,233 8,724,447 13,671,680 13 643140.3 1,134,178 1,777,318 1,375,104

2011 2.9 5,090,208 8,976,583 14,066,791 12 610825.0 1,077,190 1,688,015 946,106

2012 2.9 5,237,315 9,236,006 14,473,321 11 576104.6 1,015,961 1,592,065 504,711

2013 2.9 5,388,673 9,502,927 14,891,600 11 592754.1 1,045,322 1,638,076 106,003

2014 2.9 5,544,406 9,77,562 15,521,968 10 554440.6 977,756 1,532,197 -304,228

2015 2.9 5,704,639 10,060,133 15,764,722 10 570463.9 1,006,013 1,276,477

Source: National Population Commission, Abuja (2005)

47
Table 2.3 presents the distribution of target illiterate population by age group and sex from 2005
to 2015, while Table 2.4 shows projected target illiterate population for 2005 to 2015 and
distribution of target illiterate population by age and sex for each year from 2005 to 2015.

2.8 Innovations in Adult Education Programmes in Nigeria

To meet the challenges presented by the above dimensions in adult education in the country,
innovative programmes have been put in place such as:

Basic Literacy Programme: This is a one-month programme organized and financed by some
Local Government Councils in some states of the Federation. It is held under the co-ordination
and supervision of the States´ Ministries of Education.

Post Literacy Programme: This is organized by the Ministry of Education in some States of the
Federation for completers of Basic Literacy Programmes and dropouts from formal primary
schools to upgrade their knowledge to the level of first school leaving certificates.

Women Adult Education Programme: This programme is organized by Christian Missionaries

and Local Government Councils. The Ministry of Education grants aid to the voluntary
organizations to reduce costs. The course is solely designed to improve the services of literate
and illiterate women in the society.

Distance Education Programme: This programme is organized by the States´ Ministries of

Education and some institutions of higher education in the country. It is designed for all those
who because of the nature of their age are unable to enroll in the regular or formal educational
system. The medium of instruction is by correspondence, radio or television.

Sandwich Programme: This is organized by various institutions of higher education in the

country for adults who stay in other communities for most of the year and come into residence in
their various schools when they can afford it.

Nomadic Education Programme: Nigerian nomads are mostly cattle rarers who do not
settle in one place because they have to follow their herds of cattle around to graze. The
i
nature of their way of life led the government to design Mobile Education Programme to
take care of this peculiar situation. However, Fasokun (n.d) while writing on the status of
literacy in Nigeria identified major problems areas facing literacy in the country. These
are: lack of data on providers, programmes, learners, teachers, input, output, efficiency
and impact; lack of methodologies to collect such data; lack of a sound information base;
inaccurate national survey of literacy; lack of standardization of certificates in literacy
centers; parallel reporting structures; one-way information flow; and lack of
standardization of syllabi for literacy centers. Others include:

duplication of activities between government and Non-governmental Organizations

(NGOs) and among NGOs,

different information needs at community, district and national levels,

lack of recognition of adult and non-formal education as one of the major components of
Universal Basic Education (UBE) programmes aimed at achieving the goals of EFA,
National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS), MDGS and
UBE,

poor enrollment rates in adult literacy programmes,

Literacy instructors not properly trained in facilitation skills and gender awareness;

high dropout rates linked to both economic problems which force adult learners to
abandon classes in favour of income-generating activities and problems relating directly
to the adult literacy programme such as lack of relevance, funding issues and low morale
among adult literacy instructors,

lack of appropriate policy guidance on the minimum standard for language of literacy in
Nigeria; and

a poor literacy environment which means that literacy skills are not maintained in the
long run.

ii
2.9 Mass Media and Education: Brief History of Educational Broadcasting

Education is at the centre of a nation’s development; through education people are empowered
both academically and in skill acquisition. Scholars have also noted that a nation that has a
strong stable and functional educational system invariably has not only the powerful instrument
to fight and eliminate poverty but also has a solid foundation to build a sustainable economy
upon. Learning, therefore, is part of man’s daily routine. His exposure to his environment
exposes him to new values and information that will enable him fit into his society.

In light of the above, education can be viewed from two perspectives - broad and technical
perspectives. By the broad perspective, education can be looked at as any act or experience that
has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In this case, the
culture of a people, the beliefs and high-held values becomes known to that people as they come
in contact and interaction with the environment. This type of education is “the act or process of
imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment
and generally of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life” (Dictionary.com,
2014).

The above definition of education gives an insight into how learning is transferred in pristine
society. According to Sanusi (2011), African societies have from time immemorial used stories,
folklores, songs, dance, traditional proverbs and dramas as a way of communicating events in
history from generation to generation. Stories about life, religion, wars, mystical happenings,
love, betrayals, deaths, fidelity and treacheries are used in African societies to teach cultures and
values of a society even before the emergence of colonial education (p. 145)

This can be done at any time of the day; however, the use of drama and folklores to teach morals
are mostly carried out in the evenings with moonlight providing serenity that gives a priceless
experience. Although the traditional instructional techniques come in form of entertainment, the
values nonetheless become an inseparable part of human existence. In a broad sense this method
provide, “a framework for looking at and understanding the social world in which human
communities have variously but continuously existed” (Winston, 2000, ix). The adoption of this
method in many African societies, according to Winston (2000) is:

iii
 The fundamental ways which the human mind interprets and speculates upon the
origins of the world, of a people and its culture, of heroes and heroines, of
tricksters, fools, animals that transform into humans, of love, fidelity, loyalty and
death (p. ix).

On the other hand, by technical concept, education is seen as the process by which society
deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, values, and skills from one generation to
another through institutions. Businessdictionary.com (2014) asserts that education requires
instruction of some sort from an individual or composed literature. In this regard, education here
simply refers to formal training in a recognized institution. Parankimalil (2012) summarizes the
two concepts thus:

Education is a systematic process through which a child or an adult acquires

knowledge, experience, skill and sound attitude. It makes an individual civilized,
refined, cultured and educated. For a civilized and socialized society, education
is the only means. Its goal is to make an individual perfect (Parankimalil, 2012,
para. 1).

This is how standford.edu (2004) summarized the two-fold objectives of education:

On the one hand it should discipline the mind for sustained and persistent
speculation. On the other hand it should integrate human life around central,
focusing ideals. It is a tragedy that the latter is often neglected in our educational
system. Education should equip us with the power to think effectively and
objectively…. The first function of education, therefore, is to teach man to think
intensively. But this is not the whole of education. If education stops here it can
be the most dangerous force in society. Some of the greatest criminals in society
have been men {who} possessed the power of concentration and reason, but they
had no morals. Perhaps the most dangerous periods in civilization have been those
periods when there was no moral foundation in society. (standford.edu, 2004)

According to Onabajo (2000a), “change in attitude, behavior, or community condition, is usually

behind the drive to organize an informal educational project” (p. 103), but in specific terms the
objectives of educational broadcast, according to ArticlesNG are to:

Inculcate informally academic, political, social, scientific, religious and economic

knowledge in students in particular and the public in general;

Create a general desire for knowledge;

iv
 Supplement teachers work in classroom;

Create awareness of acceptable life goals and values;

Create an extra opportunity for learning for the not-so-fortunate group in the society; and

Explain national educational policies to people who might benefit from it

Yet, as man attempts to upgrade his learning through formal learning, the use of broadcast media
has introduced a new dimension to learning particularly for the less privilege. Onabajo (2000a)
observed that the strength of the media lies in the fact that they reach such a large portion of the
population in any nation. The pervasiveness of the broadcast media in our daily lives, however,
tends to obscure the fact that it is a relatively new phenomenon, with implication for education
that are now beginning to be fully understood and appreciated (Heinich, Molenda &
Russell,1985: 3).

The role of media among others is to educate its audience. The media performs this function
side by side with information and interpretation functions. In Onabajo’s (2000a) opinion, the
mass media can create new perspectives which clear the ground for improved new skills and
better education (p.11). In effect, learning through the media can only take place when the
learner receives new information through a medium that both the media instructor and learner
have access to.

Beyond access to medium, scholars like Moemeka (1981) has advocated for effective
communication that will lead to desired change in the learner. Effective communication can only
take place between the communicator and his target audience if there is “mutual understanding
cumulating from relationship that is aided by rapport, access and participation of all
communicators through a medium that is both accessible and interactive” (p. 11).

2.10 Educational Broadcasting in Africa

Radio broadcasting in most African countries, particularly those colonized by the British colonial
government, according to Uche (1989) started as rediffusion (p.36) majorly to serve European
interests that colonized them (Mytton, 2014). But with the realization of the presumed role of
v
broadcast media in national development and social change, countries in Africa began to utilize
the broadcast media for education other than information and entertainment. Kiwanuka-Tondo
(2014) provides reason for this:
Because educational facilities are not enough to satisfy the demand of the ever
growing population of school age children, the media (particularly the broadcast
media) have been seen as a substitute for this formal education. This is rnore so
given technological advances which have resulted in the invention of the FM
technology and the low cost transistor radio which can use relatively cheap
batteries that have enabled mass communication to reach the most remote areas in
the world (p.4).

Confirming Uche’s (1989) assertion, Kiwanuka-Tondo (2014) when he wrote on the reason the
former Western Government of Nigeria in 1959 and Eastern Government in 1960 began its own
television broadcasting system. According to him, “when modern television broadcasting came
to Nigeria, they were specifically introduced to provide adequate services in education, social,
and economic development.” The situation was the same in Kenya. According to Chacha and
Zani (2005)

Since the introduction of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Kenya when the Narc
government of president Kibaki came to power in 2003, many primary schools
have experienced large enrolment of pupils in classes one to eight such that in
some schools there are over 100 pupils per class with only one teacher. Such
increased enrolment influenced by the removal of tuition fees, and provision of
free learning materials. Some schools have not been doing well due to lack of
teachers and relevant resources, while others have managed to perform well. The
large numbers of students who join school continue to be so large that the impact
is for reaching and causing a lot of concern due to inadequate physical facilities,
teaching and learning resources and qualified teachers. (p.2)

In order to meet these challenges, Keyan government supported correspondence course with
broadcast, and as observed by Odera (2005) Kenyan government also recently introduced “world
space radio broadcasts to schools to supplement and improve classroom teacher’s work and the
quality of education at distance” (Odera, 2005). However, it was Ghana and Togo that lead
Africa countries in the broadcast-based distance learning.

vi
2.11 Historical Development of Educational Broadcasting in Nigeria

Although, according to Onabajo (2000), BBC programmes dominated the Nigerian airwaves at
the inception, efforts were made to produce programmes that the local population could relate to.
Yet, as the Nigeria Broadcasting Corporation (later to be known as Nigerian Broadcasting
Commission) strived to make amends, there was no move to incorporate educational
programmes targeted at schools at any level. The idea to use the potential of broadcasting for
education of the mass was not muted until 1959 when the then Western Nigerian government
argued at the Regional house of Assembly that the necessity of such a medium was its utility as
an additional means of improving the regional school systems that were handicapped by shortage
of qualified teachers in certain subject areas (Sambe, 2008). Uche (1989) comments on the mode
of how the programmes were transmitted:

The devotion of Nigeria’s televisions to education when they were newly

introduced becomes quite apparent when we see that of the six and one-half hours
the WNTV (Western Nigeria Television) was on the air each day (Monday
through Friday), it transmitted educational programmes from 11.00 a.m. to 2.00
p.m. to about one hundred schools equipped with television receivers in the
region; while the transmitting hours of the ENTV (Eastern Nigeria Television),
Enugu, were just as devoted to educational broadcasting as those of the WNTV
(p. 36).

For the WNTV objectives to be achieved, facilities were made available to the Regional Ministry
of Education which in turn, according to Onabajo (2000) directed its school Broadcasting Unit to
produce series of educational broadcasts. When the ENTV and Kaduna Television (KTV)
introduced broadcasting in their respective regions, they also joined the Western region in this
lofty pursuit. The areas of coverage for these stations were elementary science, arts, crafts,
English and history.

Educational broadcasting at the time was designed to provide extensive educational broadcasting
that is geared towards providing general information and informal education. The introduction of
television in the three regions in Nigeria led the federal government to establish its own
television. Umeh (1989) argued that the regional development of television was an offshoot of
the prevailing regionalization of policy making in Nigeria at the time, of which education was
also a part. UNESCO writes that:
vii
 Educational television broadcasts were the joint responsibility of the Ministry of
Education and the television station of each region which would broadcast them.
The broadcasts were based on the syllabi of schools of the region concerned.
Hence, the question of a national educational television policy for all schools
throughout the country was not feasible at this time. Instead, the various regional
governments formulated their own educational television policies (Umeh, 1989,
p.64).

After the former Midwestern Region was created, it also joined the other three regions in the
broadcast of educational programmes. The region introduced educational television for schools
in its area of authority. Before the establishment of the educational television broadcasting unit
in 1973, the region government set up what was called the 'UNDP/UNESCO Mission on
Educational Television in Midwestern State, Nigeria' to plan the effective take-off of the
programme (Umeh, 1989, p. 64). In 1965 when UNESCO examined the regional educational
programmes of the three regions, there aims as identified by UNESCO are as follows:

Western Region programme began in 1959: Its purpose was to reduce teaching deficiencies
and to enrich the content in selected secondary (second-level) syllabus courses, and to provide
examples of good teaching. Some presentations are also made for teacher training college
students.

Northern Region programme began in 1962: Its purpose was to target primary, secondary and
teacher-training college levels.

Lagos (Federal District programme began in 1965. Its purpose was to alleviate problems
stemming from the shortage of adequately trained teachers by providing direct teaching at the
primary level and to expand the content of primary curricula (Umeh, 1989).

The Former Midwestern Region: The provision of planned instruction at primary, secondary
and grammar schools, teacher training colleges as well as for adult education and nursery
schools. The identified priorities for educational television programmes in the schools include
supplementing classroom teaching in the subject areas of Integrated Science, Mathematics,
English Language, African History and Current Affairs.

viii
2.12 The Medium of Radio and Learning

The medium of radio is such that affords both the technical crew and the on-air performer the
opportunity to make information available on first time basis without the complexities of film
processing. Hasling (1980) describes the potential of radio as an avenue to source for current
information for “contemporary social, commercial, and intellectual needs. The data they provide
will influence conversation, attire, buying habits, and may also have an effect upon listener`s
musical taste and political opinion” (p. 2). All the performer needs to do is to speak intelligently
on the microphone while the audio console operator provides the technical support. The medium
of radio, in other words, is a medium of immediacy whereby fast-breaking news is relayed first
to thousands of people in different places in a matter of minutes.

Radio can educate us and broaden our knowledge about issues and events. Even more
importantly, radio is now used to compliment the classroom teaching in a more interesting and
exiting way and at learners’ convenience. Again, the simplicity of radio takes various forms. In
the first instance radio is easy to operate and as such does not require heavy equipment that is
needed as compared to all other media. In another instance, it affords those working in the station
to be creative and express themselves freely but taking cognizance of the acceptable on-air
norms. Again its simplicity makes production process less cumbersome as compared to the
production process in television.

Just as radio is simple, it is also financially healthy. Firstly, it is cheaper it terms of purchasing
receivers, secondly, it is financially healthy because it does not require a full compliment of staff
that is needed for television. Some radio stations in Nigeria are managed by ten staff and in some
countries it could be less. This means that the station gets to pay less staff and can use the money
for other innovative programmes. Its inexpensive nature also affords production personnel to be
creative which is why Hasling (1980) opined that innovation can be tried without huge financial
investments in radio production (p.4). Thus, radio is particularly useful in developing countries
where electric power is erratic, in that people can power their radio receiver with dry cell
batteries.

ix
One important feature that makes radio suitable for learning is its ability to persuade listeners.
When enlightening a large disperse audience is the ultimate goal, radio may be the best medium
to use, because it can be used to raise and motivate people to action. Flor (2014) identified the
three main advantages of radio to be the ability to:

Improved educational quality and relevance;

Lower per student educational costs; and

Improved access to education, particularly for disadvantaged groups.

Onabajo (2000a) asserts that radio as well as television can fill an important role in making
university education available to students and adults who were unable to secure university
education in their youth (p.7). Flor (2014) on the other hand, was quick to note the limitations of
radio for educational purposes, which he said include:

Inherent lack of interaction between learner and the instructor;

Instructor feedback and clarification are generally unavailable;

Instruction cannot be interrupted or reviewed by students (unless it is tape-recorded);

The pace of the lesson is fixed;

Note taking is difficult for some; and time for reflection is minimal.

To overcome these drawbacks, broadcasters and different agencies collaborate in the preparation
of supporting materials and follow-up on student learning progress to evaluate whether the
objectives of the programmes were achieved. This solution is particularly necessary when the
programme is instructional. The idea behind instructional radio broadcast or intensive radio
instruction or any educational programme is to see a change in performance, and unless every
change agent involved in the production and execution of the instructional programme planned
the information in a manner that will help the learner internalize the message, change cannot
come about.

x
In view of this submission, Heinich, Molenda, Russell (1985) say instruction is a “deliberate
arrangement of experience(s) to help the learner achieve a desirable change in performance; the
management of learning, which in education and training is primarily the function of the
instructor” (p.6). Onabajo (2000b) follow this line of thought when he said “learning is guided
by instruction which is the job of the teacher” (p.20). Thus, it is right to say the purpose of
instructional media, according to Heinich, Molenda ad Russell (1985) is not only to provide the
necessary concrete experience, but also to help students integrate prior experiences (p.7).

2.12.1 Types of Educational Programmes on Radio

There is no single best programme format that can take care of the needs of all broadcast
audience or even one that can be utilized for education on radio. To take care of the different
broadcast audience educational needs, radio stations developed both intensive instructional
programme formats and entertainment or informative programmes that have educational intent
built into them. In most cases, instructional programme format are often handled by non-
commercial stations or public broadcasting stations that hinge their broadcast license on public
interest. On the other hand, most commercial stations adopts entertainment format which implies
that their programmes are not designed with educational intents. The sole reason is to entertain or
inform; however, these programmes can be adapted for instructional or educational purposes. For
instance, the Wale Adenuga’s Super Story and This Life are dramas that are commercially
oriented programmes yet they teaches morals, value systems and acceptable behavior in the
society.

Moemeka (1981) identified five strategies of utilization of radio in rural education. The five
strategies, according to Moemeka (1981) are Open Broadcasting, Instructional radio, rural radio
forum, radio school and radio and animation (p.43). Open broadcasting, according to Onabajo
(2002) is the strategy through which broadcast content is directed to an unorganized audience,
which is based on the assumption that a good “message is capable of being acceptable by the
individual on his own, and that the best way to attract and hold a mass audience is to offer
spontaneous and continuous vicarious satisfaction as well as education” (p. 43).

xi
The educational programme which could be on health, agriculture, family life, child-care among
others is broadcast in the local language to a mass audience. The problem of this method,
according to Moemeka (1981), is that the unorganized nature of the audience may negate the
success of the programme as those audiences who actually need the educational programme may
not be listening (p.44). In addition to that, Moemeka (1981) noted that such approach is
bedeviled with problems like: lack of interaction between producers and consumers of programs
before they are planned, produced and broadcast; and programs are devised without any input
from specialist agencies that are close to both to the people and to the government (p.44).

Instructional radio is the direct opposite of the open broadcasting in that the audience of
instructional radio is in organized learning groups led by someone able to supervise and induce
feedback. Onabajo (2002) noted that this approach requires a structure of organizing listening
and learning practices, support materials, monitors or teachers and some kind of assessment
(p.46). This is the method adopted by producers of Mooko Mooka.

Radio rural forum is a strategy that encourages learner’s participation. It makes use of discussion
to involve a group of people who listen to programs at the listening center, discuss the issues
under a group leader and then take decisions on the points raised. The decisions of the group are
packaged by the leader who sends it to the producers of the programme for review and possible
inclusion in subsequent programs. On the other hand, radio school listeners are organized into
small listening rural illiterate groups. According to Moemeka (1981), the basic aim of this
strategy is to “offer fundamental, integral education which goes beyond mere reading, writing
and cognitive skills and tries to change the passive and dependent attitude of the rural man,
creating a deepening of his ‘sense of dignity and self-worth’ and turning him into a new man”
(p.48)

The fifth strategy, radio and animation, is aimed at promoting among local communities a trained
cadre of decision leaders (Moemeka, 1981). According to Onabajo (2002), the strategy places
emphasis on radio defining, but not suggesting solutions to the people’s problem. The
assumptions of radio and animation strategy are:

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 That no solutions to problems can be imposed on local communities from the outside.
The local communities must first arrive at the problem definition and then its solution on
their own;

That the social animator is to be as closely identified with the local community as
possible;

That the purpose of information in this approach is to help to define the problem and not
to give the solutions; and

That community participation and social action is the goal and therefore feedback from
the community is essential (p.50).

In his contribution to how broadcast media can educate the public, Das (2014) suggested
interactive radio counseling (IRC). Das (2014) format finds strength in radio Phone-in
programmes which allows listeners to call in and share their problems, experience and even help
others overcome issues affecting them. Some radio stations in Nigeria have mounted ‘live’ radio
counseling sessions through which they can assist listeners with issues affecting their lives.

2.12.2 Interactive Radio Instruction: Implication for Education

Government and international agencies across the world have found radio useful in facilitating
both formal and informal learning as early as 1924. The radio programmes are directed at the
different publics – children, illiterate adults, farmers, health workers and many other groups of
learners. One of the ways radio has been used is interactive radio instruction (IRI). This
combines broadcast radio or another audio medium with an emphasis on active learning to
improve educational quality (Tan, 2005). The underlining principle of IRI programmes is
participation – both teacher and learner participate throughout the learning process.
Siteresources.worldbank.org described how IRI works:

…an IRI program might achieve interactivity by having a group of students

manipulate locally gathered materials such as rocks and bottle caps; participate in
games; listen to and respond to information, stories, and exercises that are guided
by radio characters; and interact with other students in the class. In some cases,

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 student workbooks, posters, and wall friezes are provided to support and enhance
the learning (p.15).

Again, in addition to that, IRI combines radio broadcasts with active learning to improve
educational quality and teaching practices. In Nigerian programmes in IRI category, are used to
teach basic primary subjects and audiences of all ages, as well as hard-to-reach and out-of-school
populations. For instance, Mooko Mooka is strictly directed to illiterate adults with
concentration on primary subjects like mathematics and social study. So what are the
implications of IRI for education in Nigeria? These include among others:

Incentives for investing in IRI include its cost-effectiveness. In other words, because IRI
can be broadcast to large audiences across a country, the cost per student is often low in
comparison with other options for improving the quality of instruction.

IRI is a proven, effective strategy for reaching children and youths who do not have
access to formal schooling and a significant number of “secondary” audiences also
benefit from the radio lessons.

IRI also helps build capacity within education communities to enable them to embrace
new approaches, innovations and pedagogical thinking.
2.12.3 Problems with Using Radio for Instruction

Just as effective communication can be affected by hearing/listening, so also can the use of radio
for learning be affected by problems associated with listening. Figure six shows the various
problems that can affect both the instructor and the learner.

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 Meaning 1

encoding: Communication losses

due to sender’s lack of skill in
expressing the idea

hearing: communication losses due to

masking, auditory fatigue, hearing
impairement etc

listening: communication losses due to receiver’s

lack of listening skill

decoding: Communication losses due to receiver’s

lack of skills in comprehending the idea

M2

Figure 4: The Physiological Process of Human Hearing

Source: Heinich, Molenda, Russell (1983)

Meaning 1: the ideas that the sender intends to convey

M2 (Meaning 2): the ideas as received and comprehended by the receiver

The above diagram shows that hearing and listening can be impaired during learning and the
impairments act like filters, reducing the perceived meaning to a small fraction of the original
intended meaning. By implication the quality of the encoded message is affected by the ability of
the sender to express the message clearly and logically. Heinich, Molenda & Russell (1985)
further explain situations in which the instruction can be affected. According to them, the

xv
message can be affected by the inability of the sender/instructor to present the message in a way
that will aid learning on the part of the receiver; the message can also be affected by the
receiver’s listening skills or lack of them. In- ability to think ahead or interference from thoughts;
if the message is not within the learner’s experiential range; the transmission process especially
if there are technical hitches; and noise from the environment that can interfere with learning
(Heinich, Molenda & Russell (1985).

In Nigeria, attempts have been made in the past, to identify major obstacles to successful
educational broadcasting to schools and many mass mobilization programmes embarked upon by
different governments. The problems which limit the objectives of educational broadcasting in
Nigeria include

Most Educational Television (ETV) projects were hurriedly embarked upon by

politicians who are only concerned with winning political support rather than genuine
interest in the literacy skill of the masses.

Lack of adequate planning: another problem is lack of adequate planning which is the
offshoot of insincere intentions of the Nigerian politicians.

Lack of cooperation among various agencies: According to Onabajo (2002), “information

officers, producers and other government and private personnel responsible for the
programme design and packaging make themselves the sole determinants of the needs of
their audience without recourse to them” (p.52). By implication, the absence of
cooperation among the agencies more often leads to program failure.

Another problem identified by Onabajo (2002) is the use of inaccessible channels to

transfer the message to the target audience (p.52).

Information officers, news producers and other government and private personnel
responsible for information and message design and packaging make themselves the sole
determinants of the needs of their audience without recourse to them (Onabajo, 2002,
p.37).

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 Little or no inquiry is made into the nature of the audience before messages are
conceptualized and they assume that if the message makes sense to them, it should
achieve its purpose.

The non-participation of the message-receiver in the information content is also a barrier

to message interpretation and adoption.

2.13 Wilbur Schramm on Effective Communication

Writing on the role of information in national development, Schramm (1964) asserted that “an
enormous amount of skills training and education must go on in any new nation that yearns to go
upward” (p.29). According to him, the human factor must be developed both in spirit and
potentialities if a nation aspires to grow economically, politically, materially and culturally.
Schramm postulated a model of communication process which can be applied to any
communication activities, especial educational communication.

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Figure 5: Schramm’s Model of Communication
Source; Schramm, 1954

According to Schramm, both the source (facilitator/instructor) and the receiver (learners) are
vital to the success of educational communication. However for communication to take place
the facilitator must use instructional materials that are within the learners’ field of experience and
there is no communication unless the learners’ field of experience and the senders field of
experience overlaps.

According to Schramm, the learner’s field of experience may aid or interfere with his/her
interpretation of the message. Learners’ field of experience would include knowledge,
experience and cultural practices, social background, beliefs, values and rules. Schramm also, by
the model, suggested context of relationship. Here Schramm suggested that the instructor and
the learner must be close or have mutual relationship that will prepare the ground for learning.
The context of feedback in Schramm model would tell the instructor whether learning has taken
place or not.

2.14 Literacy by Radio: Current Status

The advocacy for literacy by radio originated, according to the document provided by the Lagos
State Agency for Mass Education, Alausa, Ikeja, from the observation that eradication of literacy
in Nigeria may not be realized at the specified time of 2015. This prompted the Federal
government to launch the project “Improving Access to Community and Literacy Using Radio”
in 2006.

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The idea of using the mass media for literacy delivery was conceived by Adult and Non-formal
Education Commission, Abuja (NMEC). According to the document, NMEC approached
UNESCO for partnership over the idea and UNESCO consented; and according to the then
Executive Secretary of NMEC, Dr. Ahmed Debisi Oyinlola, personnel were trained in different
local languages (Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Efik, Kanuri, Nupe and Kolokuma) and primer (texts) was
produced. Osun and Ogun states were the pilot states for the programme in the south-west zone.

2.14(i) Method Adopted on Radio Lagos Mooko Mooka

For method of learning, the Cuban method which is a mixed method in two phases was adopted.
The method includes the radio listening session and the face-to-face session. According
documents provided by the agency, the method recognizes that true education cannot be
separated from culture of the people, as both culture and education are interwoven. The report
says Nigeria decided to adopt the method basically because of this and since UNESCO (which
the agency is partnering with) is not only interested in community education as an integral
system of learning but is also encouraging all countries within the United Nations to do the same,
the method became the best approach to learning in Nigeria. The project’s methods are outline
below:

Starts from the main topic based on adult learner’s needs and motivation

The topic is closely related to the main picture on the top of the page of the primer;

From the picture, sentences are made;

From the sentences, key word(s);

The keyword(s) include(s) the vowels or letters to be taught in each lesson;

The vowels or letters must correspond with the number it has with the alphabets;

The guide table at the back page of the primer where the letters appear and its number on
the alphabets which is shown will help to establish the relationship between both easily;
and
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 There is no number to identify the pages on the primer; different symbols well known by
the learners are used instead; and every state in the country has it own peculiar symbol

The radio facilitator, according to the project should be: able to read and write in English and
local language; preferably a resident of the community and have knowledge about the culture of
the community; and respectful and respected in the community.

Others include have good communication skills; approachable; decent and polite; have interest in
the work and in the learners; friendly and accommodating; beat and decent in his/her dressing;
and a facilitator is the choice of the community he/she is to serve.

2.14 (ii) The Primer

According to the agency, seven language primers have evolved in the pilot literacy by radio
project. They are Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Nupe, Kolokuma, Efik and Kanuri. According to the
agency, (UNICEF), a field office is already developing other language primers for her focal
communities in Ikwere, Kalabari, Khana, Abua, Obolo, Ekpeye languages (Rivers state) as well
as Tiv, Igede and Idoma (Benue State). The primer is design in local language, which according
to the agency, is in accordance with the language policy in education, which states that basic
education should ideally be given first in the learners own language, then in the language of the
wider community and finally in the official language.

Today, all states of the federation have established a state agency for mass education in line with
Abuja NMEC guidelines and a radio literacy interactive programme –which is believed to be the
Nigerian hope of meeting EFA and Millennium Goals – is transmitted on state-owned radio
stations.

2.14 (iii) Expectations from State

According to the document provided by LAMED (n.d), the states are expected to carry out
certain obligations in order for the program to be successful in their states. These expectations
were stated as:

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 provision of free airtime with the state radio station of best coverage (6 slots weekly),

provision of radio sets for learners at 2000 learners /Local Government,

Federal Government gives support for use of one language for the project,

agency director to consult the Special Adviser on Education on what language the state
would use for the project’

state is to produce English and other new language primers using sample for their
enrolled learners within the scale- up,

the State is to bear the cost of running the State Technical Facilitators, and

State to sign a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) in which these commitments will

be spelt out during consultation workshop to seal up these agreements.

2. 15 Radio Lagos

Radio Lagos began operation in 1977 as an off-shoot of the old Nigerian Broadcasting
Corporation (NBC). At its inception, the station operated on two Amplitude Modulation (A.M.)
frequencies (990khz.303mtrs and 918khz.32.7mtrs). This was the situation until 2001 when the
station began its FM station. According to the official website of the station, “the need to
repackage and assume a new station led to the birth of the new Radio Lagos 107.5 Fm (Tiwa
n'Tiwa) under the control of the Lagos State Radio Service.”

Radio Lagos enjoys a unique status as the first predominantly specialized language station with
over 98% of its programmes in Yoruba and Ogu languages, and just about 2% for English
bulletins. It targets Yoruba speaking listeners in Nigeria and in the Diaspora.

Although the station has always transmitted educational programmes to its teeming listeners
across the state and beyond, its first instructional programme however is Mooko Mooka which is
an instructional programme directed mainly at adults. The station also has another instructional
programme called Kokoka which is directed at elementary pupils. Yoruba dun ka, another
xxi
programme which targets students in secondary school, offers Yoruba literature and a secondary
target audience who love and appreciate Yoruba literature.

2.16 Lagos State

The present day Lagos state has a higher percent of this sub-group who allegedly migrated to the
area from Isheri along the Ogun River. The city is believed to be the most populous city in
Nigeria. According to Campbell (2012) the 21 million estimated population of Lagos put the city
as the largest in Africa and according to citymayor.com the seventh in the world.

While the state is essentially a Yoruba-speaking environment, it is a socio-cultural melting pot,

attracting both Nigerians and foreigners alike. Indigenous inhabitants include the Aworis and
Eguns in Ikeja and Badagry divisions respectively, with the Eguns being found mainly in
Badagry. There is also an admixture of other pioneer settlers collectively known as the Ekos. The
indigenes of Ikorodu and Epe divisions are mainly the Ijebus with pockets of Eko-Awori settlers
along the coastland and riverside areas.

In a recent research, the number of illiterates in the state is put at 13 per cent of the state
population. This percentage amounts to three million residents. The state population is put at 21
million. To combat illiteracy in the state, the state government unveiled an adult literacy
programme, which is designed to effectively educate the said three million non-literate residents.
The programme is called “Lagos is learning”.

According to the state governor, Mr. Akinwunmi Ambode, the objective of the programme is to
achieve 100 per cent literacy by 2019. He added that the state will also increase the adult
education learning centers from 522 to 1,000, while additional 1,000 teachers will be engaged.
Also, as part of the strategy, the programme would be free of charge for participants so as to
accommodate more people.

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2.17 Theoretical Framework

A theory, according to Severin and Tankard (2001) is “a set of ideas of systematic

generalizations based on scientific observation leading to further empirical research” (p. 32). By
implication, our observation may lead us to search or discover more about the phenomena.
Theory is important in a research for the following reasons:

Theory provides concepts to name what we observe and to explain relationships

between concepts. Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how
to bring about change. Theory is a tool that enables us to identify a problem and
to plan a means for altering the situation (jou.ufl.edu, 1996).

Theory is to justify reimbursement to get funding and support - need to explain

what is being done and demonstrate that it works - theory and research
(jou.ufl.edu, 1996).

Theory is to enhance the growth of the professional area to identify a body of

knowledge with theories from both within and without the area of distance
learning. That body of knowledge grows with theory and research (jou.ufl.edu,
1996).

It increases its ability to solve other problems in different times and different
places (jou.ufl.edu, 1996).

2.18 Adult Learning Theory (Andragogy) – Brief History

The word andragogy was first use by German teacher, Alexander Kapp in 1833 to describe
Plato’s education theory. The word andragogy refers to “man led” indicating maturity. Kapp’s
use of andragogy had some currency but it was disputed and fell into disuse (Smith, 2010). The
word andragogy again reappeared in 1921 in Rosenstock work where he used the term to refer to
special requirements needed in adult education. The special requirement Rosenstock-Huessy
referred to in his work are special teachers, methods and philosophy for adult education.

xxiii
Smith (2010) recalls that Eduard Lindeman was the first writer in English to pick up on
Rosenstock’s use of the term. Lindeman was reported to have used the word just two times in all
his work. In France, Yugoslavia and Holland, the term was used extensively ‘to refer to the
discipline which studies the adult education process or the science of adult education’ (Smith,
2010).

Although Knowles has started work on adult education with the intent to develop a theory about
adult education, he did not give his theory a name until he met Dusan Savicevic who introduced
him to the term "andragogy" in 1966. It was Savicevic who explained to Knowles, how the term
was used in the European context. In his first used of the word in 1967, it was spelt "androgogy"
to explain his theory of adult education. Then, after consulting Merriam-Webster, he corrected
the spelling of the term to "andragogy" and continued to make use of the term to explain his
collection of ideas about adult learning.

2.18.1 Knowles Andragogy Learning Theory

Andragogy is the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience.
The idea behind andragogy is interactivity –that is, learning should be an active rather than a
passive process. Unlike pedagogy (teaching children), where the teacher is the focal point,
andragogy shifts the focus from the teacher to the learner.

There are two primary understandings of andragogy - the science of understanding (= theory)
and supporting (= practice) lifelong and life-wide education of adults; and a specific theoretical
and practical approach, based on a humanistic conception of self-directed and autonomous
learners and teachers as facilitators of learning.

In his work, Knowles (1984) developed a set of five assumptions that enveloped his concept of
andragogy. The assumptions are as follows:

Adults are self-directed learners;

Adult learners bring a wealth of experience to the educational setting;

Adults enter educational settings ready to learn;

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 Adults are problem-centered in their learning; and

Adults are best motivated by internal factors.

Figure 6: The Five Concepts of Andragogy

Source Knowles, 1984

Learners are Self-directed: As people grow, they move from being a dependent personality
toward being more self-directed. Adults need to be responsible for their own
decisions and to be treated as capable of self-direction. The point at which a person becomes an
adult, according to Knowles, psychologically, ‘is that point at which he perceives himself to be
wholly self-directing (Smith, 2010). When an adult reaches that point in his life he expects others
to also perceive him so (Knowles 1983). Knowles (1975) described self-concept or self-directed
as:

a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of
others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating their learning goals,
identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and
implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes
(Bates, 2009).

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Invariably, Knowles believes that learning will be more successfully if there is some form of
collaborative effort between learner and instructor; he therefore recommended that the learning
environment be collaborative, welcoming and one of mutual respect and trust (Blondy, 2007).

Adults Bring Experience with Them to learning environment: as people grew they amass a
growing set of experiences that provide a fertile resource for learning. In adult education,
according to Knowles (1980) adults learn more effectively through experiential techniques such
as discussion or problem solving (p.43). Knowles viewed the experiences adult learners bring to
learning environment as an important resource for both learner and the facilitators (p.48).
Furthermore, he acknowledged that in many instances adults were the best resources for each
other as a result of their wealth of experience, he therefore encouraged and emphasized group
discussion and collaborative assignments that would draw on the heterogeneity and expertise
within groups (Blondy, 2007, p.121).

Readiness to learn: As people mature, they are more interested in learning subjects that have
immediate relevance to their jobs or personal lives

Orientation to learning: As people mature, their time perspective changes from gathering
knowledge for future use to immediate application of knowledge. As such, adult learners become
more problem-centered rather than subject-centered (Knowles, 1980). According to Blondy
(2007, p. 124), Knowles (1984) believed that adults normally did not pursue learning simply for
the sake of learning, but because they needed to immediately apply what they were learning to
life situations. In Knowles’ view adult learning will achieve success if learning experiences are
structured around life situations versus subject matter and that learners desire to be aware of the
relevance of what they learn in relation to their life tasks or goals.

Motivation to learn: As people mature, they become more motivated by various internal
incentives, such as need for self-esteem, curiosity, desire to achieve, and satisfaction of
accomplishment

The five basic concept identified above clearly shows that adult education must be participatory
in nature, that is, the learner must be involved at every stage of the activities that would change

xxvi
his/her life positively. It is also important that the educators have a good understanding of these
concepts and incorporate them into their teaching style if they want to achieve the goals of the
learning exercise. In line with the distinct features of these special learners, Knowles (1984) spelt
out four principles that are applied to adult learning. The principles is presented in Figure 7

Adults need to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their instruction.

Experience (including mistakes) provides the basis for learning activities.

Adults are most interested in subjects that have immediate relevance to their job or
personal life.

Adult learning is problem-centered rather than content-oriented (Kearsley, 2010).

Figure 7: Knowles four Principles of Andragogy

Source: Knowles, 1984

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2.18.2 Issues with Knowles’ Andragogy Learning Theory

Smith (2010) identified three key issues in Knowles andragogy learning theory. The first issue as
pointed out by Marriam and Caffarella (1991, p. 249) is that Knowles’ conception of andragogy
is an attempt to “build a comprehensive theory (or model) of adult learning that is anchored in
the characteristics of adult learners” (Marriam and Caffarella, 1991, 250). Knowles concern was
that adults learned differently from children.

The second issue Smith (2010) identified in Knowles’s theory is his “extensive use of a model of
relationships derived from humanistic clinical psychology – and, in particular, the qualities of
good facilitation argued for by Carl Rogers.” According to Smith (2010):

Knowles adds in other elements which owe a great deal to

scientific curriculum making and behaviour modification (and are
thus somewhat at odds with Rogers). These encourage the learner
to identify needs, set objectives, enter learning contracts and so on.
In other words, he uses ideas from psychologists working in two
quite different and opposing therapeutic traditions (the humanist
and behavioural traditions). This means that there is a rather dodgy
deficit model lurking around this model (Smith, 2010, para. 4).

Thirdly, Hartree (1984) asserts that there is no clear cut in Knowles andragogy theory as to
whether it is a theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory or model of teaching
(Merriam & Cafferella, 1991, 250). Smith (2010) provides further insight into the problem
identified by Hartree. According to him: “We can see something of this in relation to the way he
has defined andragogy as the art and science of helping adults learn as against pedagogy as the
art and science of teaching children. There is an inconsistency here” (Smith, 2010).

2.18.3 Application of Andragogy Learning Theory to Study

Adult learners are usually those who have a second chance to either learn how to read and write,
or those who want to complete their programme which they had earlier abandoned, or those who
want to keep their job yet pursue academic desires. The characteristics of this category of

xxviii
learners make them special. Pappas (2013) asserts that adult learners have eight characteristics
which he identified as:

Adults want to have control over what they are exposed to: adult feel the need to
take responsibility for their lives and decisions and this is why it’s important for
them to have control over their learning (Pappas, 2013).

Adults are practical and results-oriented: adult learners are usually practical,
resent theory, need information that can be immediately applicable to their
professional needs and generally prefer practical knowledge that will improve
their skills, facilitate their work and boost their confidence (Pappas, 2013).

An adult learner is less open-minded and therefore more resistant to change.

According to him, “maturity and profound life experiences usually lead to
rigidity, which is the enemy of learning. Thus, instructional designers need to
provide the “why” behind the change, new concepts that can be linked to already
established ones, and promote the need to explore” (Pappas, 2013).

Adults tend to learn less rapidly with age; however, the depth of learning tends to
increase over time, navigating knowledge and skills to unprecedented personal
levels (Pappas, 2013).

Adults use personal experience as a resource: this factor is so important that he

adds that it’s crucial to form a “class with adults that have similar life experience
levels, encourage discussion and sharing, and generally create a learning
community consisting of people who can profoundly interact” (Pappas, 2013)

Learning in adulthood is usually voluntary.

Adult learner has multi-level responsibilities

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 Adult learners have high expectations. They want to be taught about things that
will be useful to their work, expect to have immediate results, seek for a course
that will worth their while and not be a waste of their time or money.

On the basis of these features, it is important that instructors/educators explain the reasons
behind the learning process which the programmes tried to do. Again, the nature of the
programmes take into account the wide range of different backgrounds of learners even
though the language of learning is Yoruba, however, because the language is what is spoken
by learners, learning materials and activities are designed in the language for self-learning.

2.19 Brief history of McGuire Information Processing Theory

Figure 8: McGuire Information Processing Theory

Source: McGuire (1968)

In 1968 William J. McGuire propounded information theory which posits that information
involves a variety of steps leading to adoption of a particular attitude that is being presented to
the receiver of the message. In 1968, McGuire came up with six steps to information processing,

xxx
and moved up the six steps to eight in 1976. The steps he presented in 1976 include are (i)
exposure (ii) perception (iii) comprehension (iv) agreement (v) retention (vi) retrieval (vii)
decision-making (viii) action. In 1989 McGuire improve upon the theory by adding additional
four steps to make it twelve. The twelve process are: (i) exposure to communication (ii)
attending to it (iii) liking or becoming interested in it (iv) comprehending it (v) skill acquisition
(learning how) (vi) yielding to it (attitude change) (vii) memory stage of content and/or
agreement (viii) information search and retrieval (ix) deciding on basis of retrieval (x) behaving
in accord with decision (xi) reinforcement of desired acts, and (xii) post-behavioural
consolidating.

2.19.1 McGuire Information Processing Theory

Initially when McGuire proposed the theory in 1968, the theory has just six steps. The steps are:

The message must be presented (presenting the problem of agenda control)

The message must be attended to (presenting the problem of inattention and selective
exposure)

The message must be comprehended (presenting the problem of selective perception)

The message must be accepted

The message must be retained

The message must lead to behavior change

According to Anaeto, Onabajo & Osifeso (2008), McGuire’s information-processing theory

gives us a good overview of the attitude-change process, “reminding us that it involves a number
of components” (p.82). The theory see media audience as actively processing information the
computer does, in that it receives input, processes, and delivers output. In other words,
information gathered is stored and processed by the brain, and finally brings about a behavioral
response (output). The general assumptions of information theory include:

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Information is processed in steps or stages
There are limits on how much information can be processed at each stage
The human information processing system is interactive.

There are three components of information processing theory. These are sensory memory,
working/short term memory and long term memory. In the case of sensory memory information
is gathered via the senses through a process called transduction. The signal is altered into a form
of information that the brain could process. These memories, usually unconscious, last for a very
short amount of time, ranging up to three seconds. Our sensory memory acts as a filter, by
focusing on what is important, and forgetting what is unnecessary. Lutz & Huit (2003) noted that
“stimuli that are not sensed cannot be further processed and will never become part of the
memory store” (p.3). They added that “this is not to say that only stimuli that are consciously
perceived are stored; on the contrary; everyone takes in and perceives stimuli almost
continuously” (p.3).

Short-term or working memory is the second stage of the information processing. According to
Lutz & Huit (2003), this stage is often viewed as “active or conscious memory because it is the
part of memory that is being actively processed while new information is being taken in” (p.4).
the third and final stage is the long term memory stage which Lutz & Huit (2003) said:

… houses all previous perceptions, knowledge, and information learned by an

individual, but it is not a static file system that is used only for information
retrieval…. In order to incorporate new information, long-term memory must be
in communication with short-term memory and must be dynamic” (p.5).

2.19.2 Application of Information Processing Theory to the Study

Nigeria houses a population of illiterates that is more than 57 million, and according to Mr.
Ojemakinde, nearly two thirds of these are girls and women, who generally are responsible for
nurturing and raising children. This means that the children of these women are unlikely to
benefit from motherly support for their education; they cannot check their children’s homework,
they are also unlikely to understand and recognize how to cooperate with government’s effort at
quality education for their children at all levels. Hence, the idea behind Mooko Mooka is to teach
xxxii
adult learners how to read, write and calculate through radio in Yoruba language. From a social
task perspective, the programme allows adult learners to improve culturally and socially, and
also from an educative task perspective, they are able to fight ignorance and develop their
society.

McGuire’s information processing theory is also about attitude change which stated that a
information must first be communicated to the target audience attitude and the target audience
must pay attention, understand the message must and accept the position in the message, retain
the content in the message and adopt the new position that will improve the attitude or skills of
the target audience.

2.20 Hovland’s Message Learning Theory

In their work, Hovland and his associates at Yale provided one of the first major theories of
attitude change. Their works was geared toward the effects of persuasive communication. The
theory posits that repetition of a message increases learning. For instance, in instructional
programs like English, the instructor is expected to repeat a word he/she wants the learner to
repeat more than once before asking the learner to say it. The more the instructor repeats the
word the more the message becomes clearer and the more the object of the programme is
achieved.

According to the Hovland, changes in opinions can result in attitude change depending upon the
presence or absence of rewards. The learning of new attitudes is no different in nature than any
other verbal or motor skill, except that opinions relate to a single proposition whereas other skills
involve a series of propositions. The acceptance of a new opinion (and hence attitude formation)
is dependent upon the incentives that are offered in the communication.

Attention Comprehension Yielding Retention

Figure 9: Assumption of Hovland’s (Message) Learning Theory

Source: Hovland, 1953

xxxiii
Basically, learning can not occur unless the learner goes through the four stages Hoveland and
his associates identified. According to web.stanford.edu, Hoveland’s learning theory posits that:

One must pay attention to the arguments & their components

(a) one must then comprehend the arguments

(b) (One must then mentally rehearse the arguments and conclusion, thereby
establishing a link between the issue and these implicit responses
Presumably establishes a memory trace for the arguments and
conclusion Leads to retention)

(c) One must then remember the argument & conclusion to be persuaded

If people are going to change, they need to be (1) confronted with attitude and (2)
requires reasons/motivation to change New Position + Motivation = Change

Anaeto, Onabajo and Osifeso (2008) summed up the assumptions of the theory into four points.
These are:

Persuasive communication becomes more effective with the use of positive or negative
reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding the receiver for making an
appropriate or desired response. Negative reinforcement involves, not punishment (at
least not initially), the provision of an opportunity to respond in an appropriate way – an
opportunity to make corrections.

Greater persuasive effect will be assured if specific reinforcements are tied to specific
desired responses.

Reinforcement provided immediately following the desired responses is likely to be more

effective than delayed reinforcements.

Timely feedback on evaluation of prior response can serve as positive or negative

reinforcement in shaping subsequent behavior.
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 People transfer positive or negative response from one situation to another (pp. 84-85).

2.20.1 Application of Hovland’s Message Learning Theory to Study

For learning to take place, the instructor must at first introduce the subject to the learner to
prepare the learner for the learning experience. Furthermore, it is also important to learning that
the instructor restate in various possible ways at every stage of learning for the learner to move
from the stage of awareness to the stage of understanding (comprehension) so as to see desired
change. These are the objectives of the programme, Moko Moka. Programme presenters not only
repeat certain areas of study but also, in line with Anaeto, Onabajo & Osifeso (2008) in the
summation of the theory, use positive reinforcements to encourage learner.

2.21 Empirical Review

Mohammed (2013), on the other hand wrote on the Challenges and Opportunities in the Use of
Radio Broadcast for Development in Ethiopia: Secondary Data Analysis. The study set out to
achieve three objectives which are to identify major impediments in using radio for
development; to find out how the impediments can be sorted out; to find out the unique
opportunities that are available within the media landscape of Ethiopia so as to employ radio
broadcasting in the fight against poverty. The study adopted the Secondary analysis, and data
was based on information that have been mainly collected and compiled by the Ethiopian Central
Statistic Authority (1994), Population and Housing Census and 2007 Population and Housing
Census, Electoral Reform International Services (ERIS), Ethiopia Media Mapping 2011 and
Audience Survey Ethiopia 2011, and Ethiopian Broadcast Authority.

He identified and discussed the five radio strategies identified by McAnany along with how radio
is used in the country. Data gathered and interpreted showed that 68.5 percent of the urban and
only 30.1 percent of the rural households had radio while 84 percent of the population was living
in rural Ethiopia. The study also noted that “the number of households who have radio (30.1
percent) in the rural areas is almost similar to the number of households without radio (31.5
percent) in the urban areas”. By implication, more than two-third of the rural households are not

xxxv
active listeners.” To remedy this problem the researcher suggested the sales of radio receiver to
the rural dwellers at reduced prices.

The study also revealed that in Ethiopia there is no strategic radio programme. It observed that
the country’s broadcast system embraced the open broadcast system which follows “a shot -in-
the-dark approach” to radio programming. It also stated that the programmes are of low quality
and the content tends more toward propaganda than development. The study concluded and
recommended that the use of radio is unlikely to be successful in informing and educating the
public in general in related to development issues “as long as the broadcaster in Ethiopia has
employed an Open Broadcasting Strategy”. This according to Mohammed (2013) is because, the
importance and quality of radio programmes is not a guarantee that millions of people will listen
(p.27).

The fact that the writer chose to use secondary data creates a loophole in the work. Data
gathered by government agencies, sometimes in Africa can not be relied upon as the true figure.
Some may be manipulated for political reasons. In addition to that, suggestions that the country
broadcast industry operates an open broadcast system suggested that the researcher must have
used content analysis to determine the direction of programme. If the researcher did adopt this
method but neglect to point this out is a failing on the part of the writer. Again, for a study like
this (even with the few that have radio receiver) a survey would have given a clearer picture of
the opportunities of using radio for developmental programmes. Lastly the researcher failed to
show the theoretical underpinning of the study. This is a set back for a huge study as this.

xxxvi
Again, Usha Chandar & Ramesh Sharma (2003) carried out a research on Bridges to Effective
Learning Through Radio with Indira Gandhi National Open University as a case study. The
university was chosen specifically because of its uniqueness. The university was allotted 40 FM
radio stations from which to broadcast educational programmes for the benefit of students and
general public in India. This study examines the results of a survey conducted to obtain feedback
from a representative sample of the Gyan Vani network's projected audience. According to the
researchers, the survey focused on “audience's perceived need for a radio channel dedicated
exclusively to educational programming and also provided an opportunity for respondents to
suggest possible programme content and formats” (Chandar & Sharma, 2003). For the study, a
sample of 47 respondents was selected that is representative of all learner- and socio-economic
groups. The sample was limited and drawn from a geographic area within the radius in and
around the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University campus at Coimbatore, the proposed site of Gyan
Vani’s first and main broadcast centre. The sample size was made up of 23 (49 percent) female
and 24 (51 percent) male (Chandar & Sharma, 2003).

In relation to listening pattern, the study found out that about 55 percent (26) of respondents
reported that they were regular listeners of radio. Eleven respondents (23 per cent) reported that
they listened to radio occasionally. The main reason cited for ‘not listening’ was that some
owned no radio sets; whilst others listen only to news, music, or cricket commentary, during
power cuts when other forms of electronic media were not available. Ten (21 per cent)
respondents reported they were non-listeners, even though some owned radios. Twelve (26 per
cent) respondents indicated that they preferred to listen to radio alone; however, of this group,
some reported that they are forced to listen to radio with their family, usually because only one
radio set was available in the household. A significant number of respondents (51 per cent)
reported that they preferred listening to the radio with their family and friends.

The study further revealed that when the respondents were asked about a radio station devoted to
educational programming, majority of respondents indicated approval, a finding the researcher
say supports the need for such educational broadcast service. When the respondents were
however asked whether radio should be used for educational purposes “nearly half of those
surveyed did not favour the use of FM radio”. The result showed that respondents viewed radio

xxxvii
as a “news source domestically (inside India), and foreign (outside India). Twenty-three per cent
felt that radio helps them to relax and unwind, whereas 13 per cent indicated that radio was
strictly used for leisure. Seventeen per cent said that radio helps them to concentrate on their
studies or work” (Chandar and Sharma, 2003).

Finally findings showed that respondents did not want ‘fancy’ anchors to host educational
broadcasts. Instead, respondents were generally looking towards Gyan Vani programmes to
fulfill both personal and defined educational goals (for example certified vocational courses,
coaching for entrance exams, current information on careers, courses among others).

Chandar and Sharma (2003) did a major thing in this study; they designed the questionnaire by
incorporating and measuring different variables defined in Gyan Vani’s objectives. It was this
values they tried to find out if they have been achieved through the programmes the stations
transmit. In addition to that, the study revealed that most times educational radio programmes are
broadcast at a time not preferred by the target audience. Alhassan (2012) carried out a study on
the factors affecting adult learning and their persistence by reviewing literatures on the concept
of adult learning and systems theories. The study also provides factors influencing their
persistence in schooling. The researcher argued that though adults are self directed and base
their learning on experiences, they need institutional and environmental support to continue to
graduation.

On the other hand, Nwaerondu & Thompson (1999) carried out a study on the “use of
educational radio in developing countries: lessons from the past”. The study identified and
discussed three methods used. Thee methods include farm radio forum, education and

communication and dialogue and innovation. The study asserted that there is no single "best"
format for utilizing educational radio, adding that each situation in which educational radio is
employed will be unique in some important ways which will impact instructional design
considerations. The study concluded that regrettably, many of the studies which have
investigated the effectiveness of educational radio have not been carefully designed and their
results must be considered with some caution. Nwaerondu & Thompson (1999) noted that there
is a considerable support for the view that radio is an effective medium of instruction and its

xxxviii
widespread availability developing countries underscores its educational potential and

importance.

2.22 Gaps in Literature

One basic fact that has been established in this review is that adult like to be given the
opportunity to use their existing knowledge and various life experiences in literacy acquisition. It
was also established that radio can be used to reach a large number of people, particularly those
in the remote areas. In addition to that radio, particularly in developing countries where electric
power is erratic, can be powered with batteries during listening period.

The review also revealed that most times the station time of transmission and the learners’
available time to listen to the programme often time do not match up. Also, educational
programmes targeting specific audience would be useless to them unless the target audience have
the receiving set to listen to the programme.

Also established in this review is the fact that the instructor must be friendly and respectful and
that the primer and the programme must be designed to match the characteristics of the audience
as well as motivate the learners to want to acquire new skill. Finally, there must be popular
participation in which everyone (including learner) are involved in the conceptualization,
execution and evaluation of learning content.

xxxix
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY
Research method is the scientific approach adopted in the gathering and analysing of data
gathered for the study. This chapter covers the following topics: research design, population of
study, sample size determination, sampling techniques, data collection instrument, validity,
reliability, administration of instrument and method of data presentation.

3.1 Research Design

This study set out to establish whether the use of radio can successfully improve the literacy skill
of adult learners. In view of the nature of this study, methodological triangulation was adopted.
Zohrabi (2013) calls this method “mixed method research” approach or methodological
triangulation in which the researcher uses two or more methods in a study in order to check
results. The study made use of survey, non-participant observation and interview for the purpose
of data gathering. This is because, it is generally believed that if results are checked or validated
using different methods, one can be more confident of the outcome of the study.

Rothbauer (2008) avers that triangulation refers to the application and combination of several
research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon. In other words, methodological
triangulation can be employed in both quantitative (validation) and qualitative (inquiry) studies.

xl
Cohen and Manion (2000) define triangulation as an "attempt to map out, or explain more fully,
the richness and complexity of human behavior by studying it from more than one standpoint."
Altrichter, Feldman, Posch and Somekh (2008) contend that triangulation "gives a more detailed
and balanced picture of the situation.” In addition to that it is a “method of cross-checking data
from multiple sources to search for regularities in the research data” (O’Donoghue & Punch,
2003).

In their explanation of methodological triangulation, Guion, Diehl and McDonald (2013) stated
that methodological triangulation involves the use of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative
methods to study the program. By implication, the researcher adopted non-participant
observation, descriptive survey and in-depth interview. The researcher adopted non-participant
observation because it is expedient to see the learners in real life situation to verify whether
learning activities correlate with the information that was supplied by the learners and the
different agencies involved in the programme. As noted by Zohrabi (2013) observation like
every other research instrument, has its own strengths and weaknesses. According to him
“observational data represent a firsthand picture of the events, is carried out in a natural field
setting and it enable the researcher to obtain contextual factors” Zohrabi (2013). Zohrabi (2013)
however, noted that analyzing observational data is time-consuming and that observing large
population is difficult. In addition to that, Zohrabi (2013) noted that there is “the possibility of
observer bias, reactivity and investigator effects on the students and instructors among others.”

In line with Fraenkel and Wallen (2003), the researcher adopted the broad focus observation
which they said is about concentrating on an overall picture of what is happening in the
classroom. Thus, the researcher adopted Zohrabi (2013) suggestion on factors to be observed
which include: “the observer’s goal, the research objectives, research questions, the inquirer’s
field of study, practical issues, researcher’s personal impressions, and the topic under study”
among other factors.

The content categories observed include:

Use of the radio IRI during classroom session;

xli
 Teaching techniques used at the center: this is in relation to how relevant it is with the
techniques used on radio and learning skills acquired;

Distribution of classroom time: between IRI listening session and classroom instruction;

Relationship between learner and instructor.

In addition to the non-participant observation that the researcher used, the in-depth interview was
also used to gather information from the representative of Lagos State Agency for Mass
Education and the producer of the programme on Eko FM.

Finally, the descriptive survey method was also adopted. The method according to Babbie (2000)
is probably the best method available to the social researcher who is interested in collecting
original data for describing a population too large to observe directly. Berger (2000) as cited by
Johnson (2012:59) identified four key points in the purpose of survey research. The key points
are:

It is done to collect data and analyze social, economic, psychological, technical,

cultural and other types of data.

It is based on interviewing people (respondents) and using them for information.

It is done with representative sample of a population studied.

It is assumed that information obtained from sample is valid for the general
population.

3.2 Population

The population for this study consisted of all adults learners in Lagos State currently undergoing
study under the Lagos State Agency for Mass Education programme. The total number of
learners going through this programme is 604. The total number of adult learners (male and
female) and the number of learning centers is presented in Table 3.1.

xlii
Table 3.1: Enrollment for Mass Literacy Adult by Gender in 2015

S/N LGA No of Center M F T

1 Agege 2 21 18 39

2 Ajeromi 0 0 0 0

3 Alimosho 2 13 14 27

4 Amuwo 1 31 30 61

5 Apapa 1 10 18 28

6 Badagry 3 29 38 67

7 Epe 1 21 19 40

8 Eti-Osa 0 0 0 0

9 Ibeju-Lekki 1 21 33 54

10 Ifako- Ijaye 1 11 19 30

11 Ikeja 2 12 28 40

xliii
 12 Ikorodu 2 21 30 51

13 Kosofe 1 1 4 5

14 L/Island 0 0 0 0

15 L/Mainland 1 6 5 11

16 Mushin 1 3 11 14

17 Ojo 2 16 28 44

18 Oshodi/Isolo 1 16 11 27

19 Somolu 0 0 0 0

20 S/Lere 1 26 40 66

Total 23 258 346 604

Source: Lagos state Agency for Mass Education (2016)

Key

M= male learners

F= female learners

T= total number of learners

LGA= local government area

No. of centers = number of centers in each local government where learning takes place

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

The purposive sampling technique which Onabajo (2010) said can be used when a researcher
wants to sample a population with desired traits was adopted in this study. Thus, the learning
centers, the interviewees and the sample size were purposively selected. For learning centers,
three centers were selected purposively. Two centers were selected in Ikeja and one in Agege
Local Government Areas. The interviewees were selected based on their direct involvement with
Mooko Mooka and the learning and teaching process. For Eko FM, the producer of Mooko
xliv
Mooka, Mr. Olumuyiwa Ojekunle was interviewed, while for the Lagos State Agency for Mass
Education, one of the chief executive officers coordinating the programme, Mr. Akintunde
Johnson was chosen because of his wide experience and his direct involvement in the
supervision of the learning centers and programme production.

For the selection of the learners, the researcher adopted the total population sampling technique
otherwise called enumeration, which is a type of purposive sampling technique. This means that
all the 604 learners were included in the study. This is attributed to the fact that the population
has specific characteristics such as the fact that they are adult learners seeking for second
opportunity to learn how to read and write and they are economically active. Again, the method
was adopted because the population is relatively small.

3.4 Instrumentation

The instruments used for data gathering were: questionnaire (for the learners that constituted the
604 respondents), interview schedule (for staff of the agency and Eko FM that were selected) and
observation (for observing both learners and instructors in a real live situation). The
questionnaire was designed using the Likert scale as well as open and close-ended questions
desogned to elicit responses that will provide answers to the research questions raised in chapter
one. According to Osuala (2005) “the questionnaire is advantageous whereon the sample size is
large enough to make it uneconomical for reason of time or funds to observe or interview every
subject” (p.23). The questionnaire was designed in English and translated into Yoruba language,
the language used for teaching and learning.

On the other hand, the interview schedule will guide the interview sessions and the questions
therein were designed to elicit opinions, feelings and beliefs of the respondents. Although there
are many methods used to gather information in non-participant observation technique, the
researcher will adopt the Office for Standards in Education (OFSTED) inspections information
technique which according to revisesociology.com is a form of “quantitative non-participant
structured observation”. According to the site, OFSTED inspectors have half a dozen criteria to
look out for and grade each criteria 1-4, with 1 being outstanding and 4 meaning unsatisfactory;
observers will also add in some qualitative notes”. Thus, a form will be designed that will guide

xlv
the researcher based on the content categories identified earlier under 3.2(i). This form will
enable the researcher to compute what is observed.

3.5 Validity of the Instrument

The principles underlying naturalistic and/or qualitative research are based on the fact that
validity is a matter of trustworthiness, utility and dependability that the evaluator and the
different stakeholders place into it (Zohrabi, 2013). Also Merriam (1998) noted that in
qualitative research “reality is holistic, multidimensional and ever-changing” (Zohrabi, 2013).
This is perhaps why Zohrabi (2013) asserted that “it is up to the researcher and research
participants who attempt to build validity into the different phases of the research from data
collection through to data analysis and interpretation”.

Scholars like Merriam (1998) recommended six stages: triangulation, member checks, long-term
observation, peer examination and participatory or collaborative modes of research and
researcher’s bias; however, the researcher adopted face and content validity. This is related to a
type of validity in which different elements, skills and behaviors are adequately and effectively
measured (Zohrabi, 2013). To this end, the research instruments was reviewed by the experts in
the field of mass coomunication; this included four lecturers in the Department of Mass
Communication and one in the field of education to ensure that the questions raised in the
questionnaire, interview guide and classroom observation content categories adequately
addressed the research questions and objectives of the study. Based on the reviewers’ comments
the unclear and obscure questions were corrected and the complex items reworked while those
that are redundant were discarded.

3.6 Reliability of the Instrument

A pilot study was carried out at one of the centers of learning to examine the internal
consistency of the instrument using Cronbach’s Alpha. The result of the analysis for the ten
items perceived literacy skills questionnaire was r=.64 while a fifteen items Radio Instruction
questionnaire bring Cronbach’s alpha of r=.76. According to Nunally (1978), alpha greater
than .70 is adequate for reliability coefficient. However, Downing (2004) and Field (2009)
suggest that alpha value greater than .60 is acceptable reliability coefficient. The values (.76) for
xlvi
Radio Instruction questionnaire and (.64) for perceived literacy skills questionnaire are all above
the threshold suggested by Downing (2004) and Field (2009).

Table 3.2: Item-Total Statistics for Perceived Radio Instructional Programme

Scale Mean Scale Corrected Cronbach's Cronbach

if Item Variance if Item-Total Alpha if Alpha
Items Deleted Item Deleted Correlation Item Deleted
B1 42.59 83.557 .562 .719
B2 42.31 86.799 .538 .724
B3 42.45 87.084 .553 .723
B4 42.00 87.646 .484 .729
B5 42.14 87.187 .447 .732
B6 42.80 92.680 .306 .746
B7 42.55 94.021 .317 .745
B8 42.35 91.543 .341 .743
B9 42.10 91.864 .358 .741
B10 41.79 93.124 .300 .747 .755
B11 41.77 93.781 .255 .751
B12 41.79 93.415 .280 .749
B13 41.96 94.623 .266 .749
B14 41.68 95.178 .213 .755
B15 41.87 97.055 .127 .764

Table 3.3: Item-Total Statistics for adult literacy skills acquisition

Items Scale Scale Corrected Cronbach's Cronbach

Mean if Variance if Item-Total Alpha if Alpha
Item Item Correlation Item
Deleted Deleted Deleted

D_1 26.87 33.247 .474 .584

xlvii
 D_2 26.43 33.595 .476 .585
D_3 26.21 32.335 .488 .577
D_4 25.91 31.033 .546 .561
D_5 25.75 31.074 .471 .575 .64
D_6 25.40 31.610 .454 .580
D_7 25.43 36.710 .131 .653
D_8 25.26 38.405 .026 .675
D_9 25.00 38.337 .053 .665
D_10 24.81 37.501 .084 .663

3.7 Data Collection Procedure

This study made use of both primary and secondary sources for the purpose of data collection.
The primary sources include the learners and the representative of the agencies. The secondary
sources include documented reference materials relevant to the subject matters of the study.

Copies of the questionnaire were administered at the learning centers by the agency instructors
who doubled as research assistants. The in-depth interview was conducted at the offices of the
delegated officer’s of Eko FM and the Lagos State Agency for Mass Education, while
observation was conducted at the learning centers (Ikeja and Agege) during learning sessions.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Data for the study was analyzed using version 21 of IBM’s Statistical Products and Services
Solution (SPSS) which is the software for analyzing mainly quantitative data. The software was
used because of its availability, flexibility and ease of use. Simple linear regression and chi-
square were used to test the null hypotheses. Data from the interview sessions were content
analyzed.

xlviii
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

xlix
Of the 604 copies of the questionnaire administered, 550 were returned, while 54 were not
returned. Out of the returned copies, 505 were found useful for data analysis, representing 83%.
The 45 that were not properly filled thus represented seven percent of the returned copies of the
questionnaire. The 505 copies of the questionnaire which were found usable were collated and
imputed into data spreadsheet software of the Statistical Product and Service Solutions, SPSS
version 21. Respondents’ responses were presented in simple frequency and percentage; this was
done to aid easy comprehension. Data from the observation sessions were also analyzed and
presented in simple frequency and percentages. For interview, two key members of the
programme were interviewed; they are Mr. Akintunde Akin-Johnson, one of the chief executive
officers at the agency and Mr. Olumuyiwa Ojekunle, a Principal Producer with Radio Lagos,
Ikeja. Data from the interview sessions were content analyzed.

The data were analyzed using cross tabulation based on the research questions in chapter one. To
test the hypotheses, simple linear regression and chi-square were used to test the null hypotheses.
The chapter is divided into four sections: section one focused on preliminary analyses; section
two deals with presentation of findings; section three, hypotheses testing and section four
discussions of findings.

4.1 Presentation of Findings based on the Responses from the Field Survey

This section clearly portrays the social-demographic characteristics of the respondents using a
table. It also revealed responses on the perceived radio instruction used and perceived literacy
skills. The analyses were done using frequency and percentage distribution of these variables.

Table 4.1: Frequency Distribution of Questionnaire and Response Rate

Questionnaire Distribution Frequency Percentage %

Number of Questionnaire Distributed 604 100%

l
Number of Questionnaire Returned 550 91%

Number of Questionnaire Not Properly Filled 45 7%

Total Number of Questionnaire Found Useful 505 83%

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

Table 4.1 presents the total number of copies of the questionnaire that were distributed. of the
604 copies 505 were returned representing 83% and those that were not properly filled by
respondents represented 7% (45).

Table 4.2 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Gender

Variable Level Frequency Percent %

Male 255 50.5

Gender Female 250 49.5

Total 505 100.0

Source: Researcher Field Survey, 2017

li
Figure 1: Distribution of Respondents’ Gender

The Table 4.2 and Figure 1 present the gender of the respondents; it shows that the total number
of respondents is 505(100.0%). The data shows that the male respondents are 255 (50.5%) and
the female is 250 (49.5%). This implies there are more male learners which is one percent higher
than that of their female counterpart.

lii
Table 4.3 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Age

Variable Level Frequency Percentage %

20-29 Years 30 5.9

30-39 Years 305 60.4

Age
40 and above 170 33.7

Total 505 100.0

Source: Researcher Field Survey (2017)

liii
Figure 2: Distribution of Respondents’ by Age

Table 4.3 shows the age distribution of the respondents. The Table reveals that 30 (5.9%) of the
respondents fall within the age range of 20-29 years. Also, it shows that 305 (60.5%) respondents
fall within the age range of 30-39 years. Furthermore, 170, representing 33.7% falls within the
age 40 and above. Thus, the Table reveals that respondents within the age range of 30-39 years
are higher in number than the respondents in the other two age categories.

liv
Table 4.4: Frequency Distribution of Respondent by Marital Status

Variable Level Frequency Percentage %

Single 30 5.9

Married 425 84.2

Marital Status Divorced 25 5.0

Widow/Widower 25 5.0

Total 505 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

lv
Figure 3: Distribution of Respondents’ Marital Status

Table 4.4 and Figure 3 present the marital status of the respondents, 30 (5.9%) of the total
number of respondents falls within the unmarried category; 425 (84.2%) of the total number of
respondents indicated that they are married; 25 (5.0%) of the total number of respondents
indicated that they are divorced and 25 (5.0%) of the total respondents are either
widows/widowers. Therefore, majority of the respondents are married.

lvi
Table 4.5 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Occupation

Variable Level Frequency Percentage %

Trading 355 70.3

Farming 95 18.8
Occupation
Employed 55 10.9

Total 505 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

lvii
Figure 4: Distribution of Respondents by Occupation

Table 4.5 and Figure 4 present the occupation of the 505 respondents in the study. 355 (70.3%)
of the respondents are engage in one form of trading or the other; 95 (18.8%) of the total number
of respondents indicated that their source of livelihood is farming and 55 (10.9%) of the total
number of respondents said they are employed. Thus, one can say that all he respondents are
active economically while majority of the respondents are traders.

lviii
Table 4.6: Respondents’ Educational Level before Joining Mooko Mooka

Response Frequency Percent % Valid Percent %

Yes 25 5.0 5.0

No 480 95.0 95.0

Total 505 100.0 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

Figure 5: Respondents Educational Level before Joining Adult Class

lix
Table 4.6 and Figure 5 revealed that 25 (5.0%) of the total number of respondents reported that
they have prior education before joining the class while 480 (95.0%) of the respondents claimed
otherwise. Therefore, majority of the respondents do not have prior education before joining the
class.

Table 4.7: Educational Level of Respondents before Joining Adult Class

Levels Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Primary 1-2 15 3.0 3.0 3.0

Primary 3-4 5 1.0 1.0 4.0

Primary 5-6 5 1.0 1.0 5.0

Home trained 210 41.6 41.6 46.5

None at all 270 53.5 53.5 100.0

Total 505 100.0 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey (2017)

Table 4.7 shows the level of education that the respondents have prior to joining adult literacy by
radio class. The Table reveals that 15 (3.0%) of the total number of respondents have primary 1-
2 level of education, 5 (1.0%) of the total number of respondents have primary 3-4 level of
education, 5 (1.0%) of the total number of respondents show that they have primary 5-6 level of
education while 210 (41.6%) of the total respondents show that they did not have any formal
education but they are home trained. However, it was observed in the table that 270 (53.5%) of
the total number of respondents showed that they did not have any form of education before

lx
joining the class. Therefore, based on the response, majority have no prior exposure to any form
of education before joining the adult class.

Table 4.8: Ability to Read and Write before Joining Adult Class

Response Frequency Percentage % Valid Percent %

Yes 25 5.0 5.0

No 480 95.0 95.0

Total 505 100.0 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

Table 4.8 is hinged on the analysis of whether the respondents could read and write before
joining adult literacy class by radio. The analysis reveals that 25 (5.0%) of the total respondents
claim to know how to read and write before joining the class, while 480 (95.0%) of the total
respondents claim otherwise. Therefore, majority of the respondents could be termed illiterates.

Table 4.9: Respondents’ Frequency of Listening to Mooko Mooka

Levels Frequency Percentage % Valid Percent(%

Once 184 36.4 36.7

Twice 112 22.2 22.4

Thrice 205 40.6 40.9

Total 501 99.2 100.0

Missing system 4 8.0

Total 505 100.0

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey (2017)

lxi
Table 4.9 deals with the question of the number of times the respondents listen to Mooko Mooka.
Data gathered revealed that 184 (36.4%) of the total number of respondents listen to the
programme once, 112 (22.2%) of the total number of respondents listen to the programme twice
per week, 205 (40.6%) of the total number of respondents listen to the programme thrice per
week and 4 (8.0%) of the total respondents do not indicate the number of times they listen to
Mooko Mooka. Therefore, majority of the respondents do listen to Mooko Mooka with more of
the respondents listening thrice per week.

lxii
 Table 4.10: Frequency Distribution Showing Respondents’ Perceived Radio Instruction use
S/N Items Strongly agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
agree disagree

F(%) F(%) F(%) F(%) F(%)

315(62.4%) 130(25.7%) 0(0%) 50(9.9%) 10(2.0%)
1 I enjoy listening to Mooko Mooka
instructor on radio
2 I listened to Mooko Mooka to revise 110(21.8%) 270(53.5%) 0(0%) 110(21.8%) 15(3.0%)
what I learnt in classroom
3 I hardly skip Mooko Mooka 160(31.7%) 125(24.8%) 0(0%) 200(39.6%) 20(4.0%)
4 Classroom instruction becomes 85(16.8%) 155(30.7%) 0(0%) 160(31.7%) 105(20.8%)
clearer after I listened to Mooko
Mooka.
5 Classroom instructor allows us to 145(28.7%) 115(22.8%) 0(0%) 110(21.8%) 135(26.7%)
listen to Mooko Mooka before
classroom instruction
6 I listen to radio instruction to 315(62.4%) 75(14.9%) 0(0%) 80(15.8%) 35(6.9%)
prepare for classroom instruction

7 Educational radio program, Mooko 95(18.8%) 285(56.4%) 0(0%) 75(14.9%) 50(9.9%)

Mooka is very crucial to my
learning
8 Mooko Mooka provides convenient 160(31.7%) 140(27.7%) 0(0%) 135(26.7%) 70(13.9%)
avenue for adult learning.
9 Radio instructor is friendlier and 90(17.8%) 170(33.7%) 0(0%) 180(35.6%) 65(12.9%)
competent
10 Learning through Mooko Mooka is 70(13.9%) 115(22.8%) 0(0%) 190(37.6%) 125(24.8%)
cost effective
11 I always create time to listen to 95(18.85%) 90(17.8%) 0(0%) 185(36.6%) 135(26.7%)
Mooko Mooka even if am busy
12 Listening to Mooko Mooka 85(16.8%) 102(20.8%) 0(0%) 170(33.7%) 145(28.7%)
convince me to join adult class
13 I find it very comfortable listening 75(14.9%) 120(23.8%) 0(0%) 230(45.5%) 80(15.8%)
to Mooko Mooka
14 I prefer the instructional approach 75(14.9%) 110(21.8%) 0(0%) 145(28.7%) 175(34.7%)
use on Mooko Mooka than the
instructional approach use in
classroom
15 Radio Mooko Mooka Instructional 110(21.8%) 115(22.8%) 0(0%) 120(23.8%) 160(31.7%)
approach motivate me to learn

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

lxiii
Table 4.10 reveals some set of questions that focused on perceived educational radio use,
analysis was conducted to determined the frequency and percentage of the responses given by
the respondents to each question. Responses to each question of the study is designed in five
likert scale in order to determine the level of the responses in terms of frequency and percentage
given by the respondents. For all the questions in Table 4.10 the undecided response returned
with 0%.

Statement one in the analysis of Table 4.10 focused on the opinion of the respondents with
regards to the radio instructor. The analysis reveals that 315 (62.4%) of the total number of the
respondents strongly agreed that they enjoyed listening to Mooko Mooka instructor on radio, 130
(25.7%) of the respondents agree they enjoyed listening to the instructor, 50 (9.9%) of the total
respondents disagree with enjoying listening to the instructor; and finally 10 (2.0%) of the total
respondents strongly disagree that they enjoyed listening to Mooko Mooka instructor on radio.
Therefore, majority of the respondents strongly agree to the fact that they enjoyed listening to
Mooko Mooka instructor on radio.

Statement two in Table 4.10 focused on the opinion of the respondents with regards to listening
to Mooko Mooka to re-examine what they have learnt in class. The analysis reveals that 110
(21.8%) of the total respondents strongly agree to using the programme for revision, 270 (53.5%)
of the total respondents agree; 110 (21.8%) of the total respondents disagree with using the
programme for revision; and finally 15 (3.0%) of the total respondents strongly disagree with
this statement. Therefore, the largest percentage of the respondents used the programme to re-
visit what they have learnt in class.

Statement three in Table 4.10 is hinged on the opinion of the respondents as regards skipping
Mooko Mooka radio programme. The analysis shows that 160 (31.7%) of the total number of
respondents strongly agree to hardly skipping Mooko Mooka radio instruction, 125 (24.8%) of
the respondents agreed to this, 200 (39.6%) of the total number of respondents disagree that they
hardly skip Mooko Mooka radio instruction and finally 20 (4.0%) of the total respondents
strongly disagree that they hardly skip Mooko Mooka radio instruction. Question four in the
Table shows the responses on whether classroom instruction becomes clearer after listening to
radio instruction. The analysis clearly shows that 85(16.8%) of the total respondents strongly
lxiv
agree that their classroom instructions become clearer after listening to radio instruction,
155(30.7%) of them agree to this, 160(31.7%) of the total respondents disagree that their
classroom instructions become clearer after listening to Mooko Mooka; and 105(20.8%) of the
total number of respondents strongly disagree with the statement. Therefore, majority of the
respondents disagree that their classroom instructions become clearer after they have listened to
radio instruction.

In statement five of Table 4.10, the concern was with whether classroom facilitator allows
learners to listen to Mooko Mooka before teaching. The analysis shows that a total number of
145(28.7%) respondents strongly agree listening to Mooko Mooka before the facilitator takes
them through the day’s instruction, 115(22.8%) of the respondents agree to this, 110(21.8%) of
respondents disagree; and 135(26.7%) of the total respondents strongly disagree with the
statement..

In statement six of Table 4.10, the concern was with the use of radio instruction. The analysis
reveals that 315(62.4%) of the total respondents strongly agree to the fact that they listen to radio
instruction to prepare for classroom instruction, 75(14.9%) of the total respondents agree to
listening to radio instruction to prepare for classroom instruction, 80(15.8%) of the total
respondents disagree with listening to the radio instruction; and finally 35(6.9%) off the total
respondents strongly disagree that they enjoy listen to radio instruction to prepare for the
classroom instruction. Therefore, majority of the respondents strongly disagree to the fact that
they listen to radio instruction to prepare them for classroom instruction.

The statement seven in the analysis Table 4.10 shows the responses on if Mooko Mooka is
crucial to their learning. The analysis clearly states that 95(18.8%) of the total respondents
strongly agree to the fact that Mooko Mooka is crucial to their learning, 285 (56.4%) of the total
respondents agree to this. 75 (14.9%) of the total respondents disagree that Mooko Mooka is
crucial to their learning; and 50 (9.9%) of the total respondents strongly disagree with the
statement of the question. Majority of the respondents disagree that Mooko Mooka is crucial to
their learning.

lxv
The statement eight in the analysis Table 4.10 above shows the responses on if Mooko Mooka
provides convenient avenue for adult learning. The analysis reveals that 160(31.7%) of the total
respondents strongly agree to the fact that Mooko Mooka provides convenient avenue for adult
learning; 140 (27.7%) of the total number of respondents agree to this, 135(26.7%) of the total
respondents disagree that Mooko Mooka provides convenient avenue for adult learning; and 70
(13.9%) of the total respondents strongly disagree with the statement of the question. Therefore,
majority of the respondents strongly agree to the fact that Mooko Mooka provides a convenient
avenue for adult learning.

Statement nine in Table 4.10 analysis focused on respondents’ opinion of radio instructor
perceived disposition and competence. The analysis reveals that 90(17.8%) of the total
respondents strongly agree that the instructor is friendlier and competent, 170(33.7%) of the total
respondents agree to that, 180(35.6%) of the total respondents disagree that the instructor is
friendlier and competent; and finally 65(12.9%) of the total respondents strongly disagree that
instructor is friendlier and competent. The findings showed that largest percentage of the
respondents disagree that the instructor of Mooko Mooka is friendlier and competent.

The statement ten of the analysis in Table 4.10 shows responses on whether Mooko Mooka radio
instruction is cost effective. The analysis shows that 70(13.9%) of the total respondents strongly
agree to the fact that Mooko Mooka radio instruction is cost effective, 115(22.8%) of the total
respondents agree to this, 190(37.6%) of the total respondents disagree that Mooko Mooka radio
instruction is cost effective; and 125(24.8%) of the total respondents strongly disagree that
Mooko Mooka radio instruction is cost effective. Statement eleven in Table 4.10 analysis on the
other hand, focused on the responses relating to the respondents ability to listen to the
programme even when they are busy. The analysis revealed that 95(18.8%) of the total
respondents strongly agree to the fact that they find time out of their busy schedule to still listen
to Mooko Mooka radio instruction, 90(17.8%) of the total number of respondents agree to also
creating time to listen to Mooko Mooka radio instruction out of their busy schedule, 185(36.6%)
of the total number of respondents disagree with creating time to listen to the radio instruction;
and finally 135(26.7%) of the total respondents strongly disagree that they manage to listen to
Mooko Mooka radio instruction even when they are busy.

lxvi
Statement twelve in the Table 4.10 analysis sought to determine respondents’ opinion on whether
Mooko Mooka convinced them to join adult class. The analysis showed that 85(16.8%) of the
total number of respondents strongly agree that listening to Mooko Mooka convince them to join
adult class, 105(20.8%) of the total number of respondents agree to that, 170(33.7%) of the total
respondents disagree that listening to Mooko Mooka convince them to join adult class, finally
145(28.7%) of the total respondents strongly disagree that listening to Mooko Mooka convince
them to join adult class. Therefore, largest percentages of the respondents agreed that listening to
Mooko Mooka convince them to join adult class.

In statement thirteen in the analysis of Table 4.10 the concern was with whether respondents
make contributions to the radio program, Mooko Mooka and classroom instruction. The analysis
reveals that 75(14.9%) of the total respondents strongly agree that they make suggestions on
Mooko Mooka and classroom instruction; 120(23.8%) of the total respondents agree to the fact
that they make suggestions on Mooko Mooka and classroom instruction; 230(45.5%) of the total
number of respondents disagree the statement; and finally 80(15.8%) of the total number of
respondents strongly disagree that they make suggestions on both Mooko Mooka and classroom
instruction.

The statement fourteen in the analysis in Table 4.10 focused on the opinion of the respondents’
on their preference of radio instruction to any other form of instructional approach. The analysis
reveals that 75(14.9%) of the total respondents strongly agree to the fact that they prefer radio
instruction to any form of instructional approach, 110(21.8%) of the total respondents agree to
that, 145(28.7%) of the total number of respondents disagree with the fact they prefer radio
instruction to any form of instructional approach; and finally 175(34.7%) of the total number of
respondents strongly disagree that they prefer radio instruction to any form of instructional
approach.

The statement fifteen in the analysis in Table 4.10 focused on the responses of the respondents
on whether Radio Lagos Mooko Mooka instructional techniques motivate them to learn. The
analysis revealed that 110(21.8%) of the total number of respondents strongly agree to the fact
that radio Mooko Mooka instructional techniques motivate them to learn, 115(22.8%) of the total
respondents agree that radio Mooko Mooka instructional techniques motivate them to learn;
lxvii
 120(23.8%) of the total respondents disagree that the techniques motivate them to learn; and
finally 160(31.7%) of the total respondents strongly disagree that radio Mooko Mooka
instructional techniques motivate them to learn. Therefore, majority of the respondents strongly
agree that radio Mooko Mooka instructional techniques motivate them to learn.

Table 4.11: Frequency Distribution Showing Respondents’ Perceived Literacy Skills

S/ Variable Excellent Good Satisfactory Need some Need much

N improvement improvement
In the past five months, how would
you rate yourself in the following
areas:

F (%) F (%) F (%) F (%) F (%)

1 Ability to read classroom instructional 385(76.2%) 75(14.9%) 0(0.0%) 45(8.9%) 0(0.0%)

materials

2 Ability to read other textbooks in the 140(27.7%) 280(55.4%) 5(1.0%) 60(11.9%) 20(4.0%)
primer category

3 Ability to read and comprehend the 150(29.7%) 230(45.5%) 0(0.0%) 85(16.8%) 40(7.9%)
primer

4 Ability to write in Yoruba Language. 145(28.7%) 90(17.8%) 0(0.0%) 200(39.6%) 70(13.9%)

5 Ability to write letters 75(14.9%) 140(27.7%) 0(0.0%) 175(34.7%) 115(22.8%)

6 Ability to communicate better in 75(14.9%) 115(22.8%) 0(0.0%) 190(37.6%) 125(24.8%)

Yoruba

7 Ability to listen to classroom 40(7.9%) 80(15.8%) 0(0.0%) 240(47.5%) 145(28.7%)

instruction

8 Ability to understand other 55(10.9%) 80(15.8%) 0(0.0%) 155(30.7%) 210(41.6%)

instructional materials not similar to
the primer

Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, 2017

Table 4.11 shows the analysis of the perceived literacy skills of the respondents, this section is
divided into ten subsections and each of this subsection has question with likert scale of five
stages.
lxviii
From Table 4.11, the first statement shows that 385(76.2%) of the total respondents indicated
that their skill to read classroom instructional materials is excellent, 75(14.9%) of the total
respondents claim that they are good; 45(8.9%) of the total number of respondents claim that
their ability and skills to read classroom instructional materials need some improvement.
Therefore, majority of the respondents is excellence in the skills and their ability to read
classroom instructional materials.

From the second statement on the Table, it was observed that 140(27.7%) of the total number of
respondents claim that their skills and ability to read textbooks is excellence; 280(55.4%) claim
that they are good, 5(1.0%) of the total respondents feel satisfactory about their skills and ability;
60(11.9%) of the respondents feel that their skills and ability need some improvement; and
20(4.0%) rate their ability and skills as needing much improvement. Therefore, majority of the
respondents feel that their skills and ability to read textbooks is excellent.

The third statement in Table 4.11 is hinged on the analysis of the ability of the respondents to
read and comprehend the primer used for learning. The analysis revealed that 150(29.7%) of the
total number of respondent are excellent on their skills and ability to read and comprehend the
primer; 230(45.5%) of the total respondents claim they are good; 85(16.8%) of the total number
of respondents claim they need some improvement in ability and skills to read and comprehend
the primer; and 40(7.9%) of the total number of respondents asserted that their skills and ability
to read and comprehension the passage in their primerneed much improvement.

The next subsection of the Table 4.11 focused on the analysis of the question pertaining to the
ability of the respondents to write in Yoruba Language. The table reveals that 145(28.7%) of the
total respondents are excellent in their ability to write in Yoruba language; 90(17.8%) of the total
respondents claim that they are good in this ability; whereas 200(39.6%) of the total respondents
feel that their ability to write in Yoruba language need some improvement; and finally 65
(12.9%) of the total respondents assert that their ability to write in Yoruba language needs much
improvement. Therefore, majority of the respondents have good ability for writing in Yoruba
language.

lxix
The analysis of the fifth statement on Table 4.11 focused on the ability of the respondents to
write letters. The Table shows that 75(14.9%) of the total respondents are excellent in this
ability; 140(27.7%) of the total respondents claim to be good in their ability; 175(34.7%) of the
total respondents believe their ability to write letters is in need of some improvement; and
115(22.8%) of the total respondents feel that their ability to write in letters need some
improvement. Thus, a large number of the respondents have good ability to write letters.
Statement seven of the analysis in Table 4.11 focused on the ability of the respondents to
communicate better in Yoruba. The Table 4.11 shows that 75(14.9%) of the total number of
respondents said they can do so excellently; 115(22.8%) of the respondents said their ability to
communicate well in Yoruba language can be categorized as good; 190(37.6%) of the total
respondents feel they need some improvement at communicating better in Yoruba; and finally
125(24.8%) of the total number of respondents believe that they need much improvement in the
ability to communicate better in Yoruba.

Statement ten on the Table was tailored towards the ability of the respondents to understand
instructional materials. The analysis revealed that 55(10.9%) of the total respondents are
excellent in the ability to understand instructional materials; 80(15.8%) of the total respondents
are good in the ability to understand instructional material; 155(30.7%) of the respondents
believe that they need some improvement in the ability to understand instructional materials; and
finally 210(41.6%) of the respondents feel that they need much improvement. However, none of
the respondents claimed that their ability to understand the instructional material is satisfactory.

4.2 Presentation of Findings Based on Non-participant Observation

This section of the chapter present findings from the non-participant observation carried out on
learners in their learning environments. Observation was carried out in three major aspects of
learning (a) teacher/teaching observation (b) learner and learning observation and (c) use of IRI
classroom. These categories where observed in three different learning centers and the findings
are presented below.

lxx
 Table 4.12: Teacher/Teaching Observation for Learning Center One

TO SMC TM PR ORG DTM TT PER SEN

Poor

Good

Very
Good

Excellent

Key

TO = Teaching observation

SMC= Subject matter content

TM = Teaching Methods

PR= Presentation

ORG= Organization

TT= Teacher Talk

PER= Personal

SEN= Sensitivity

The Table 4.12 shows the rating of teacher/ teaching observation, this section is divided into
subject matter content, teaching methods, presentation, organization, distribution of/ time
management, teacher talk, personal and sensitivity. It was observed from the analysis on the
Table that the facilitator in the first center expressed the subject matter contents excellently, the
facilitator used the same method as used on radio and she is good at presentation. Also, the Table
lxxi
showed that the facilitator is good at organization of learning activities and time management.
Furthermore, the facilitator was excellent at accepting learner’s feelings, asking questions among
others. In addition to that, the facilitator had good self-confidence and maintained professional
comportment in classroom. Finally, the teacher was very good at exhibiting sensitivity to
student’s personal culture, gender differences and disabilities.

The second phase of the observation was based on the observer opinion. This was divided into
three categories; strengths observed, suggestions for improvement and overall impression of
teaching effectiveness. The strength observed in the teacher was that the good command of the
language of communication and interpersonal relationship. Considering the observation made at
this center, the suggestion for improvement is that the use of radio Mooko Mooka in classroom
would be useful in student learning. In conclusion, the overall impression of teaching
effectiveness of the facilitator was that she has good mastery of classroom interaction.

Table 4. 13: Learners/Learning Session Observation at Learning Center One

Content Subject Teaching Learners talk Learners’ suggestions

Observation matter Methods
Content

Poor

Good

Very Good

Excellent

Table 4.13 presents the rating of the learners during their learning sessions. It was observed that
the learners showed signs of pre-exposure to subject matter and knowledge of the subject matter.
Also, the Table shows that the learners showed likeness for teaching methods and stayed
lxxii
focused. Furthermore, the learners responded to facilitator’s questions, they also initiate talk and
exhibit versatility in language of instruction. Finally, the Table shows that the learners did not
make suggestions on classroom/radio teaching.

The second phase of the observation was based on observer opinion which deals with strengths
of the learners, suggestions for improvement and overall impression of learning activities. The
strength observed in the learners in the first learning center was the readiness of learners to learn
and this led to suggestion for improvement which is to encourage more interaction among the
learners. Finally, the overall impression of their learning activities was that there is good
teaching and good learning process.

Table 4.14: Use of Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) at Learning Center One

Content Subject Teaching Listening Session Learners attention in

Observation matter Methods class
Content

Poor

Good

Very Good

Excellent

Table 4.14 presents the rating of the use of IRI in classroom at the first learning center. It was
observed that the learners pay poor attention to the subject matter/ content aired on the radio. The
IRI teaching methods were excellent. Finally, the learners were rated poor on their attention in
class; however the subject matter was excellent as it tallies with classroom discussion. The
strength observed is the use of IRI from the responses of the learners to facilitator question, it

lxxiii
was evident that most of them had prior exposure to the message as they participate in learning.
This was why in the general comment it was stated that IRI should be emphasized.

Table 4.15: Teacher/Teaching Observation Learning Center Two

TO SMC TM PR ORG DTM TT PER SEN

Poor

Good

Very
Good

Excellent

Key

TO = Teaching observation

SMC= Subject matter content

TM = Teaching Methods

PR= Presentation

ORG= Organization

TT= Teacher Talk

PER= Personal

SEN= Sensitivity

lxxiv
Table 4.15 presents the rating of teacher/ teaching observation, this section was divided into
subject matter content, teaching methods, presentation, organization, distribution of/ time
management, teacher talk, personal and sensitivity. It was observed from the analysis on the
Table that the facilitator was very good at expressing the subject matter content, the facilitator
was also very good at using the method of teaching and the facilitator was very good at
presentation and the learning environment was equally good. Also, the table showed that the
facilitator was very good at organizing the subject matter and showed evidence of being prepared
before coming to class and has excellent time management. Furthermore, the facilitator was
excellent at accepting learner’s feelings, asking questions etc. In addition to that, the teacher
exhibit excellent self-confidence and maintained professional comportment. Finally, the
facilitator was also sensitive to learners’ culture, gender differences and disabilities. The strength
observed in the teacher was that the facilitator is matured and highly friendly.

Table 4.16: Learners/Learning Session Observation at Learning Center Two

Content Subject Teaching Learners talk Learners’

Observation matter Methods suggestions
Content

Poor

Good

Very Good

Excellent

Table 4.16 presents the rating of the learners during their learning sessions. It was observed that
the learners showed good signs of pre-exposure to subject matter and knowledge of the subject
lxxv
matter. Also, the Table shows that the learners are excellent at showing likeness for teaching
methods, staying focused and meeting stated objectives. Furthermore, the learners were excellent
at responding to the facilitator, initiating talk and versatility in language instruction .Finally, the
Table shows that the learners were very good at making suggestions on classroom/radio
teaching. The strength observed in the learners in the second learning center was that there are
more learners than the first learning center who showed pre-exposure The overall impression of
their learning activities was that it was generally okay.

Table 4.17: Use of IRI in Classroom in Learning Center Two

Content Subject Teaching Listening Session Learners attention in

Observation matter Methods class
Content

Poor

Good

Very Good

Excellent

Table 4.17 presents the rating of the use of IRI in classroom among learners at learning center
two. It was observed that the learners showed excellent knowledge of the subject matter content
aired on the radio. The teaching method was also similar to that of on-air teaching. The learners
were rated very well in the listening session. Finally, the learners were rated very good for
paying attention to radio programme.

lxxvi
 Table 4.18: Teacher/Teaching Observation for Classroom Three

TO SMC TM PR ORG DTM TT PER SEN

Poor

Good

Very
Good

Excellent

Key

TO = Teaching observation

SMC= Subject matter content

lxxvii
TM = Teaching Methods

PR= Presentation

ORG= Organization

TT= Teacher Talk

PER= Personal

SEN= Sensitivity

Table 4.18 presents the rating of teacher/ teaching observation, this section is divided into subject
matter content, each methods, presentation, organization, distribution of/ time management,
teacher talk, personal and sensitivity. It was observed from the Table of analysis that the
facilitator was very good at expressing the subject matter content; the facilitator used relevant
teaching methods as used by the radio instructor. The facilitator also was also graded good for
classroom environment which was conducive for learning and was also good in maintaining eye
contact among other factor.

Also, the Table shows that the facilitator has good organization skill for organizing the subject
matter well and being well prepared for classroom session and time management. Furthermore,
the facilitator was good at accepting learner’s feelings, asking questions etc. In addition to that,
the facilitator exhibited very good self-confidence and maintained professional comportment.
Finally, the facilitator was very good at exhibiting sensitivity to student’s personal culture,
gender differences and disabilities.

The strength observed in the facilitator was that he has good classroom interaction. Considering
the observation made in this learning center, the suggestion for improvement was that the
facilitator should allow students to use more time to listen to radio programme.

Table 4.19: Learners and Learning Session Observation at Learning Center Three

Content Subject Teaching Learners talk Learners’ suggestions

Observation matter Methods

lxxviii
 Content

Poor

Good

Very Good

Excellent

Table 4.19 presents the rating of the learners during their learning sessions. It was observed that
the learners showed good signs of pre-exposure to subject matter and knowledge of the subject
matter. Also, the Table shows that the learners had very good likeness for teaching methods,
stayed focused and also met stated objectives. Furthermore, the learners were very good at
responding to the facilitator, initiating talk and exhibiting versatility in language
instruction .Finally, the Table shows that the learners are poor at making suggestions on
classroom/radio teaching. The strength observed in the learners at the learning center was that
the students should be encouraged to talk more and to make suggestions.

Table 4.20: Use of Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) at Learning Center Three

Content Subject Teaching Listening Session Learners attention

Observation matter Methods in class
Content

Poor

lxxix
 Good

Very Good

Excellent

Table 4.20 presents the rating of the use of IRI in classroom among learners at Learning Center
three. It was observed that the subject of classroom discussion was the same as the one taught on
radio; this is also exhibited in the teaching method in the classroom which was the same as the
method used on radio. The learners were rated poor in listening session; this was because there
was no listening session as such learners’ attention to IRI was also rated poor.

4.3 Presentation of Findings from the Interview Session

Three factors were the concern in the interview- feedback and cooperation among agencies
involved in the programme and involvement of learners at every stage of programme. On the
level of interaction between Lagos State Agency for Mass Education and Radio Lagos, Mr.
Ojekunle said that the station had in time past made suggestions to the agency and such
suggestions were incorporated into a radio awareness jingle developed and aired by the station
and on some selected radio stations to sensitize the listener on the existence of such literacy by
radio programme. He added that the transmission time for the programme was also a decision
take by both the radio station and the Agency.

Mr. Ojekunle affirmed this but added that the Agency applied for airtime and the station
allocates the airtime for broadcast of programme. According to him, Mooko Mooka is aired on
Wednesdays at 1605hours (4.05pm) with a repeat broadcast at 2210hours (10.10pm) and on
Saturdays at 1300hours (1.00pm) and 1900hours (7.00pm). However, he added that considering
the fact that the learners are artisans and traders, this airtime were chosen so as not to clash with

lxxx
their peak period of trading. Hence, the agency came up with a flexible approach where if a
lesson is missed, then the learner can still catch up on a repeat broadcast.

On the level of input of Eko FM to the project, Mr. Akin-Johnson said, the National Mass
Education Commission invited all states radio station and agencies to contribute to the
development of the primer. In his reaction however, Mr. Ojekunle stated categorically that the
station is not did not take part in the design of the primer, he however said those involved in the
programme did attend training session.

On the interaction with learners, Mr. Ojekunle said it was “very encouraging”, although he noted
that the station has not received any suggestion or comment on the programme from learners, he
however noted that there are two phases employed in Literacy by Radio. The radio listening
session where the learner listens to the radio teachers and carry out all activities expected of them
during this session. This session is not complete without an assignment given to the learner by
the radio teacher which must be shown to the facilitator during the face-to-face session. The face
to face session is the second phase where the facilitator meets with the learner to go over gray
areas the learner must have missed during the radio session including going over the assignment
given to the learner. Hence, all comments/suggestions on Mooko Mooka are made at the face to
face session between the facilitator and the learner.

On the instructional method used on Mooko Mooka, Mr. Ojekunle said the programme starts
from the main topic based on adult learner’s needs and motivation adding that:

The topic is closely related to the main picture on the top of the page of the primer

From the picture, sentences are made

From the sentences, we have the key word (s)

The keyword(s) includes the vowels or letters to be taught in each lesson

The vowels or letters must correspond with the number it has with the Yoruba
alphabets

lxxxi
 The guide table at the back of the page of the primer where the letters appear and
its number on the alphabets is shown helps to establish the relationship between
both easily

There is no number to identify the pages of the primer. Instead, different symbols
well known by the learner are used. These peculiar symbols are drawn from the
uniqueness of each state of the Federation.

Speaking on how the agency monitors the learning centers, Mr. Akin-Johnson said the agency
carryout a monthly, quarterly and biannual monitoring of the learning centers.

4.4 Hypotheses Testing

This section of the study presents the results of the four hypotheses identified in chapter one.

Hypothesis One: There is no significant influence of educational radio broadcasting on

literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos.

Simple linear regression was employed to analyze the data and test the hypothesis; the level of
significant was set at 0.05%; the analysis was conducted by regressing perceived use of radio
instructional programme on respondent Literacy skills acquisition. The result of the analysis is
presented in Table 4.21.

Table 4.21: Simple Linear Regression Analysis of Literacy Skills Acquisition by Radio
Instruction

Variables Std.error t-val P-val R² Adj. R² F-val

(Constant) 20.780 1.374 15.120 .001 35.106**

.065 .063

lxxxii
 Radio instruction .190 .032 5.925 .001

(F(1,503)=35.106,p<
05, R²=.065)

The summary of Table 4.21 shows that there is a significant influence of educational radio
broadcasting on literacy skills acquisition among adult in Lagos State (F(1,503)=35.106,p<.05,
R²=.065). The analysis shows that educational radio broadcasting accounts for 6.5% variation in
literacy skills acquisition among adult learners. Furthermore the Table 4.21 also indicates that
educational radio broadcasting (β=.19, t=5.925, p<0.05) independently predicted the level of
literacy skills acquisition among adult learners. In other words, educational radio broadcasting
significantly improved the level of adult’s learner literacy skills. Therefore the null hypothesis
which states there is no significant influence of educational radio broadcasting on literacy skills
acquisition among adult learners in Lagos is rejected and alternate accepted. The model
summary is presented in appendices. The model is presented below:

Skills acquisition =C + B (Radio instructional use) + E

Skills acquisition =20.780 + 0.19 (Radio instructional use) + 5.46

Hypothesis Two: There is no significant difference in the level of skills acquisition among
adult learners in Lagos State based on frequency of educational radio broadcasting.

A chi-square test of association was employed to test the hypothesis at the level of significance

of 0.05%. The respondent frequency of educational radio broadcasting use with their

corresponding level of literacy skills was subjected to test of association; the summary of the

analysis is presented in Table 4.22.

Table 4.22 Chi-Square showing Association between Frequency of Educational Radio Use and
Literacy Skills

lxxxiii
 Literacy skills
Total Χ2 df P-
Low Average Good Val

Once 31 128 25 184

Frequency Twice 23 74 15 112 .215 4 5.797
Thrice 26 139 40 205
Total 80 341 80 501
{Χ2 (2) =5.797, p>0.05}

The Table 4.22 revealed that there is no statistical significant association between Frequency of

radio instruction use and level of literacy skills of the study participant {Χ2 (2) =5.797, p>0.05}.

The analysis suggests the frequency of listening to radio instruction is not related to level of

skills acquisition of the respondent. In view of the p-value, the null hypothesis that states that

there is no significant difference in the level of skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos

State based on frequency of educational radio broadcasting cannot be rejected meaning that the

null hypothesis is true.

Hypothesis Three: There is no significant difference in the level of skills acquisition among
adult learners in Lagos State based on gender.

A chi-square test of association was employed to test the hypothesis at 0.05 % level of

significance. The respondents’ gender with their corresponding level of literacy skills was

subjected to test of association. The summary of the analysis is presented in Table 4.23.

Table 4.23 Chi-Square Showing Association between Gender and Literacy Skills
Literacy skills
Total Χ2 Df p-val
Low Average Good

Male 45 175 35 255

lxxxiv
Gender Female 2.523 2 .283
35 170 45 250

Total
80 345 80 505

{Χ2 (2) =2.523, p>0.05}

The summary of Table 4.23 shows that there is no statistical significant association between

gender and level of literacy skills of the study participants {Χ2 (2) =2.523, p>0.05). The analysis

suggests that respondent male and female respondent display similar level of literacy skills. The

findings indicate that the level of literacy skills acquisition among adult learners is similar across

gender. In view of the p-value, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant

difference in the level of skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State based on gender

cannot be rejected meaning that the null hypothesis is true.

Hypothesis four: There is no significant difference in the level of literacy skills acquisition
among adult learners in Lagos State based on age.
To analyze the data and test the hypothesis, a chi-square test of association was employed at the

0.05 % significance level. The respondents’ age was associated with their level of literacy skills.

The summary of the analysis is presented in Table 4.24.

Table 4.24 Chi-Square showing Association between age and literacy skills
Literacy skills
Total Χ2 Df p-val
Low Average Good

20-29 yrs 5 15 10 30
Age 30-39 yrs 55 210 40 305 11.911 4 .018
40 & above 20 120 30 170
Total 80 345 80 505
{Χ (4) = 11.911, p<0.05}
2

lxxxv
The summary of analysis in Table 4.24, indicates that there is statistical significant relationship

between age and level of literacy skills of the study respondent {Χ2 (4) =11.911, p<0.05}. The

analysis suggests that respondents’ age determined the level of skills acquired by the adult

learners. Therefore, the null hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the

level of literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State based on age was rejected

because it is not true.

4.5 Discussion of Findings Based on Objectives of the Study

The study examines the effectiveness of radio instructional program on the literacy skills
acquisition among adult learners in Lagos. Six objectives were generated in this study and four
of them were subjected to hypotheses testing. The remaining three (objectives 1 and 6) were
analyzed using descriptive statistics.

The first research objective examined the pattern of use educational radio broadcasting among
adult learners in Lagos State. This was done by using descriptive statistics approach. The
analysis indicated that 315(62.4%) of the total number of respondents strongly agreed to
listening to Mooko Mooka ahead of the classroom instruction in order to prepare for class
instruction; the same figure also indicated that they enjoyed listening to the programme.
130(25.7%) of the total number of respondents agreed to enjoyed listening to the instructor;
50(9.9%) of the total number of respondents disagreed with enjoying listening to the instructor;
and finally 10(2.0%) of the total number of respondents strongly disagreed that they enjoyed
listening to Mooko Mooka instructor on radio (see Table 4.10).

Also 110(21.8%) of the total respondents strongly agreed to understanding the classroom
instruction after listening to Mooko Mooka on radio, 270(53.5%) of the total number of
respondents agreed to that; 110(21.8%) of the total number of respondents disagreed with
understanding the class instruction after listening to the Mooko Mooka on radio; and finally
15(3.0%) of the total number of respondents strongly disagreed that they understood classroom
instructions after listening to Mooko Mooka on radio. The findings showed that Mooko Mooka

lxxxvi
was used in classroom; it also indicates that majority of the study respondents enjoyed using
radio instructional programme to improve their learning skills. Thus, pattern of use:

That learners use Mooko Mooka to prepare themselves ahead for classroom instruction;

That learners use Mooko Mooka to revise the lessons learnt during classroom interaction
with facilitator;

That they listened to the program in classroom to prepare the learners for the day’s
lesson; and

They use it to compliment classroom interaction.

From this findings, it is evident therefore that radio instructional techniques is highly appreciated
by majority of the respondent as majority of them admitted that using radio instruction play a
crucial role in their learning activities.

The second objective which examined there is no significant difference in the level of skills
acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State based on frequency of educational radio
broadcasting was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The findings shows that 385 (76.2%) of
the total respondents stated that their skill to read classroom instructional materials is excellent;
75(14.9%) of the total respondents claim that they are good; 45(8.9%) of the total respondents
claim that their ability and skills to read classroom instructional materials is in need of some
improvement. Furthermore 140(27.7%) of the total respondents claim that their skills and ability
to read textbooks is excellent; 280(55.4%) claim that they are good in term of this skills;
60(11.9%) of the total number of respondents feel that their skills and ability need some
improvement; and 20(4.0%) rated their ability and skills as needing much improvement. The
analysis indicates that majority of the respondent experience significant improvement in their
level of skill acquisition (see Table 4.11)

The third research objective investigated the influence of frequency of educational radio
broadcasting use on literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State was done by
first looking at learner’s level of education prior to entering the programme. In this regard,

lxxxvii
15(3.0%) of the total respondents have primary 1-2 level of education; 5(1.0%) of the total
respondents have primary 3-4 level of education; 5(1.0%) of the total respondents show that they
have primary 5-6 level of education; while 210(41.6%) of the total respondents show that they do
not have any formal education but they are home trained. The analysis shows that majority
(41.6%) of the respondent do not have any formal education (see Table 4.7 and Table 8).

To determine the influence of Mooko Mooka on the learners, learners were asked about the
purpose of using the program. 62. 4% says that they use the programme to prepare themselves
for the classroom instruction. In another question, 53.5% said that they understand classroom
instruction after they had listened to the programme, while in another question, 30.7% affirmed
that classroom instruction only become clearer after listening to Mooko Mooka.

Respondents also were asked to indicate the number of times to they listened to the programme
When asked to indicate pattern of listening 184(36.4%) of the total number of respondents said
they listen to the program once; 112(22.2%) of the total respondents listen to the program twice;
205(40.6%) of the total respondents listen to the program thrice; and 4(8.0%) of the total
respondents did not indicate the number of times they listen to Mooko Mooka. Since majority
(40.6%) of the respondents listen to Mooko Mooka three times in a week (see Table 4.9) and
62.4% said they use it to prepare ahead for classroom instruction; another 53.5% said they
understand classroom instruction after they had listened to the programme and 30.7% affirmed
that classroom instruction only becomes clearer after listening to the programme, it is safe to
conclude that frequency of exposure influenced their learning. This summation is in line with
Hovland’s (message) learning theory which posits that repetition of a message increases
learning.

The second hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in the level of skills
acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State based on frequency of educational radio
broadcasting was used to test the difference in the level of skills acquired by the learners. Result
showed that there is no statistical significant association between frequency of educational radio
broadcasting use and level of literacy skills of the study participant. The analysis suggests there
is no relationship between frequency of listening to radio instruction and level of skills acquired

lxxxviii
among the respondent. Therefore, the null hypothesis is accepted and alternate rejected (see
Table 4.22).

The fourth objective examined the influence of gender on literacy skill acquisition among adult
learners in Lagos State. To examine this objective, a chi-square test of association was employed
at 0.05 % significance level. The null hypothesis which states that “there is no significant
difference in the level of skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State based on gender”
was accepted based on the findings. The result indicates that gender does not affect the level of
literacy skills acquisition among adult learners (see Table 4.6).

The fifth objective examined the influence of age on literacy skill acquisition among adult
learners in Lagos State. To analyze the data and test the hypothesis, a chi-square test of
association was employed at 0.05 % significance level. The respondent age was associated with
their level of literacy skills. Result indicates that there is a statistical significant relationship
between age and level of literacy skills of the study respondent {Χ2 (4) =11.911, p<0.05}. The
analysis suggests that respondents’ age determined the level of skills acquired by the adult
learners. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternate.

The sixth objective of the study set out to determine the extent to which the agencies were
involved in the conception, production and evaluation of instructional content. To achieve this,
the interview with the delegated officers focused two key areas – cooperation and participation.
Findings from the interview showed that there is cooperation among the various agencies
involved in Lagos is Learning project.

The seventh objective of the study sought to determine the extent to which learners’ participation
was encouraged in the Lagos is Learning project. To achieve this, the interview session focused
on participation

4.6 Discussion of Findings Based on the Research Questions of the Study

Research Question One: What is the pattern of educational radio broadcasting used among
adult learners in Lagos?

lxxxix
Respondents clearly indicated that they use Mooko Mooka for a number of reasons but majority
which is 315 (62.4%) says they listen to the program in order to prepare for the classroom
instruction. Therefore, majority of the respondents strongly agree to the fact that they listen to
radio instruction to prepare for classroom instruction. This is greatly supported by the frequency
of listening to the program which shows that 40.6% listen to the program three times a week out
of the four times the program is aired

Result showed that there is a significant level in the literacy skill acquired with 55.4% saying
their reading and writing skill is good and 385(76.2%) indicating that their skill for reading
classroom instructional materials is excellent. The fact that learners showed significant
improvement in their reading and writing skill acquisition validates the basic assumption of
andragogy learning theory which postulates that adult learners:

Show readiness to learn from subjects that have immediate relevance to their jobs and
lives;

Adult learners become more problem-centered rather than subject-centered (Knowles,

1980); and

As people mature, they become more motivated by various internal incentives, such as
need for self-esteem, curiosity, desire to achieve and satisfaction of accomplishment.

In addition to the above, a good number of the respondents 53.5% said they used Radio Lagos
Mooko Mooka for revision. Again, a good number of the respondents 30.7% said classroom
instruction only becomes clearer after listening to Mooko Mooka. By implication therefore, the
learners were able to use the Mooko Mooka to prepare or get more understanding of classroom
instruction; thus, on the basis of this finding one may conclude that the quality of teaching on the
programme is very good. The quality of teaching therefore makes the programme crucial to adult
learners’ literacy skill acquisition. This finding is in congruence with one of Carrol’s (1989)
Model of School Learning assumption that “good instructional design is believed to be vital to
how a learner acquire new skills”.

xc
Furthermore, the pattern of use as revealed by the observation exercise showed that learners were
able to use the radio programme meaningfully because the classroom facilitator allowed learners
to listen to the programme again in the classroom but more importantly, the subject matter of
classroom discussion was the same as the one aired on radio programme pre-class learning
session. This is why Bloom (1976), said thatquality instruction as in the case of Mooko Mooka
meant that the instructor was able to:

Organize subject matter into manageable learning units;

Develop specific learning objectives for each unit;

Develop appropriate formative and summative assessment measures; and

Plan and implement group teaching strategies, with sufficient time allocations,
practice opportunities, and corrective reinstruction for all students to reach the desired
level of mastery (Bloom, 1976).

In conclusion, the findings revealed that radio is used in a complimentary capacity by learners; as
34.7% strongly disagree and 28.7% disagree that they prefer radio instruction over classroom
instruction. This is in line with Sanusi summation (2011) that the media cannot take the place of
the classroom teacher, it can however complement classroom instruction.

Research Question Two: To what extent does educational radio broadcasting influence of
educational radio broadcasting on literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos
State?

The result shows that radio instruction significantly predict the level of literacy skills acquisition
among adult learners. The analysis shows that radio instruction account for 6.5% variation in
literacy skills acquisition among adult learners. Furthermore the analysis also indicates that radio
instruction programme (β=.19, t=5.925, p<0.05) independently predict level of literacy skills

xci
acquisition among adult learners. In other words, radio instructional programme significantly
improve the level of adult’s learner literacy skills.

Thus, on the basis of the findings, radio instruction goes a long way in influencing the skills
acquisition among adult. This is in line with Onabajo (2000a) and Heinich et al (1985)
submissions. In Onabajo’s (2000a) opinion the mass media can create new perspectives which
clear the ground for improved new skills and better education (p.11); and Heinich et al (1985)
aver that “the pervasiveness of the broadcast media in our daily lives, however, tends to obscure
the fact that it is a relatively new phenomenon, with implication for education that are now
beginning to be fully understood and appreciated” (p.2).

The findings of this hypothesis also confirms with Hovland’s Learning Theory which posit that
continuous exposure to information through mass media such as radio tends to have significant
impact on learners skills acquisition. The findings of this study shows that adult learners who are
expose to radio instructional program are more likely to display significant higher level of
literacy skills than those who do not listen to educational radio program.

The findings of this study also confirm with an earlier study by Gowon (2009) who examined the
impact of radio instruction on speaking and writing skills of students in Jos. The findings
revealed that radio instruction program is a significant determinant of skills acquisition among
students. Gowon (2009) established that radio instructional techniques provide a good avenue for
people to acquire literacy skills. The findings of this study also corroborate the work of Idogho &
Eshiotse (2013) who examine the role of radio instructional techniques on students learning
skills. Idogho & Eshiotse (2013) findings showed a positive relationship between radio
instruction and students’ academic performance.

Research Question Three: To what extent does frequency of educational radio

broadcasting influence literacy skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State?

Data gathered revealed that 184 (36.4%) of the total number of respondents listen to the
programme once, 112 (22.2%) of the total number of respondents listen to the programme twice
per week, 205 (40.6%) of the total number of respondents listen to the programme thrice per
week and 4 (8.0%) of the total respondents do not indicate the number of times they listen to
xcii
Mooko Mooka. Therefore, majority of the respondents do listen to Mooko Mooka with more of
the respondents listening thrice per week. Again, findings shows that 385 (76.2%) of the total
respondents stated that their skill to read classroom instructional materials is excellent;
75(14.9%) of the total respondents claim that they are good; 45(8.9%) of the total respondents
claim that their ability and skills to read classroom instructional materials is in need of some
improvement. Furthermore 140(27.7%) of the total respondents claim that their skills and ability
to read textbooks is excellent; 280(55.4%) claim that they are good in term of this skills;
60(11.9%) of the total number of respondents feel that their skills and ability need some
improvement; and 20(4.0%) rated their ability and skills as needing much improvement. The
analysis indicates that majority of the respondent experience significant improvement in their
level of skill acquisition (see Table 4.11). From these analyses, one may conclude that frequency
of educational radio broadcasting use can influence literacy skills.

The finding underscores the importance of the mediating factors leading to academic
achievement in John Carroll’s Model of School Learning which he called opportunity to learn.
According to Carroll (2006) opportunity to learn refers to the amount (frequency) of time
available to the learner for learning both in classroom and within the home. In addition to that,
Carroll (2006) noted that if the quality of learning is good the needed time will meet the set time
for learners to acquire the new skill he/she is being exposed to.

Research Question Four: To what extent does gender influence literacy skill acquisition
among adult learners in Lagos State?

The analysis suggests that both male and female respondents display similar level of literacy
skills. The findings indicate that the level of literacy skills acquisition among adult learners is
similar across gender. This implies that in respective of gender, learning at adulthood is
purposeful and goal-oriented. This is in line with Malcolm Knowles’ identified six ideologies
that underpin adult learning. The perceptions are:

That adult learns effectively only when they have a strong inner motivation to develop a
new skill or acquire a particular type of knowledge.
xciii
 Adults are practical in their approach to learning so they want to know what they stand to
benefit from the experience; and

Adult learners want to know the relevance of what they are learning to what they want to
achieve.

Research Question Five: To what extent does age influence literacy skills acquisition among
adult learners in Lagos State?

The fourth hypothesis which stated that there is no significant difference in the level of literacy
skills acquisition among adult learners in Lagos State based on age was rejected based on
analysis of the findings. The analysis result in Table 4.24 revealed that there is statistical
significant relationship between age and level of literacy skills of the study respondent (Χ2 (4)
=11.911, p<0.05). The analysis suggests that respondents’ age determined the level of skills
acquired by the adult learners. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of alternate.

Research Question 6: To what extent are the agencies involved in the conception,
production and evaluation of instructional content?

This question raises the issue of feedback, participation and cooperation. Findings showed that
there was cooperation among the different agencies involved in Mooko Mooka. According to Mr.
Ojekunle, the programme transmission airtime and the packaging of a radio awareness jingle
aired on some selected radio stations to sensitize the listener on the existence of Mooko Mooka
was a joint decision between the LAMED and Radio Lagos. From the foregoing therefore, the
sixth research question is answered in the affirmative that there is some form of relationship
which tends towards interaction among the key players.

On station’s involvement in the design of the primer used on the programme, Mr. Ojekunle said
the station is not involved at all in the design of the primer; however he added that programme
presenters are professional broadcasters and translators with clear mastery and understanding of
the Yoruba language.

Research Question 7: To what extent is learner’s participation encouraged? Analysis from

the interview and responses from the field survey revealed that learners were encouraged to send
xciv
feedback about the Radio Lagos Mooko Mooka, the facilitator and classroom interactions to
LAMED. When asked whether they make suggestions on the radio Lagos Mooko Mooka and
whether such suggestions are used, respondents indicated that, they make suggestions and that
such suggestions are used.

Also commenting on learners’ participation, Mr. Ojekunle stated that there are two phases
employed in Literacy by Radio. The radio listening session where the learner listens to the radio
teachers and carry out all activities expected of them during this session. This session is not
complete without an assignment given to the learner by the radio teacher which must be shown
to the facilitator during the face to face session. The face to face session is the second phase
where the facilitator meets with the learner to go over gray areas the learner must have missed
during the radio session including go over the assignment given to the learner. Hence, all
comments/suggestions on Mooko Mooka are made at the face to face session between the
facilitator and the learner.

Commenting on learners’ participation in the “Lagos is learning” program, Mr. Johnson said all
stakeholders across the country were invited to a meeting by NMEC to discuss the way forward
for the project Literacy by radio. He also added that in Lagos State, LAMED encourages learners
to make comment freely on activities of the classroom interaction to the agencies and that
learning in the classroom is participatory. Mr. Johnson further stated that learners are encouraged
to send feedback through their facilitators on classroom interaction, radio programme and the
primer. He added that suggestions are thereafter processed, analyzed and used for improvement
of the primers and the production of radio programme Mooko Mooka.

The above statement confirms Oloyede’s (2008) description of effective communication which
he said that all participants in a communication process have something to give, either in the
form of information, experience and/or receivers needs (which identifies the missing link in
learning. Moemeka (1997) is therefore of the opinion that communication should not just be an
exchange of ideas and opinions but rather it should be about “relationship and knowledge
acquisition; it has to be concerned with relevant content, suitable style of presentation, timing,
rapport, access and participation” (p.58); and as part of the four principles that Knowles (1984)
identified in Andragogy learning theory “adults need to be involved in the planning and
xcv
evaluation of their instruction.” The finding of this study therefore showed that the project
“Lagos is Learning” that incorporates “Literacy by radio” eliminated obstacles which Onabajo
(2002) identified as:

The ideal where the information officers, news producers and other government and
private personnel responsible for information and message design constitute themselves
into the sole determinants of the needs of their audience without recourse to them; and

The issues of lack of inquiry into the nature of the target audience before messages are
conceptualized.

From the foregoing therefore, the seventh research question is answered in the affirmative, that
is, learners’ participation is encouraged throuh feedback.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

With three million non-literate adults in Lagos State, radio becomes a veritable medium to teach
such adults who, as a result of their economic activities, may not have the opportunity of formal
schooling. Unfortunately, scholars like Moemeka (1981) have revealed a dysfunctional use of
radio for learning which Moemeka (1981) described as a “shot-in-the-dark approach to
programming which leaves the target audience ‘forgotten’ while programs are being planned,
‘remembered’ just before the programs go on air, and ‘forgotten’ again as soon as the programs

xcvi
have been broadcast”(p.35). This study thus set out to assess the effectiveness of educational
radio broadcasting for adult literacy in Lagos State, Nigeria. To accomplish the objectives of the
study survey, non-participant observation and interview methods were used with questionnaire,
standardized observation form and interview schedule as instruments of data collection.

To accomplish the objectives of the study, seven research questions and four hypotheses were
raised in the study. The 604 adult learners under the Lagos State Agency for Mass Education
were chosen as the study population. The 604 adult learners were purposively selected to take
part in the survey while two interviewees and three classrooms were purposively selected for the
interview and non-participation respectively. Off the 604 copies of the questionnaire
administered on the respondents, 505 (83%) were analyzed. Data were analyzed using
descriptive and inferential (chi-square and regression analyses) statistics. The interview and
observation were content-analyzed.

For research question one, findings showed that learners use Mooko Mooka to prepare for
classroom learning and revision purposes. It was also revealed that educational radio program
Mooko Mooka was used in classroom as part of learning activities. This implies that learners use
Mooko Mooka capacity. This is in line with Sanusi summation (2011) that the media cannot take the
place of the classroom teacher, it can however complement classroom instruction.

Findings for research question two showed that educational radio broadcasting radio instructional
program significantly improve the level of adult’s learner literacy skills. This confirm an earlier
study by Gowon (2009) who examined the impact of radio instruction on speaking and writing
skills of students in Jos and found out that radio instructional programme is a significant
determinant of skills acquisition among students. Also, the findings of this study also corroborate
the work of Idogho & Eshiotse (2013) who examine the role of radio instructional techniques on
students learning skills and found out that there is a positive relationship between radio
instruction and students’ academic performance.

Findings for research question three revealed that the more a learner is exposed to educational radio
content the more the learner acquire the desired skill . This confirms one of the mediating factors
leading to academic achievement in John Carroll’s Model of School Learning which he called

xcvii
opportunity to learn. According to Carroll (2006) opportunity to learn refers to the amount
(frequency) of time available to the learner for learning both in classroom and within homework.
In other words, the more a learner is exposed to the instructional message, the more he/she
learns. In addition to that, learners would not have found the material useful if the quality of
instruction has not been good. Findings in respect of research question four showed that gender
do not affect the influence of educational radio broadcasting use among adult learners in Lagos.
This is in line with six ideologies that underpin adult learning as identified by Knowles (1989).
The perceptions are (i) that adult learns effectively only when they have a strong inner
motivation to develop a new skill or acquire a particular type of knowledge; (ii) adults are
practical in their approach to learning so they want to know what they stand to benefit from the
experience; and (iii) that adult learners want to know the relevance of what they are learning to
what they want to achieve.

On the other hand, findings in respect of research question five revealed that respondents’ age
determined the influence of educational radio broadcasting use on literacy skills acquired by the
adult learners. Findings from the analysis for research question six showed that there was
cooperation among the different agencies involve in the Lagos is Leaning project, while findings
from the analysis for seventh research question showed that learners participation in is
encouraged.

5.2 Conclusion

Scholars, educators and international organizations have emphasized the central role of education
in relation to poverty alleviation and social development. Education for all (men and women)
across the world has been echoed by various governments, local and international organizations.
Prominent amongst them is the United Nation through the United Nation Millennium
Development Goals and more recently, 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It is therefore
expedient to say that, a nation that aspire to attain a more dynamic national development must
create an enabling environment for education of its citizenry regardless of age and gender. By
implication, education is the springboard for development and a nation that fails to address its
issues of education will experience stagnation in all spheres:

xcviii
Thus, based on the outcome of the study, it is safe to conclude that:

Education is crucial to the success of any nation’s national development plan. This is
because the human elements can only embrace such plan if it is informed, enlightened
and educated to join forces in helping to move the nation to a place where it can
confidently say there is development;

Making information available alone will not help the nation, there must be structures in
the educational system that will help learners and even facilitators, work together for the
betterment of the learners;

Based on the findings of the study, there is significant influence of broadcasting radio
instruction on literacy skills acquisition; and

There is significant influence of frequency of radio instruction use on literacy skills

acquisition.

5.3 Recommendations

Education as stated earlier is the key to alleviating poverty. Based on the findings of this study,
the medium of radio has been identified as one of the channels that can be employed to improve
literacy skills of adult illiterates. Based on the result therefore, the following suggestions are
recommended:

That government at all levels should be sincere and committed to educational projects
and also ensure that there are monitoring measures to ensure that all resources allocated
to such programmes are used for them for maximum result;

xcix
 That radio educational radio broadcasting has been reported to be crucial to literacy skills
acquisition, it is therefore expedient for both government and stakeholders to invest in
these educational radio programmes in form of sponsorship or grants;

That educational programmes targeting adult learners should be geared towards

participation and respect;

That it is also expedient that for knowledge of reading and writing to be beneficial, it has
to be within the context of the social, economic and cultural realities of the learners; and

That there should be periodical exercise to ascertain whether learners are listening to the
educational radio broadcasting programs targeting them.

5.4 Limitation of the Study

The findings of this study are only applicable to adult learners and therefore may not be
applicable to other population who are still in school. Also, the characteristic of the learners and
the nature of their study may allow some of the respondents to seek clarification either from their
children or wards when answering the questionnaire.

5.5 Contribution to Knowledge

Past studies have examined different areas of education and studies that were conducted on
educational broadcasting focused on secondary school and higher institution; but this study has
been able to contribute to knowledge by looking at educational broadcasting from the
perspective of adult informal learning.

5.6 Suggestion for Further Studies

This study centers on using IRI for adult learning in the Yoruba category. It is necessary to
examine IRI targeting learners in the English speaking category. In addition to that, future study
should address other factors such as perceived self-efficacy and socio-economic status influence
on adult literacy skills acquisition.

c
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APPENDICES
QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Respondent,

My name is Bernice Oluwalanu. Sanusi, a Doctor of Philosophy candidate of the Department of

Mass Communication, Babcock University, Ilesan-Remo, Ogun State. I am currently working on
my thesis entitled: Assessment of Effectiveness of Educational Radio Broadcasting for Adult
Literacy in Lagos State, Nigeria

cix
 In order to achieve the objectives of the study, you have been chosen as respondent, kindly fill
this questionnaire objectively and sincerely. Your response will be treated with utmost
confidentiality and will only be used for academic purpose.

Thank you for your co-operation.

Instruction: please tick (√) the box by the answer that best suit your option in each question.
Please note that where required, you may be expected to freely express yourself.

Section A: demographic information

1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Age: 20 – 29 [ ] 30 – 39 [ ] 40+ [ ]

3. Marital status: single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] widow/widower [ ]

4. What do you do for a leaving? -------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Have you any prior education before joining the class? Yes [ ] No [ ]

6. What was your level of education prior to joining adult literacy by radio class?

Primary 1-2 [ ] Primary 3-4 [ ] Primary 5-6 [ ] None but home-trained [ ]

None at all [ ]

7. Were you able to read and write before joining adult literacy by radio class? Yes [ ]
No [ ]

8. Why did you join the adult literacy by radio class?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------

9. How many times do you listen to Mooko Mooka? Once [ ] twice [ ] trice [ ]

SECTION B: PERCEIVED RADIO INSTRUCTION USE

Please tick (√) the box that best suit your option

S/n Items Strongly Disagree Neither agree Agree Strongly

disagree nor disagree agree
cx
1 I enjoy listening to Mooko Mooka instructor
on radio
2 I listened to Mooko Mooka to revise what I
learnt in class
3 I hardly skip Mooko Mooka
4 Classroom instruction becomes clearer after
I have listened to Mooko Mooka
5 Classroom instructor allows us to listen to
Mooko Mooka before classroom instruction
6 I listen to radio instruction to prepare for
classroom instruction
7 Mooko Mooka radio instruction is very
crucial to my learning
8 Mooko Mooka provide convenient avenue
for adult learning
9 Radio instructor is friendlier and competent
10 Mooko Mooka radio instruction is cost
effective
11 I always manage to listen to Mooko Mooka
radio instruction even if am busy
12 Listening to Mooko Mooka convince me to
join adult class
13 I make suggestions on Mooko Mooka and
Classroom interaction
14 I prefer radio instructional approach used on
mooko mooka than the instructional
approach use in classroom
15 Radio Mooko Mooka instructional
techniques motivates me to learn

SECTION C: PERCEIVED LITERACY SKILLS

Please tick (√) the box that best suit your option

S/N In the past five months, how would Need much Need some Satisfactory Good Excellent
you rate yourself in the following Improvement improvement
areas:
1 Ability to read classroom instructional

cxi
 materials
2 Skills and ability to read other
textbooks in the primer category
3 Ability to read and comprehended
passage from other textbooks
4 Ability to write in Yoruba language
5 Ability to write letters
6 Ability to communicate better in
Yoruba
7 Skills and ability to listen to others
message
8 Ability to understand other
instructional materials not similar to
the primer

cxii
Interview Schedule with Mr. Ojemakinde of Radio Lagos
1. Name and designation

2. Name of Station

3. How long have you been with the station?

4. For how long have you been directly involved in adult literacy programme?

5. What are the objectives of the station in the area of education and to what extent has the
station been able to fulfill the objectives? Could you tell me about the idea behind Mooko
Mooka?

6. What is the nature of the content or message that you were assigned to carry out by the
Lagos State Agency for Mass Education?

7. What days and time of the week does the programme goes on air?

8. What are the parameters for selecting the transmission time for the programme?

9. Have you had complaints from the learners or the agency in respect of the time of
transmission?

10. If yes, what have you done about it?

11. Could you tell me about the learning/teaching method use on the programme?

12. What are the criteria for selecting presenters on Mooko Mooka?

13. In what way does your station make input to the programme?

14. Did Lagos State Agency for Mass Education at any time incorporate your suggestions
into any aspect of the project?

15. Could you tell me some of the suggestions you have made in the past which the agency
adopted?

16. Do you encourage learners’ comment/suggestion on Moko Moka, and if you do how?

17. What is the level of the station’s interaction with the learners?

18. Do you receive suggestions from learners and have you at any time made use of the
suggestions?

cxiii
19. What is the level of the station’s involvement in the design of the primer used on the
programme?

Interview Schedule with Mr. Johnson of LAMED

1. Name of agency

2. Your name and designation

3. How long have you been with the agency?

4. For how long have you been directly involved in adult literacy programme?

5. What are the objectives of the agency and to what extent has the agency/station been able
to fulfill those objectives?

6. How does the agency get learners? What are the criteria for selecting learning center?

7. What number of learners do you need at a center before you can make it a center of
learning?

8. What are the criteria used in selecting instructor?

9. In what way does the agency monitor activities at the centers to ensure that everyone
works towards achieving the agency objectives?

10. Could you tell me about the learning/teaching method use for learning?

11. How interactive would you say learning are at the centers?

12. How do you evaluate learners’ performance?

13. How do you evaluate learners’/instructors’ performance?

14. Could you tell me about the idea behind Mooko Mooka?

15. What is your agency level of input to the production, execution and evaluation of Mooko
Mooka?

16. Do you encourage learners’ comment/suggestion on Mooko Mooka, and if you do how?
Would you say such comments/suggestions have been used on the programme?

17. Who designs the primer?

18. What is the level of involvement of the Eko FM and learners in the design of the primer?

19. Who chose the transmission time for the programme and why?
cxiv
 20. What happens after a learner completes the primer?

Classroom Observation Form

Instructor: ______________ Course: _______________

learning center: _____________________
Peer/Observer: ______________ Date and Time _______________________

TEACHER/TEACHING OBSERVATION

s/no Content observation Scoring

Poor Good Very Excellent

Good
1 SUBJECT MATTER CONTENT
(shows good command and knowledge of
subject matter; demonstrates breadth and depth
of mastery)

2 TEACHING METHODS
(uses relevant teaching methods as used by radio
instructor, uses appropriate primer, techniques;
stays focused on and meets stated objectives)

3 PRESENTATION

(classroom environment conducive to learning;

maintains eye contact; uses a clear voice, strong
projection, proper enunciation, versatility in
language of instruction)

4 ORGANIZATION
(organizes subject matter; evidences preparation;
is thorough; states clear objectives; emphasizes
and summarizes main points, meets class at
scheduled time)

5
DISTRIBUTION OF/ TIME
MANAGEMENT
(uses time wisely; attends to course interaction;
cxv
 maintains discipline and control; and gives time
to listening to radio session)
6 Teacher Talk
(Teacher accepts learners’ feelings, praises or
encourages learners, accepts or uses ideas of
learners, asks questions, gives directions,
criticizes learners or justifies authority)
7 PERSONAL
(evidences self-confidence; maintains
professional comportment and appearance)

8 SENSITIVITY
(exhibits sensitivity to students' personal culture,
gender differences and disabilities, responds
appropriately in a non-threatening, pro-active
learning environment)

Strengths observed: ____________________________________________________________

Suggestions for improvement:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Overall impression of teaching effectiveness:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

cxvi
LEARNERS/LEARNING SESSION OBSERVATION

s/no Content observation Scoring

Poor Good Very Excellent

Good
1 SUBJECT MATTER CONTENT
(shows signs of pre-exposure to subject matter,
and knowledge of subject matter)

2 TEACHING METHODS
(shows likeness for teaching method; stays
focused on and meets stated objectives)

3 Learners Talk

(Learners talk in response to teacher, initiate

talk, confidence, versatility in language of

instruction)

4 Learners make suggestions on classroom/radio

teaching

Strengths observed: _________________________________________________________

Suggestions for improvement:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

cxvii
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Overall impression of learning activities:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

USE OF IRI IN CLASSROOM

s/no Content observation Scoring

Poor Good Very Excellent

Good
1 SUBJECT MATTER CONTENT
(Subject matter same as the one aired on radio
programme pre-class learning session)

2 TEACHING METHODS
(class teaching same as on-air teaching method,
shows likeness for teaching method; stays
focused on and meets stated objectives as
identified by radio instructor)

LISTENING SESSION

(learners listen to radio programme before

classroom instruction; uses primer along with
listening and make comment comments)

Learners attention in class

(learners pay close attention to radio programme

than they do class instructor)

Strengths observed: ____________________________________________________________

Suggestions for improvement:

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

cxviii
Overall impression:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________

IWE IWADI
Oludahun iwadi tooto,

Oruko mi ni Bernice Oluwalanu Sanusi, akeko oye imo ijinle ti onirohin, ni ile iwe giga ti
Babcock University, Ilesan-Remo, Ogun State. Lowo bayi, mo nse iwadi lori MOKO MOKA ti
ori redio ilu eko, ni orile ede Nigeria.
Lati ko ofin ja ninu eko na, ati yan o lati ba mi dahun si awon ibere ti ako sinu iwe ti o nbe lowo
re yi. Jowo ri wipe o dahun re daradara lotito ati botiye. Awon esi ti o ba ko sinu iwe yi nikan ni
a o lo lai daruko re. Lilo awon esi re fun iwadi imo ijinle nikan ni.
Ese lopo lopo fun ajosepo yin.

Alaye: Jowo fi ami yi (√) si aye ti o wa niwaju eyi ti o nbe niwaju esi ti o jo mo eyi ti o fe.
Kiyesi, awon ibikan wa ninu iwadi yii ti yio fun o ni anfani lati dahun ibeere bi o ti fe.

IBEERE NIPA ARA TIE

1. Okunrin [ ] obinrin [ ]
2. Ojo ori: omo-odun marundinlogun si marun din logbon [ ] omo-odun merindin
logbon si merindin logoji [ ] omo-odun adota tabi jubelo [ ]
3. Omidan [ ] Apon [ ] Iyaafin [ ] Baalele [ ] Ilemosu [ ] Opo [ ]
4. Iru ise wo lo nse? ------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Se o ti lo si ile iwe ri ki o to darapo mo eko agba? Beni [ ] Beko [ ]
6. So ibi ti o ti ka iwe de ki o to darapo mo “Mooko Mooka” ori redio? Ile iwe alakobere 1-
2 [ ] Ile iwe alakobere 3-4 [ ] Ile iwe alakobere 5-6 [ ] mi o ka sugbon won ko
mi nile [ ] mi o ka rara [ ]
7. Se o le ko, o si tun leka ki o to darapo mo eko agba? Beni [ ] Beko [ ]
8. Idi Pataki wo lo mu o darapo mo eko agba ori redio?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------
9. La rin ose, o ma n to igba melo lo ma n feti si eto “Mooko Mooka”? Eekan [ ] Meji [
] Emeta [ ]

IPELE KEJI
Ko jo rara kojo Mi o mo Mo gba

cxix
 mo gba gidigan
1 Mo feran lati ma teti si oluko “Mooko Mooka” ori
redio
2 Mo teti si Mooko Mooka lati fi se ayewo ohun ti
mo ti ko ni kilasi
3 Mi kin pa eko Mooko Mooka ori redio je
4 Eko kilasi ma tun nye mi si ti mo ba feti Mooko
Mooka ori redio
5 Oluko kilasi ma nje ki a feti si eto Mooko Mooka
ori redio ki o to ma ko wa
6 Mo ma ngbo eko Mooko Mooka ori redio lati fi
gbaradi fun eko kilasi
7 Eko Mooko Mooka ori redio se koko fun ati moko
moka mi
8 Mooko Mooka je ona to rorun julo lati ko eko
agba
9 Oluko ori redio mo ise ko daradara, osi tun nse bi
ore akeko
10 Ki keko lati ori Mooko Mooka je ona ti ko ga ni
lara rara
11 Mo ma nfi aye sile lati gbo eto Mooko Mooka boti
hun ki owo di to
12 Ti teti si eto Mooko Mooka ori redio lo mu mi
darapo mo eko agba
13 Mo ma n fun won ni imoran nipa eto Mooko
Mooka
14 Ona ti won la sile lati ko ni hun mi ju ona ti won
ngba keko ni kilasi
15 Ona ikeko Mooko Mooka ori redio ma n hun mi
lori ati keko.

cxx
IPELE KETA
S/N Ni osu marun sehin, Mo si ni lo Mo kan ni lo O te mi lorun Mo ta yo
bawo lo se ri ra esi itesiwaju ilo siwaju di
nipa kiko kika e
1 Oye ati ka ohun elo
ikeko inu kilasi
2 Agbara ati oye lati ka
awon iwe to far ape
iwe ti a nlo ninu kilasi
3 Agbara ati ka iwe
miran ti yio si ye mi
yeke
4 Agbara ati ko ni ede
abinibi
5 Agbara lati ko iwe afi
ranse
6 Agbara lati ba ni
jiroro ni ede abinibi
to yekoro
7 Agbara lati teti si ra
eni
8 Agbara lati loye awon
iwe ikeko miran to
farape iwe ikeko

cxxi
REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/STATISTICS COEFF OUTS R ANOVA
/CRITERIA=PIN(.05) POUT(.10)
/NOORIGIN
/DEPENDENT Literacy_Skills
/METHOD=ENTER Radio_Instruction.

Regression
Notes

Output Created 10-MAY-2017 05:53:59

Comments
Input Data C:\Users\Owner\Desktop\sanusi RUN\
ADULT_LITERACY.sav
Active Dataset DataSet2
Filter <none>
Weight <none>
Split File <none>
N of Rows in Working Data
505
File
Missing Value Handling Definition of Missing User-defined missing values are treated
as missing.
Cases Used Statistics are based on cases with no
missing values for any variable used.

cxxii
Syntax REGRESSION
/MISSING LISTWISE
/STATISTICS COEFF OUTS R
ANOVA
/CRITERIA=PIN(.05) POUT(.10)
/NOORIGIN
/DEPENDENT Literacy_Skills
/METHOD=ENTER Radio_Instruction.
Resources Processor Time 00:00:00.02

Elapsed Time 00:00:00.01

Memory Required 3808 bytes

Additional Memory Required

0 bytes
for Residual Plots

Variables Entered/Removeda

Variables Variables
Model Entered Removed Method

1 Radio_Instructio
. Enter
nb

a. Dependent Variable: Literacy_Skills

b. All requested variables entered.

Model Summary

Adjusted R Std. Error of the

Model R R Square Square Estimate

1 .255a .065 .063 5.45945

a. Predictors: (Constant), Radio_Instruction

ANOVAa

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1046.363 1 1046.363 35.106 .000b

Residual 14992.219 503 29.806

Total 16038.582 504

cxxiii
a. Dependent Variable: Literacy_Skills
b. Predictors: (Constant), Radio_Instruction

Coefficientsa

Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) 20.780 1.374 15.120 .000

Radio_Instruction .190 .032 .255 5.925 .000

a. Dependent Variable: Literacy_Skills

cxxiv