1

Contents
Introduction………………………………………………………………..………3
I. Place of simultaneous translation in the system of types and methods..……..7
1.1. Types of transfers……………………………………………………….………7
1.2. Specificity of simultaneous translation…………………………………………9
1.3. Psycholinguistic aspects………………………………………………………..17
II. Simultaneous translation as an activity………………………………………..22
2.1. Different models of translation activity………………………………………...22
2.2. Construction of simultaneous translation activity………………………………25
2.3. Soviet experience……………………………………………………………….26
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………..29
Bibliography………………………………………………………………...………31
Appendix

2
 Introduction’s translation linguistic
In our era, not a single international conference or meeting is complete without
simultaneous translation. Externally, a simultaneous interpreter is, as it were, part of a
single installation system for simultaneous translation.
From the point of view of the conference organizers, simultaneous translation
offers huge time savings, despite the fact that it can be carried out in a large number
of languages.
Simultaneous interpreting is called conference interpreting, although it is only
one of the two main types of interpreting. The second undoubted predecessor was the
consecutive translation of conferences.
It is known from history that the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 gave rise to
professional consecutive translation for the first time, and the history of professional
simultaneous translation begins with the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals in
1945.
In the 19th century - At the beginning of the 20th century, there was no need
for simultaneous translation, since consecutive translation coped well with the tasks
due to the small number of international conference languages, namely French and
English.
The heyday of consecutive translation was between the two world wars, when
multilateral diplomacy used only the two aforementioned languages, French and
English, especially in the League of Nations. When, after the Second World War, the
United Nations was established with five official languages, it soon became clear that
consecutive translation was extremely uneconomical. After all, in order to translate a
speaker's speech into four other UN languages, it took 5 times more than the speech
itself took away.
It is this practical need for multilateral diplomacy that brought simultaneous
translation to life. Moreover, in 1950 it had already arisen and could be used. The

3
equipment was ready, and there was a necessary, albeit small, “backbone” of
simultaneous interpreters
This trend also affected other major international forums, where, depending on
the number of working languages adopted at the meeting of multilingual delegates,
each speech was repeated several times consecutively from the podium, which led to
a great loss of time. It was only in the late forties and early fifties that speech
translation was occasionally practiced simultaneously with listening to them, which in
this connection received the name of simultaneous translation. Simultaneous
translation became possible thanks to the creation of a technical installation that
included a speaker's microphone, a wiring system, headphones and translators'
microphones (mounted in special booths) and headphones of the participants. Each
participant, connecting to the appropriate translation booth, got the opportunity to
listen to the translation of the speaker's speech at the same time as the speech itself.
Simultaneous translation provided significant time savings, especially at international
meetings where multiple working languages were used. Simultaneous translation, as a
type of translation and as a type of communicative activity, became the subject of
research only at the end of the 60s. And already in the early 70s, the synchronism of
the processes of listening and speaking in simultaneous translation was
experimentally confirmed, and scientists came close to the question of those speech
and mechanical mechanisms that are capable of ensuring simultaneous listening to a
message in the original language and the actual speaking of the translator in the target
language.
In the last 10-15 years, there has been a certain specialization in the use of
simultaneous and consecutive translations. If simultaneous translation is increasingly
used for multilateral communication and diplomacy within the framework of
conferences and meetings with more than 2 participants - countries, then consecutive
translation is increasingly used to serve bilateral negotiations for the purposes of
bilateral diplomacy and, more broadly, bilateral interethnic relations.

4
 Thus, thanks to the development of technical means for providing simultaneous
translation and the high-tech sector as a whole, this made it possible to provide
translation not only for participants in the conference room, but also to transfer it to
anywhere in the world (video conferences).
This circumstance, in turn, makes it possible to connect to the participation of
conferences, meetings, symposiums of remote participants in real time from different
countries and speaking different languages, which undoubtedly increases the
efficiency of discussion and solving the problems of modernity posed to the
participants of such events.
From this goal come the following tasks:
- definition of differences between simultaneous translation and its other
differences;
- comparison and analysis of the relationship between the rates of speech of the
translator and the speaker;
study of translation activity models;
- study of speech and language training of simultaneous interpreters.
The first chapter will consider the place of simultaneous translation in the
system of types and methods.
At the beginning of the section, a general overview of the types of translation
that exist and are currently used will be given. Their differences are determined. Then,
the specifics of simultaneous translation, namely its temporal characteristics and
linguistic features, are investigated. The relationship between the speech rate of the
speaker and the translator is analyzed.
The second chapter examines and compares the structure and various models of
synchronous as an aspect of translation activity.
The third chapter examines the speech-language training of a simultaneous
interpreter. In particular, the purpose of training and requirements are determined. The
principles of constructing a system of exercises tested in practice are proposed .

5
Training exercises are considered with the definition of the formation of specific
practical skills of the simultaneous interpreter.
In conclusion, the information received is summarized, conclusions from the
study and analysis are given.
The actuality of the course paper. The dynamics of the objective growing
demand for simultaneous translation in the world can is illustrated in this paper
The aim of the course paper is to determine the specifics of simultaneous
translation and its place among the types of translation, as well as the principles of
teaching simultaneous translation.
The practical value of the course paper. The technical support of
simultaneous translation gave a significant impetus to its development, since, together
with it, this system of simultaneous translation made it possible to provide
simultaneous translation of several languages, which in itself gave an advantage in
time, energy of translators, and costs for providing translation. The application of
research in this course work is intended for the educational process.
The structure of the work consists of introduction, two chapters, and
conclusion with bibliography

6
 I. Place of simultaneous translation in the system of types and methods
simultaneous translation linguistic
1.1 Types of transfers. In modern conditions, when the borders between
countries and peoples are gradually being erased, and international relations are
becoming more intense, the importance of the work of translators can hardly be
overestimated. And although English is considered the universal language of
interethnic communication today, this does not reduce the need for qualified
translations from one language to another. Moreover, the most demanded is just the
translation from English into other languages of the world.
All types of translation work are divided into two large groups - written
translation and interpretation.
Interpretation is, of course, a more difficult task, and the degree of complexity
is determined not only by the prevalence of the language and the difficulty of learning
it (although, for example, translation from French is, of course, easier than translation
from Swahili - if only because it is easier to find the right specialist) but also the
nature of the work itself.
Oral translation, in turn, is divided into two types: simultaneous and
consecutive.
Simultaneous translation is considered to be the most difficult of them. A
simultaneous interpreter does not have time to choose words - and at the same time,
he must convey all the nuances of speech absolutely accurately. And additional
complexity of simultaneous translation is given by the individual characteristics of
people's speech.
It would seem that a relatively simple task is simultaneous translation from
English. But in international English there are so many variations in pronunciation,
accents, lexical and grammatical features common in different countries, regions and
social groups that even a highly qualified translator can get confused and make
mistakes in a situation where it is necessary to strictly follow the pace of the speaker's

7
speech.
Thus, simultaneous translation can be defined as a type of interpretation of
conferences, which is carried out simultaneously with reproduction in the original
language using technical means in a specially equipped booth and in the process of
which, under conditions of time pressure, a huge amount of information is processed
per unit of text.
Another type of interpreting is much simpler. The speaker pauses in his speech,
and the interpreter uses these pauses to announce the translation. In this case, he has a
certain time to think about the construction of the phrase and choose the most correct
words.
But, one way or another, when interpreting, there are very serious time limits
that the interpreter must strictly observe. He is required to pronounce the translation
either almost simultaneously with a person speaking a foreign language, or
immediately after he has spoken his phrase.
There are no such restrictions for written translation. Of course, deadlines are
also assigned for written translation, but they are measured not in seconds, but in days
or, in extreme cases, hours.
The main types of written translation are technical, legal, business, newspaper
and artistic.
Each of them has its own specifics and its own difficulties. From the point of
view of style, technical translation is the simplest, but serious problems can arise with
vocabulary and terminology. For example, technical translation from French can be
complicated by the presence of a large number of modern terms - in the form of
neologisms, unlike other foreign languages, in which technical terms, especially in the
field of high technologies, are imported and borrowed from the English language.
As for the most difficult type of written translation, it is, without a doubt,
literary translation. Even the translation of prose presents difficulties associated with
the need to preserve the style of the original. A successful translation of poetry is

8
sometimes impossible at all. The same translations that readers are ready to enjoy
endlessly, as a rule, are written by such masters of the word, whose talent is at least as
good as that of the original authors.
In his research, the famous scientist G.V. Chernov in the field of simultaneous
translation [20] offers the following classification of translations (see Table 1): .

Table 1
Translation Basis of classification
Written Oral Sight-based Form of speech in TL Modality of perception
Sequential Synchronized Temporal correlation of communicative acts

It is also important to separate transfers by direction. Translation from English

into Russian and translation from Russian into English are close, but not identical
tasks. And one of the most important rules of translation activity, which is not always
followed, but which must be strived for, says: translation must be performed by a
native speaker of the target language. That is, translation from French into Russian
should be performed by a Russian-speaking translator, and translation from Russian
into French by a Francophone.
1.2 Specificity of simultaneous translation. Temporal characteristics. Each
person has his own optimal range in which it is easiest for him to perceive, understand
and, if necessary, reproduce information 1. However, in practical activities, a person
does not always manage to work at an optimal pace for him. Among all types of
translation activities, simultaneous translation is characterized by the most severe time
constraints and provides the least opportunity for choosing the pace of information
processing and reproduction. Indeed, if a translator working in written translation
mode can get, for example, a full-time translation of a source text of 6-8 printed pages
(this is the upper limit of the usual norms for written translation), then a simultaneous

1
Arkhipov G. B., To the question of the influence of the rate of speech on listening. Abstract cand. dis. M., 1968

9
interpreter must translate the same volume in approximately 20 minutes, i.e., the time
the original text was delivered by the speaker. In other words, a simultaneous
interpreter is given 20-30 times less time to translate a text of the same volume than a
translator. An interpreter working in consecutive interpreting mode also experiences
significant time constraints, but compared to a simultaneous interpreter, he has twice
as much time to translate the text of the same volume: the time for the original text to
be delivered by the speaker plus the time for the text in the target language to be
delivered.
The general lack of time is not the only time constraint imposed on the
activities of a simultaneous interpreter. Another temporal constraint is the obligatory
order in which the time budget is spent: unlike a translator and an interpreter working
in the consecutive interpreting mode, a simultaneous interpreter cannot maneuver
within the allotted time (pay more attention and time to the translation of the most
difficult passages, translate relatively simple ones faster utterances), he is forced to
spend the time at his disposal in accordance with the pace of the speaker's speech in
the source language. Otherwise, the interpreter will fall behind the speaker, and
simultaneous translation will cease to be simultaneous. The rate of transformation of
the source text into the text in the target language, which is strictly defined in each
specific case, is another distinctive feature of the course of simultaneous translation
over time.
Thus, the flow of simultaneous translation in time is characterized by the
following features:
- higher than in other types of translation, the rate of transformation of the
source text into text in the target language;
- rigid dependence of the rate of translation on the rate of speech execution by
the speaker in the source language;
- making a decision to transfer immediately after orienteering in each individual
orienteering unit.

10
 Temporal characteristics of translation actions and their phases and links: The
duration of a translation action in simultaneous translation can be different. According
to our data, it, as a rule, fluctuates between 1200 and 5500 ms (the indicated values do
not include the duration of the phase of comparing the result of an action with the
goal: the presence of such a phase in each translation action cannot be traced). The
average duration of a translation action is closer to the specified upper limit (about
5000 ms). In each specific case, the duration of the translation action depends on a
number of factors that affect the duration of individual phases and links.
The link of searching and making a translation decision is the shortest in the
structure of the translation action. It lasts less than one second. The exact
determination of the duration of this link is a significant difficulty. According to
indirect data regarding the translation of individual words and phrases, the duration of
the search for equivalents is 340 ms for translating words from a foreign language
into a native one, 370 ms for translating words from a native language into a foreign
one, 430--760 ms for translating phrases from a foreign language into a native one
and 530--730 ms for the translation of phrases from the native language into a foreign
one2.

Pic. 1 The duration of the phases and links of the translation action

Artemov V.A., Psychology of teaching foreign languages (course of lectures). M., 1st MGPIIA 1966 .
2

11
 The speech tempo range of speakers is much wider than the speech tempo
range of interpreters. If the first extends from 160 to 280 syllables/min and sometimes
more, then the second is usually between 180 and 240 syllables/min, and in most
cases the rate of speech of translators is concentrated in the middle of this range,
In simultaneous translation, the rate of the speaker's speech and the rate of the
interpreter's speech very rarely coincide with each other. Usually there is a
discrepancy between them, the magnitude of which is subject to certain patterns. The
rate of speech of translators reveals a direct (but not directly proportional) dependence
on the rate of speech of speakers.
With a very slow and slow pace of the speaker's speech (160--190 syllables /
min), the speech rate of translators is slightly higher than the speaker's speech rate, at
the level of values characterizing the lower limit of the average rate of public speech
(200--210 syllables / min for translation into Russian language). With an increase in
the speaker's speech rate to average values (200-240 syllables / min), the translators'
speech rate increases by only a few syllables and its average value is set between 210
and 225 syllables / min.
When approaching the upper limit of the average tempo of public speech, the
tempo of the speaker's speech overtakes the tempo of the interpreters' speech. When
translating speeches delivered at a fast pace, the rate of speech of translators usually
rises very little compared to the above cases and remains within the range of the
average rate of public speech in the target language, rarely exceeding 240
syllables/min when translating into Russian.
The change in the rate of speech of speakers and the rate of speech of
translators and their comparison are given in Table. 2. Thus, experienced
simultaneous interpreters usually maintain some apparently optimal rate of speech in
the target language, which is in the lower part of the range of the average rate of
public speech in the target language. With an increase in the rate of speech of the

12
speaker, the rate of speech of the translator also increases, but to a very small extent.
Let us represent graphically the values of the rate of speech of speakers and the
corresponding values of the rate of speech of translators (see Table 2).
table 2
The rate of speech of speakers, Average speech rate of translators, syllables/min
syllables / min
166--180 206
181--195 211
196--210 215
211--225 217
226--240 220
241--255 222
256 and above 226

If on the y-axis we plot the values of the rate of speech of the speakers in
syllables, and on the abscissa axis the time in minutes and assume that every minute
the speaker increases the rate of speech by 20 syllables, then the data of our table will
be arranged as follows (pic. 2). In practice, such an increase in the rate of speech does
not happen, at least not with such regularity. Therefore, this graph does not show the
dependence of the rate of speech of an interpreter on the rate of speech of the speaker
in a particular case, but the general dependence of the average rate of speech of
translators on the rate of speech of the speakers.
The graph shows that the rate of speech of translators is located in a relatively
narrow average range, and with an increase in the rate of speech of speakers, it
increases without going beyond the specified range. Although with an increase in the
rate of speech of the speakers, the volume of the source text spoken per unit of time
increases, the volume of the corresponding part of the text in the target language
remains practically unchanged. Preservation of a relatively constant rate of speech of
translators when the rate of speech of speakers changes is due to the fact that
translators increase or decrease the amount of text in the target language, depending
on the rate of speech of the speakers.

13
 Pic. 2. Graph of the dependence of the average rate of speech of translators on
the rate of speech of speakers

Findings:
. The flow of simultaneous translation in time is characterized by the following
main features:
- higher than in other types of translation, the rate of conversion of a message in
one language into a message in another language;
- rigid dependence of the rate of translation on the rate of speech delivered by
the speaker;
- making decisions for translation immediately after orientation in the next
semantic link of the speaker's speech.
Severe time constraints in simultaneous translation leave their mark on all the
processes that make up the activity: orientation in the source text, search and adoption
of translation decisions and implementation of translation actions.
The simultaneous interpreter experiences the greatest time constraints when

14
orienting in the source text. With the successful implementation of simultaneous
translation, orientation in the source text occurs at the pace of the speech by the
speaker and even somewhat faster: the translator predicts the content and form of
semantic links not yet pronounced by the speaker.
The search for and adoption of translation decisions are also carried out in the
conditions of an acute shortage of time. Translation decisions are made every 1--3
seconds.
The implementation of translation actions is under the pressure of the time
factor with an average and fast pace of the speaker's speech.
The tempo of the interpreter's speech depends on the tempo of the speaker's
speech, but usually does not coincide with it. The translator strives to maintain the
optimal rate of speech for himself, which is located in the lower part of the range of
the average rate of public speech in the target language. With an increase in the tempo
of the speaker's speech, the tempo of the interpreter's speech also slightly increases,
but, as a rule, does not go beyond the mentioned range.
. The time limits imposed on the activities of a simultaneous interpreter
determine the adjustment of translation actions to them both psychologically and
linguistically. In linguistic terms, the adjustment of actions occurs along the path of
reducing the volume of text in the target language at a fast and average pace of the
speaker's speech.

Linguistic features of simultaneous translation. The translator's task usually

includes not only an accurate, but also a complete presentation of the content of the
source text.
“... To translate means to express correctly and completely by means of one
language what has already been expressed earlier by means of another language.” [16,
p. fifteen].
However, the conditions for performing simultaneous translation do not always

15
allow the content of the source text to be presented in the target language as fully as it
is possible, for example, in written translation. So, with an average and fast pace of
the speaker's speech, the translator is faced with the need to deliberately reduce the
amount of text in the target language.
The method of reducing the volume of a message without causing significant
damage to the performance of the task that the speaker sets for himself is called
compression (speech compression). Speech compression is "... such a compression of
it, determined by the specific conditions of communication, in which only what is
necessary for a given task of communication is retained in it, and everything else is
swept aside."3.
Message compression in simultaneous translation is not an extraordinary
phenomenon. It follows from a number of linguistic and psychological patterns of
speech activity and, in particular, the transmission of speech messages.
Compression becomes possible due to the informational redundancy of speech.
The redundancy of speech is multifaceted. In the sequence of speech signals that
make up the message, there are many that duplicate each other and increase the
reliability of the communication process to a very high level. If necessary, some of
the elements of the speech chain that duplicate each other can be sacrificed, i.e.,
omitted, reducing the amount of text in the target language. For example, if the
interpreter completely translated the question "When will the implementation of this
plan begin?" and he has to translate the answer "The implementation of this plan will
begin in 1980.", then he can painlessly compress it to "in the eightieth year." The
words "implementation of this plan will begin in one thousand nine hundred" turn out
to be redundant here. The first four words duplicate the first part of the question-
answer unity, and the remaining words are clear from the situation of communication.
Along with the elements duplicating each other, the message may contain more

3
Anokhin P.K. - Cybernetics and integrative activity of the brain. "Questions of Psychology", 1966, No. 3

16
information than is necessary for the implementation of this communication task. For
example, when interpreting a scientific report simultaneously, the links of the speech
chain, the content of which is not directly related to the topic of the report (politeness
formulas, deviations from the topic), will be redundant to some extent. The main task
of the translator in this case will obviously consist in the transfer of narrow-logical
information.
Message redundancy may also appear due to the fact that the communication
situation makes it unnecessary to transmit any information in verbal form and thus
allows the message to be shortened (see the example given with the translation of the
answer).

1.3 Psycholinguistic aspects. Message compression has a psycholinguistic

basis. The reduction of statements in general is one of the main features of the oral
transmission of a speech message. In the process of oral transmission in the same
language, a reduction in the volume of a speech message by up to 60% is quite
normal4. Despite such a large reduction in the text, the number of sentences in the
message remains almost unchanged: the reduction occurs mainly due to subordinate
clauses, participial and adverbial phrases. The number of different parts of speech is
reduced unevenly: verbs - by 30 - 35%, nouns - by 50%, adjectives - by 75 - 80%.
When a message is transmitted orally through a chain of seven people, the first
one has the largest reduction (by 50%), while for the second to seventh, the total
number of reductions is only 5-7%. This means that the redundancy of the text has
already been eliminated and further reduction is fraught with consequences for the
content of the message.
Message compression in simultaneous translation has a non-constant value. It
depends on the tempo of the speaker's speech and is largely determined by the
combination of the source language and the target language.

4
Glushkov V.M. Gnoseological nature of information modeling. "Questions of Philosophy", 1963

17
 It is expedient to identify the size of compression in simultaneous translation by
comparing compressed texts obtained as a result of simultaneous translation with
uncompressed texts. The latter can be translated texts made in writing. Comparison of
the syllabic value of the texts in the target language, fixed in the course of
simultaneous interpreters' activities, with the source texts cannot give an accurate
picture of compression, since the effect of changing the syllabic value of the message
during the transition from one specific language to another will affect.
Since the amount of speech compression for each language combination will be
different for the same speech rate of the speaker, it is not possible to provide any data
characterizing speech compression in any language combinations. Therefore, we will
restrict ourselves to data on the English-Russian language combination.
The dimensions of compression in simultaneous translation from English into
Russian can be illustrated by the following example (Table 3). The table is based on
materials provided by G. V. Chernov5.
It follows from the table that written translation in this case increases the
syllabic value of the text from 184 to 256 syllables, i.e. by 39.1%. Simultaneous
trainees compress the translation text from 256 to 213 syllables or by 15.2%.
Experienced translators, according to G. V. Chernov, could compress the text of the
translation to 168 syllables, or by 34.4%. Moreover, the possibilities of compressing
this text have not yet been exhausted.
In simultaneous translation from English into Russian, experiments with a
group of experienced translators yielded translated texts that were almost always
smaller in syllabic value than written translations, although this difference varied
considerably. depending on the pace of the speaker's speech.
For the 1st subject, the syllabic value of simultaneous translation was
approximately equal to the syllabic value of written translation or slightly exceeded
the latter (by 8–9%) at a very slow and slow pace of the speaker's speech (166–195

5
Zhinkin NI, On code transitions in inner speech. "Issues of Linguistics", 1964, No. 6

18
syllables / min). In other words, at a very slow and slow pace of the speaker's speech,
the translator made a complete translation without resorting to speech compression.
With an average speech rate of the speakers (196--230 syllables/min), the syllabic
value of the simultaneous translation text was 90--95% of the syllabic value of the
written translation. With a further increase in the rate of speech of the speakers, the
value of the text of simultaneous translation decreased to 75.1% of the written
translation.

Table 3
The original text, spoken Written translation (full) Simultaneous translation Simultaneous
somewhat faster than the (average!) of translation performed
average pace of the simultaneous trainees of by experienced
English monologue the UN interpreter course simultaneous
speech at the 1st Moscow State interpreters
Pedagogical Institute
Mr. President! Our Mr Chairman! The Mr Chairman! Our Mr Chairman! We are
gratitude and outgoing President, Mr. gratitude and appreciation deeply indebted to the
appreciation are due to Fanfani , deserves our goes to the former former Chairman, Mr.
the retiring President, thanks and appreciation Chairman, Mr. Fanfani, Fanfani, for his
Mr. Fanfani, for his for the significant for the significant significant
notable contribution to contribution he made to contribution he made to contribution to the
the work of the the work of the previous the work of the previous work of the last
preceding session. session of the Assembly. session. session.
In congratulating you, Congratulating you, Mr. Congratulating you, Mr. Congratulating you
Sir, on your elevation to Chairman, on your Chairman, on your on your election to
the Presidency of this election to the presidency election to the presidency the presidency of the
Assembly, the New of this session of the of this session of the Assembly, the
Zealand delegation Assembly, the delegation Assembly, the New delegation of New
pledges its cooperation of New Zealand pledges Zealand Delegation Zealand pledges to
with you in your to cooperate with you in pledges to work with you work with you in your
demanding duty of your responsible task, in your task of trying to task of channeling the
attempting to channel in which is to try to steer the channel the authority of authority of the
a positive direction the work of the General the Assembly in the right Assembly in the right
authority which the Assembly towards direction. direction.
Assembly possesses. positive solutions.

19
 At a time when the At a time when the At a time when the At a time when the
problems of Asia are of problems of Asia are of problems of Asia are of problems of Asia are
such primary concern, it such deep concern, it is such deep concern, it is of such great concern,
is altogether appropriate, quite legitimate, as many quite legitimate, as many it is legitimate, as
as many have remarked speakers before me have speakers have already many speakers have
before, that it should be noted, that our work is led noted, that it is the noted, that our work
the distinguished son of by a respected son of esteemed son of Asia who is led by a
Asia who presides over Asia. directs our work. distinguished son of
our deliberations. Asia.
184 syllables 256 syllables 213 syllables 168 syllables

At the same time, practically regardless of the rate of speech of the speakers,
the translator maintained a certain, apparently optimal for himself, rate of speech in
the target language in the range of 201–245 syllables / min, which is slightly lower
than the average rate of oratory in Russian.
The th subject produced a translated text of the same size as in written
translation, when the speaker spoke at a slow pace (166–180 syllables/min). When
translating oratorical speeches delivered at a pace approaching the average, average
and slightly above average (181-240 syllables / min), the translator subjected the text
to compression by 8-22%. With the speaker's fast speech rate (from 241 syllables/min
and above), the compression reached 25-37%. Just like the 1st subject, this translator
maintained a relatively constant rate of pronouncing the text of the translation in the
range of 201–230 syllables/min, regardless of the speech rate of the speakers.
For other translators, the message was compressed in a similar way. The
difference, not very significant, was mainly in the degree of dependence between the
amount of compression and the rate of speech of the speakers.
The average values of compression and rate of speech of translators, depending
on the rate of speech of the speakers, are given in Table. 4.

Table 4
The rate of speech of speakers, Average speech rate of Compression value (compared to

20
 syllables / min translators, syllables/min written translation), %
166--180 181--195 196--210 206 211 215 217 222 226 7.4 10.4 16.5 28.2 30.3
211--225 226--240 256 and
above

The data given in the table show that, at a slow pace of the speakers' speech,
simultaneous interpreters make a complete translation without resorting to
compression techniques. At the average speech rate of the speakers, the message is
compressed: its syllabic value is reduced by 7-15% compared to the full translation.
With a fast speech rate of speakers, compression can reach 30%.
The relative constancy of the rate of speech of translators at different rates of
speech of speakers and the almost direct dependence of the amount of compression on
the rate of speech of speakers indicate that message compression in simultaneous
translation plays a service role and is determined by the need to maintain a moderate
rate of pronunciation of the translated text. It is logical to assume that translators
strive to pronounce the text in the target language at a moderate pace, not only and not
so much because it is difficult for them to pronounce it quickly: they do not even rise
to the middle of the average speech rate range in the target language, which is their
native language. Apparently, the pronunciation of the text of the translation at a fast
and even at an average pace presents difficulties due to the fact that it occurs in
parallel with the orientation D of the speaker's speech and the search for translation
solutions. Speaking faster and more continuously than at a moderate rate of speech
would make it difficult to listen to and understand the speaker's speech and the
process of generating text in the target language. Thus, the need for compression,
without which it is impossible to deliver a speech in the target language at a moderate
pace, is determined not only by the time frame of the simultaneous interpreter’s
activity, but also, to a certain extent, by the parallel implementation of orientation in
the speaker’s speech, the search for translation solutions and their implementation.
findings

21
 With an average and fast pace of the speaker's speech, the linguistic nature of
the transformation of the message in simultaneous translation changes. There is a
speech compression of the message, which reduces the syllabic value of the text
without causing significant damage to the speaker's communicative task. When the
speaker's speech is fast, speech compression can reduce the amount of text by one-
third. The possibility of speech compression is explained by the informational
redundancy of the speaker's speech.
Speech compression is generated by the specific conditions of the simultaneous
interpreter's activity (time restrictions and parallelism of the processes of orientation
in the speaker's speech and the generation of speech in the target language) and its
dimensions are determined by the need to maintain a moderate rate of the interpreter's
speech in the target language. Speech compression is a form of adaptation of
translation actions to the conditions of activity. Compression techniques are ways to
perform translation actions in specific conditions and therefore are operational in
nature, i.e. they are operations.
Speech compression is carried out by replacing synonymous or close to them
phrases and sentences with shorter words, phrases and sentences, omitting segments
that duplicate information that is contained in the previous context, omitting semantic
units that are redundant in a particular communication situation, and omitting
semantic units that are redundant with point of view of the task of communication.
Speech compression is accompanied by transformations in terms of semantics.
First, the lexico-semantic structure of sentences is compressed through the reduction
and omission of semantic components. Secondly, the semantic-syntactic organization
of sentences is simplified and the pictorial nature of syntactic links is usually
enhanced.

II. Simultaneous translation as an activity

22
 2.1 Different models of translation activity. Modeling - is one of the methods
of knowledge [8, p.13]. It is one of the scientific abstractions that reflect the patterns
of the process or phenomenon being studied. In this sense, modeling consists in the
use of simplification and schematization techniques that facilitate cognition.
In relation to translation activities in general and to the considered simultaneous
translation in particular, two models are distinguished - complex and probabilistic-
prognostic.
The description of the process of simultaneous translation as a whole requires a
large abstraction from small, insignificant points and a focus on the main patterns. A
rational solution to this problem is to build a complex model of simultaneous
translation.
The proposed model is called complex, because it reflects the totality of various
essential aspects and properties of simultaneous translation.
In its most general form, the activity model of a simultaneous interpreter
consists of three parallel processes: the process of orientation in the original test, the
process of searching and making translation decisions, and the process of
implementing translation actions.
The orientation process in the initial test proceeds continuously from the
beginning of the speaker's speech to its end. Orientation is not just the perception of
the speaker's speech, but rather the activity of the translator, which serves the process
of searching or choosing translation solutions for extracting information regarding the
semantic structure and lexical and grammatical organization of the author's statement.
Orientation of the translator is based on the knowledge of the situation of
communication, the experience of the translator, and the prediction of the purpose,
topic, semantic content and linguistic form of the original statement. For successful
orientation, the translator lags behind by 1-3 seconds, highlighting semantic links as
objects of orientation that coincide either with the intonation of the semantic unit or
with structural-syntactic blocks or with segments of the constructive process in the

23
mind of the translator.
The process of searching or choosing translation solutions begins immediately
after receiving the first results of orientation, sufficient to make a decision about the
first component of the statement in the target language, and ends after orientation in
the last statement of the speaker. This process is based on the anticipatory expectation
of translation tasks and the translator's pre-adjustment to their adequate solution.
Making a decision ends with the construction of fragments of the utterance program
in the mind of the translator.
The process of implementing a translation decision starts after the first
translation decision is made and ends with the execution of the last translation
decision. It consists in generating the components of the utterance in the target
language according to the developed internal program. The sound of the interpreter's
speech is shifted by 1-3 seconds relative to the speaker's speech with some possible
deviations.
The second main model is a probabilistic forecasting model.
As applied to simultaneous translation, the essence of the idea of probabilistic
forecasting is that in the process of auditory perception of speech by the translator's
brain, hypotheses are put forward about one or another semantic or verbal
development or completion of the author's intentions.
Such hypotheses are put forward on the basis of a subconscious subjective
assessment of the probabilities of further development of a given semantic situation.
In the course of further processes, the translator confirms or rejects his hypotheses at
the critical points of the continuing speech message - on a number of levels
simultaneously.
The most detailed concept of probabilistic forecasting was developed by I.M.
Feigenberg, who defined it as: “an anticipation of the future based on the probabilistic
structure of past experience and information about the current situation” .
As a level basis for the mechanism of probabilistic forecasting in simultaneous

24
translation, the following speech units are accepted: syllable-word-syntagma-
utterance-coherent message.
The possibilities of predicting the development of a semantic or verbal situation
by a person are connected by relations of strict dependence with the level of
redundancy of a speech message.
The higher the message redundancy, the higher the probability of correctly
predicting its development at each of the selected levels. The opposite is also true: the
greater the density of information in a message, the lower the probability of correctly
predicting its development.

2.2 Construction of simultaneous translation activity. In order to be able to

analyze the structure of the activity of a simultaneous interpreter, it is necessary to
state the methodological principles for considering speech activity and the initial
theoretical ideas about speech-thinking processes.
The first principle is analysis by units, which means the decomposition of the
activity into such parts, each of which carries all the basic means inherent in the
activity as a whole, and cannot be further decomposed without losing these properties.
The second principle is the provision on the threefold structure, inherent both in
all activity and in each of its constituent units. In accordance with this provision, the
activity as a whole and each action can be considered as consisting of 1) the phase of
orientation in the conditions of the task and the choice of an action plan (action), 2)
the implementation phase, and 3) the phase of comparing the result with the intended
goal. The first phase should be considered in more detail, since it is complex in
composition. Before the start of the action, the subject must process, compare and
synthesize the information necessary to perform an adequate action, develop or
choose a method of action and decide when to start the implementation of the action.
Thus, in the first phase, we can assume the presence of three links: tasks by groping
for landmarks relevant to the action or by recognizing a familiar situation; b) a link in

25
the development or selection of an action plan, respectively, for two different types of
orientation; c) the link of making a decision on the implementation of an action.
The third important methodological principle that determines the understanding
of the process of speech activity is the recognition of the heuristic nature of the
processes of perception and generation of statements. The foregoing means that when
developing a method of action and its implementation, the translator can choose
different strategies depending on the specific conditions of the activity6.
The fourth methodological principle lies in a certain understanding of the
procedure for choosing a mode of action and can be called probabilistic forecasting.
The idea of the role of probabilistic forecasting in assessing a situation and choosing a
course of action goes back to the concept of a “model of the future” put forward by
N.A. Bernstein, and is as follows. As a result of the reflection of the situation in the
mind of the subject of the action, a model of the situation that exists at the time of the
beginning of the action arises - “the model of the past-present or become” in terms of
N.A. Bernstein. The past-present model is unambiguous and categorical. Together
with motivation, it narrows down the options for choosing a mode of action, but not
so much that the subject could choose any one mode of action. At the same time, an
idea is formed in the mind of the subject about what will happen to the situation as a
result of his intervention - a “model of the future”. The model of the future does not
have an unambiguous and categorical character, like the model of the past-present. It
is probabilistic in nature, as it is developed on the basis of past experience related to
actions in similar situations, as well as on the basis of indicative trials and probing. It
turns out a kind of fan of possible outcomes, from which the subject selects one
outcome by comparing the probabilistic model of the future and the task of action7.
2.3 Soviet experience. In Soviet physiology, probabilistic forecasting was

6
Chernov G.V. Fundamentals of simultaneous translation. Proc. for in-t and fact. foreign Languages - M .: Higher. Shk.,
1987.
7
Benedictov B.A., 1970, . Characteristics of oral translation of phrases.-- In the book: Communication and teaching
foreign languages. Minsk, 1970 a, p. 117, Psychological characteristics of word translation.-- In the book:
Communication and teaching foreign languages. Minsk. 1970b, p. 99

26
interpreted not only as an activity aimed at determining what may become of the
situation as a result of the actions of the subject, but also as preparing the body's
systems to respond to the situation, the likelihood of which the subject considers to be
the maximum. Preliminary mobilization of physiological systems associated with a
reaction to a future situation allows the body to adapt in advance to a change in the
situation. Moreover, it is assumed that the principle of the development of reactions
ahead of the appearance of external events underlies the functioning of the human
brain as an organ of general reflection of the external world.
The provision on the anticipatory reflection of reality and on the preparation of
the body for a change in the situation seems important for understanding the process
of simultaneous translation, in which the actions of an interpreter consist in an
immediate response to a constantly changing environment.
For an adequate description of the mechanism of simultaneous translation,
preliminary ideas about the regulation of speech activity at the psychophysiological
level are necessary. In accordance with the views of N.A. Bernstein, on which we will
rely in the further presentation, the regulation of the activity of the organism is carried
out by a complex multi-level hierarchically organized structure. At the head of this
psycho-physiological construction is the leading level, which regulates the
components that are decisive in the semantic sense - activities and governs the
underlying levels that serve the background or technical components. The subject is
actually aware of only the leading level of regulation. As you move down the levels,
the degree of awareness decreases. The formation of a psychophysiological
mechanism for regulating specific forms: the activity of the body occurs gradually, by
automating individual actions and switching them to lower, background levels. A
specific application of the ideas of N.A. Bernstein to speech activity allows us to
distinguish four levels of awareness, or potential awareness of speech actions and
operations8:

8
Borodulina M.K. and others, . Teaching a foreign language as a specialty. M., 1975, p. 254

27
 - actual awareness, the subject of which is the goal of action and activity (for
example, in the case of spontaneous speech, the subject of actual awareness will be,
according to A.A. Leontiev, the goal of the statement);9
- conscious control, the subject of which is "conscious operations" formed from
conscious actions (in speech activity they correspond to the operations of choosing
syntactic and lexical means);
- unconscious control, which corresponds to the phonological and, to some
extent, morphological and word-formation aspects of speech actions;
- unconsciousness, which corresponds to sound formation.
As for the focus of attention on the various phases of action and activity, the
most creative and, therefore, the most conscious phase is considered to be the phase
of orientation and the development or choice of an action plan [2, p. fourteen].
Finally, we should briefly dwell on the fundamental understanding of speech-
thinking processes. We believe, following N.I. Zhinkin that "... the mechanism of
human thinking is realized in two opposing dynamic links - the subject-figurative
code (inner speech) and the speech-motor code (expressive speech)." [9, p. 36]. The
code of inner speech is characterized by subjectivity and consists of signs, images and
representations that are of a schematic nature. The connections between code
components in inner speech are meaningful, not formal. Thought, realized in the code
of inner speech, is organized not in the form of a sequence of signs, but in the form of
some kind of groupings or chains. The understanding of speech is interpreted as a
transition from natural language to the code of internal speech, and the generation of
an utterance is interpreted as a reverse transition.

9
Leontiev A. A., Some problems of teaching Russian as a foreign language. Publishing House of Moscow State
University, 1970.

28
 Conclusion
The first chapter gives definitions and the concept of the main types of
translation, considers the specifics of simultaneous translation, namely linguistic
features and temporal characteristics.
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
- higher than in other types of translation, the rate of transformation of the
source text into text in the target language;
- rigid dependence of the rate of translation on the rate of speech execution by
the speaker in the source language;
- making a decision to transfer immediately after orienteering in each individual
orienteering unit.
- the need to use speech compression, which changes the linguistic nature of the
message transformation. When the speaker's speech is fast, speech compression can
reduce the amount of text by one-third. Speech compression is generated by the
specific conditions of the simultaneous interpreter's activity (time restrictions and
parallelism of the processes of orientation in the speaker's speech and the generation
of speech in the target language) and its dimensions are determined by the need to
maintain a moderate rate of the interpreter's speech in the target language. Speech
compression is accompanied by transformations in terms of semantics. First, the
lexico-semantic structure of sentences is compressed through the reduction and
omission of semantic components. Secondly, the semantic-syntactic organization of
sentences is simplified and the pictorial nature of syntactic links is usually enhanced.
Also, many variations of pronunciation, accents, lexical and grammatical
features common in different countries, regions and social groups, as well as the
direction of translation add to the complexity of the work of a translator.
Solving these problems and optimizing the work of a simultaneous interpreter
is largely due to two factors - the speech and language training of the interpreter and
his technical support.

29
 In the second chapter, various models of translation activity and the structure of
the activity of a simultaneous interpreter and the need for practical translation work
are explored. The methodological principles of the consideration of speech activity
and the initial theoretical ideas about speech-thinking processes are analyzed.
Thus, the existing complex and probabilistic-prognostic models have
significant differences. The complex model consists of the process of orientation in
the source text, the process of searching for and making a translation decision, and the
process of implementing a translation action. This requires a large abstraction from
small, unimportant points and a focus on the main patterns. The essence of the
probabilistic prognostic model is that in the process of auditory perception of speech
by the translator's brain, hypotheses are put forward about one or another semantic or
verbal development or completion of the author. The second model is preferable to
work if there is a high redundancy of the message, this increases the probability of
correct prediction at each of the introduced levels. The opposite is also true: the
greater the density of information in a message, the lower the probability of correctly
predicting its development. Summarizing the considered issue, we can say that the use
of the first or second model, as methods of simplification and schematization that
facilitate activities, depends on the simultaneous interpreter, who makes this decision
depending on the redundancy of the message, the rate of speech of the burning
speaker, etc.
In conclusion, we can state that the goals and objectives for this course work
have been achieved and fulfilled. The material of the work is researched, compared
and analyzed. Conclusions are drawn from each researched question.

30
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